HK1142055B

HK1142055B - Hydrogen-catalyst reactor

Info

Publication number: HK1142055B
Application number: HK10108540.6A
Authority: HK
Inventors: 兰德尔‧L‧米尔斯
Original assignee: 布莱克光电有限公司
Priority date: 2007-04-24
Filing date: 2008-04-24
Publication date: 2015-07-17

Description

Hydrogen-catalyst reactor

Cross Reference to Related Applications

This application claims the benefit of the following applications: (1) application No. 60/913,556 filed 24/4/2007; (2) application No. 60/952,305 filed on 27/7/2007; (3) application No. 60/954,426 filed on 8, 7, 2007; (4) application No. 60/935,373 filed on 8/9/2007; (5) application No. 60/955,465 filed on 8/13/2007; (6) application No. 60/956,821 filed on 20/8/2007; (7) application No. 60/957,540 filed on 23/8/2007; (8) application No. 60/972,342 filed on 9, 14, 2007; (9) application No. 60/974,191 filed on 21/9/2007; (10) application No. 60/975,330 filed on 26.9.2007; (11) application No. 60/976,004 filed on 28.9.2007; (12) application No. 60/978,435 filed on 9/10/2007; (13) application No. 60/987,552 filed on 13/11/2007; (14) application No. 60/987,946 filed on 11, 14, 2007; (15) application No. 60/989,677 filed on 21/11/2007; (16) application No. 60/991,434 filed on 30/11/2007; (17) application No. 60/991,974 filed on 3.12.2007; (18) application No. 60/992,601 filed on 5.12.2007; (19) application No. 61/012,717 filed on 10.12.2007; (20) application No. 61/014,860 filed on 19/12/2007; (21) application No. 61/016,790 filed on 26.12.2007; (22) application No. 61/020,023 filed on 9.1.2008; (23) application No. 61/021,205 filed on 15/1/2008; (24) application No. 61/021,808 filed on 17.1.2008; (25) application No. 61/022,112 filed on 18/1/2008; (26) application No. 61/022,949 filed on 23/1/2008; (27) application No. 61/023,297 filed 24/1/2008; (28) application No. 61/023,687 filed on 25/1/2008; (29) application No. 61/024,730 filed on 30/1/2008; (30) application No. 61/025,520 filed on 1/2/2008; (31) application No. 61/028,605 filed on 14/2/2008; (32) application No. 61/030,468 filed on 21/2/2008; (33) application No. 61/064,453 filed on 6/3/2008; (34) application No. 61/xxx, filed on 21/3/2008, and (35) application No. 61/xxx, filed on 17/4/2008, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

Description of the invention

1. Field of the invention

Papers R.Mills, J.He, Z.Chang, W.good, Y.Lu, B.Dhandapani, "Catalysis of Atomic Hydrogen to Novel Hydrogen SpecifesH, incorporated herein by reference^-(1/4)and H₂(1/4) as a New Power Source "(atomic Hydrogen to New Hydrogen species H as a New energy Source^-(1/4) and H₂Catalysis of (1/4) int.j. hydrogen Energy, volume 32, phase 12, (2007), page 2573-2584, from extensive research technical data is strong and consistent to indicate that hydrogen can exist in lower Energy states than previously thought possible. Contemplated reactions include resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-receptive catalyst. The product is H (1/p), the fractional Reed-Bo (Rydberg) state of atomic hydrogen, wherein(p.ltoreq.137 is an integer) in place of the well-known parameter n ═ integer in the reed-solomon equation for the hydrogen excited state. Prospective He⁺、Ar⁺And K are catalysts because they meet catalyst criteria-chemical or physical processes with enthalpy changes equal to integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen of 27.2 eV. Specific expectations based on closed-form equations of energy levels were tested. For example, two H (1/p) can react to form H having an atomic hydrogen that is uncatalyzed ₂P of vibrational energy and rotational energy²Multiple vibrational and rotational energy H₂(1/p). The spin line was observed in the 145-300nm region by argon-hydrogen plasma excited by an atmospheric pressure electron beam. Energy interval of hydrogen 4²Multiplied unprecedented energy intervals establish inter-nuclear distances of H₂1/4 and identified as H₂(1/4)。

The expected product of the alkali metal catalyst K is H^-(1/p) which forms a novel alkali metal halide (X) hydride compound KH X, and H which can be trapped in the crystals₂(1/4). Method for preparing novel compound KH Cl relative to external Tetramethylsilane (TMS)¹The HMAS NMR spectrum showed a large, pronounced high magnetic field resonance at-4.4 ppm corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-35.9 ppm, with H at p-4^-(1/p) theory predicts agreement. In the presence of a compound having a structure ascribed to H^-(1/4) KH I of NMR peak at-4.6 ppm in high resolution FTIR spectrum at 1943cm^-1And 2012cm^-1Ortho-and para-H is observed₂(1/4) a predicted frequency. 1943/2012cm^-1The intensity ratio coincided with the intensity ratio of the adjacent to peak of the 3: 1 characteristic and was 69cm^-1The ortho-para split of (a) coincides with the predicted one. Having H by NMR^-KH Cl of (1/4) is readily produced in a 12.5keV electron beam exciting the gap H observed in an argon-hydrogen plasma ₂(1/4) similar emissions. KNO₃And raney nickel are used as the K catalyst and source of atomic hydrogen, respectively, to produce the corresponding exothermic reaction. The energy balance is Δ H-17,925 kcal/mol KNO₃(it is KNO₃About 300 times that expected from the known chemistry for maximum energy), and-3585 kcal/mole H)₂(which is the largest possible H assumed₂At inventory, the assumed maximum enthalpy due to combustion of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen-57.8 kcal/mole H₂More than 60 times higher). KNO calculated from heat formation₃To water, potassium metal and NH₃The reduction of (A) releases only-14.2 kcal/mol H₂It cannot account for the observed heat; the combustion of hydrogen cannot be explained. But the result is associated with H having an enthalpy of formation exceeding 100 times the enthalpy of combustion^-(1/p) and H₂(1/4) formThe results are consistent.

In embodiments, the invention includes energy sources and reactors that form lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. The invention also includes a catalyst reaction mixture to provide a catalyst and atomic hydrogen. Preferred atomic catalysts are lithium, potassium and cesium atoms. The preferred molecular catalyst is NaH.

Hydrinos (Hydrinos)

Has a structure composed of

(wherein p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137) are disclosed in: R.L.Mills, "The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum mechanics", 10-month 2007 edition (published in http:// www.blacklightpower.com/The term/book. shtml); mills, The grand unified Theory of classic Quantum Mechanics, 5-month 2006 edition, Black light Power, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, ("' 06Mills GUT"), supplied by Black light Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512 (published at www.blacklightpower.com); mills, The grand unified Theory of classic Quantum Mechanics, version 1, 2004, Black light Power, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, ("' 04Mills GUT"), supplied by Black light Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512; r. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum mechanics, 9-month version 2003, BlackLightPower, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, ("' 03 Mills GUT"), supplied by BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512; mills, The growing Theory of classic Quantum Mecha nics (a general theory of classical quantum mechanics), 9-month version 2002, BlackLight Power, inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, ("' 02Mills GUT"), supplied by B lackLight Power, inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512; r. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum mechanics, 9-month edition 2001, BlackLightPower, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, issued by Amazon.com ("' 01 Mills GUT"), supplied by BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512; r. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum Mechanics, 2000, version 1, Black light Power, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, issued by Amazon.com ("' 00 Mills GUT"), supplied by Black light Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ, 08512; L.Mills, "Physical Solutions of the Nature of the Atom, Photon, and the theory of interaction of Form expressed and Predicted Hydrino States" (understanding of the Nature of atoms, photons, and Their interactions to Form Excited and Predicted Hydrino States), "Physics assay, in printing; l.l. mills, "Exact classic Quantum Mechanical solutions of Atomic helium from a unity Solution for the First Time to predict the Conjugate Parameters from a Unique Solution", Physics esses, in print; r.l.mills, p.ray, b.dhandpani, "processive balmer α Line Broadening of Water-Vapor Capacitively Coupled RF discharge plasma," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, volume 33, (2008), 802. charge 815; R.L.Mills, J.He, M.Nansteel, B.Dhandapani, "Catalysis of Atomic Hydrogen to New Hydrides as New Power Source", International Journal of Global Energy Issues (IJGEI) Energy System Special edition, Vol.28, No. 2-3, (2007), 304- "324; r.l.mills, h.zea, j.he, Dhandapani, "Water Bath Calorimetry of Catalytic Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen," Water Bath Calorimetry of Catalytic Reaction of Water Bath of Atomic Hydrogen, "int.J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol.32, (2007), 4258-; phillips, C.K.Chen, R.L.Mills, "Evidence of catalytic production of Hot Hydrogen in RF-Generated Hydrogen/Argon plasma" in int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.32 (14), (2007), 3010-; r.l.mills, j.he, y.lu, m.nansteel, z.chang, b.dhandpani, "Comprehensive Identification and potential applications of New States of Hydrogen", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 32(14), (2007), 2988-3009; R.L.Mills, J.He, Z.Chang, W.good, Y.Lu, B.Dhandapani, "Catalysis of Atomic Hydrogen to Novel Hydrogen specifices H^-(1/4)and H₂(1/4) as a New Power Source (atomic Hydrogen to New Hydrogen species H as a New energy Source^-(1/4) and H₂Catalysis of (1/4) ", int.j. hydrogenetic energy, volume 32(13), (2007), pages 2573-2584; mills, r.l. "Maxwell's proportions and QED: which is Fact and Which is Fiction (Maxwell's formula and QED: mature), "Physics esses, Vol.19, (2006), 225-; r.l. mills, p.ray, b.dhandpani, Evidence of an energy transfer reaction between an atomic hydrogen and an argon II or helium II source of superheated H atoms in a radio frequency plasma, j.plasma Physics, volume 72, phase 4, (2006), 469-; L.L.Mills, "Exact Classical Quantum mechanical solutions for One-through two Electron Atoms," Physics assays, Vol.18, (2005), 321-361; R.L.Mills, P.C.ray, R.M.Mayo, M.Nansteel, B.Dhandapani, J.Phillips, "Spectroscopic Study of Uniform Line broadcasting and Inversion in Low pressure Microwave G energized Water plasma (spectral analysis of unique line broadening and inversion in low pressure microwave generated Water plasma) ", j.plasma Physics, volume 71, phase 6, (2005), 877-; L.Mills, "The leather of Feynman's alignment on The stability of The hydroatomic adsorption to Quantum Mechanics" (The statement of Feynman on The stability of Hydrogen atoms in terms of Quantum Mechanics), "Sun.Fund.Louisde Broglie, Vol.30, No. 2, (2005), p.129-; R.L.Mills, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "high height Stable Silicon Hydride from a helium plasma Reaction", Materials Chemistry and Physics, 94/2-3, (2005), 298-; r.l.mills, j.he, Z, Chang, w.good, y.lu, b.dhandani, "Catalysis of Atomic hydrogen to Novel Hydrides as a New energy Source", prpr.pap. -am.chem.soc.conf., div.fuel chem., vol.50, No. 2, (2005); R.L.Mills, J.Sankar, A.Voigt, J.He, P.ray, B.Dhangapani, "Role of Atomic Hydrogen Density and Energy in Low Power CVD Synthesis of Diamond Films", Thin Solid Films, 478, (2005) 77-90; R.L.Mills, "The Nature Soft word Chemical Bond revised and an Alternative Maxwellian Approach", Physics Esys, Vol.17, (2004), 342-; L.L.Mills, P.ray, "Stationary Inverted Lyman polymerization and a Very Stable Novel Hydride Formed by the Catalytic Reaction of atomic hydrogen and Certain Catalysts" J.Opt.Mat., 27, (2004), 181-; good, P.Jansson, M.Nanstel, J.He, A.Voigt, "Spectroscopic and NMR Identification of Novel Hydride Ions in FractionalQuantum Energy States Formed by an external Reaction of atomic Hydr ogen with Certain Catalysts (spectroscopic and NMR identification of new hydride ions in fractional quantum energy states formed by the exothermic reaction of atomic hydrogen and Certain Catalysts) ", european physical Journal: applied Physics, 28, (2004), 83-104; phillips, R.L.Mills, X.Chen, "Water Bath Calorimetric Study of Excess Heat in 'Resonance transfer' Plasmas," "resonance transfer" Water Bath Calorimetric Study of Excess Heat in plasma "", J.appl.Phys., Vol.96, No. 6, (2004) 3095-; r.l.mills, y.lu, m.nansteel, j.he, a.voigt, w.good, b.dhandpani, "Energetic Catalyst-hydroplasma Reaction as a Potential New Energy Source," Division of Fuel Chemistry, Session: advances in Hydrogen Energy (conference: evolution of Hydrogen Energy source), Prepr.Pap. -am.chem.Soc.Conf., Vol.49, No. 2, (2004); R.L.Mills, J.Sankar, A.Voigt, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Synthesis of HDLC Films from Solid Carbon" J.Materials Science, J.Mater.Sci.39(2004) 3309-; r.l.mills, y.lu, m.nansteel, j.he, a.voigt, b.dhandpani, "Energetic Catalyst-Hydrogen Plasma Reaction as a Potential New energy source", Division of fuel chemistry, Session: chemistry of Solid, Liquid, and gasous fuels (conference: Chemistry of Solid, Liquid, and gaseous fuels), preprr.pap. -am.chem.Soc.Conf., Vol.49, No. 1, (2004); r.l. mills, "classic quantum mechanics", Physics Essays, volume 16, (2003), 433-; r.l.mills, p.ray, m.nanstel, j.he, x.chen, a.voigt, b.dhandpani, "Characterization of Energetic Catalyst-Hydrogen Plasma Reaction as a potential New Energy Source", am.chem.soc.dim.fuel chem.press, volume 48, phase 2, (2003); R.L.Mills, J.Sankar, A.Voigt, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Spectroscopic (ii) Characterization of the Atomic Hydrogen energy and density and spectral Characterization of carbon species During the Helium-Hydrogen-Methane Plasma CVD Synthesis of diamond Films ", Chemistry of Materials, Vol.15, (2003), p.1313-; r.l.mills, p.ray, "Extreme ultraviolet spectroscopy of Helium-Hydrogen Plasma", j.phys.d., Applied Physics, vol.36, (2003), p.1535 and p.1542; L.Mills, X.Chen, P.ray, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Plasma Power Source Based on aCatalytic Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen catalyzed by Water Bath Calorimetry" Thermochimic Acta, Vol. 406/1-2, (2003), pp.35-53; R.L.Mills, B.Dhandapani, J.He "high regime Stable ammonium Silicon Hydride (Highly Stable Amorphous silanes)", Solar Energy Materials&Solar Cells, Vol.80, phase 1, (2003), pages 1-20; r.l.mills, p.ray, r.m.mayo, "The Potential for a hydrogen Water-Plasma Laser", Applied physics letters, vol 82, No. 11, (2003), page 1679-; L.Mills, P.ray, "Stationary Inverted Lyman propulsion Formed from incorporated catalyst gases with Certain Catalysts", J.Phys.D., Applied Physics, Vol.36, (2003), p.1504-; L.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "compatibility of explicit palm alpha Line amplification of Inductively and adaptively activated Coupled RF, Microwave, and Glow Discharge Hydrogen plasma (Comparison of excess Barmer alpha Line Broadening of Inductively and capacitively Coupled RF, Microwave and Glow Discharge Hydrogen plasma Using Certain Catalysts)", IEEE Transactions on plasma Science, Vol.31, p.2003, p.338; r.l.mills, p.ray, M.M. Mayo, "CW HI Laser Based on a static exchanged Lyman particle processed Hydrogen gases with a Certain Group ICs (CW HI lasers Based on stable Inverted numbers of Raman particles formed by incandescent Heated Hydrogen and Certain Group I catalysts)", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol.31, No. 2, (2003), p.236, 247; L.Mills, P.ray, J.Dong, M.Nanstel, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "Spectral Emission of fractional-major-Quantum-Energy-Level Atomic and Molecular Hydrogen (Emission spectra of Atomic and Molecular Hydrogen at the fractional-major-Molecular Level)," visual Spectroscopy, Vol.31, No. 2, (2003), p.195-213; conrads, r.l.mills, th.wurbel, "Emission in the Deep Vacuum Ultraviolet from a Plasma formed by incandescent Heating of Hydrogen Gas with Trace potassium Carbonate" with Trace Amounts of Plasma Sources Science and Technology, vol 12, (2003), p 389 395; r.l.mills, j.he, p.ray, b.dhandpani, x.chen, "Synthesis and Characterization of a high Stable amorphous silica as the Product of a Catalytic Helium-Hydrogen plasma reaction", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 28, phase 12, (2003), page 1401-1424; R.L.Mills, P.ray, "A Comprehensive Study of Spectra of the Bound-Free hyperfine Levels of Novel Hydride IonH ^-(1/2), Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Air (bound-free hyperfine levels of novel hydride ions H^-(1/2), comprehensive study of spectra of hydrogen, nitrogen and air) ", int.j. hydrogen Energy, volume 28, phase 8, (2003), page 825-871; R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, and P.ray, "treatment bright Plasma-Plasma Light Source Dual to Energy resource of reaction of Plasma with Structure Hydrogen", (an over-bright Hydrogen-Strontium Plasma Light Source Due to Energy Resonance of Strontium and Hydrogen),plasma Physics, Vol.69, (2003), p.131-; r.l. mills, "high height Stable Novel Inorganic Hydrides", j.new Materials for Electrochemical Systems, volume 6, (2003), pages 45-54; L.Mills, P.ray, "fundamental Changes in the Characteristics of a microwave plasma Dual to Combining Argon and Hydrogen", New Journal of Physics, www.njp.org, Vol.4, (2002), pp.22.1-22.17; R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "Direct Plasma adynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to electric," IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, October, (2002), Vol.30, No. 5, p.2066. 2073; r.l. mills, m.nansteel, p.ray, "Bright Hydrogen-Light Source due to an Argon Energy Transfer with strong Ions and Argon Ions," New Journal of Physics, vol 4, (2002), p.1-70.28; R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "On the Power of Direct and MHD Conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source to electric and the possibility of Conversion of MHD for the application of microdispersion Power", IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science, August, (2002), Vol.30, No. 4, p.1568-; M.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, "Direct Plasma adynamic conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to electric for micro distributed Power applications" 40th Annual Power Sources Conference (40 th Annual energy Conference), Cherry Hill, NJ, June 10-13, (2002), pages 1-4; R.L.Mills, E.Dayalan, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "high regime Stable Novel inorganic hydrides from Aqueous electrolytes and Plasma electrolytes sis (highly stable new inorganic hydrides from aqueous and plasma electrolysis), "Electrochimica Acta, Vol 47, No 24, (2002), pp 3909-; R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, R.M.Mayo, J.He, "Comparison of excess Balmer α Line doping of glow Discharge and Microwave Hydrogen plasma with Certain Catalysts" J.of Applied Physics, Vol.92, No. 12, (2002), p.7008-page 7022; r.l.mills, p.ray, b.dhandapani, m.nansteel, x.chen, j.he, "new power Source from Fractional Quantum level Energy of Atomic hydrogen superior to Internal Combustion," j.mol.struct., 643, stages 1-3, (2002), pages 43-54; l.l.mills, j.dong, w.good, p.ray, j.he, b.dhandpani, "measurement of Energy balance of Noble Gas-Hydrogen Discharge plasma Using Calvet calorimetric," int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 27, phase 9, (2002), page 967 + 978; L.L.Mills, P.ray, "Spectroscopic Identification of a Novel catalytic reaction of Rubidium Ion with Atomic Hydrogen and the Hydride Ion Product" int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.27, No. 9, (2002), p.927-page 935; l.l.mills, a.voigt, p.ray, m.nansteel, b.dhandani, "Measurement of hydrogen balmer Line Broadening and Thermal Power balance of Noble Gas-hydrogen discharge plasma", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 27, phase 6, (2002), page 671-; R.L.Mills, N.Greenig, S.Hicks, "optical Measured Power balance of Glow discharge of Mixtures of Argon, Hydrogen, and Potasium, Rubium, Cesium, or Strontium Vapor (power balance for optical measurement of glow discharge of mixtures of argon, hydrogen and potassium, rubidium, cesium or strontium Vapor) ", int.j.hydrogen Energy, vol 27, phase 6, (2002), page 651-; L.L.Mills, "The Grand Unified theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics", "int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.27, No. 5, (2002), p.565-; r.l.mills, p.ray, "visual Spectral Emission of fractional-major-Quantum-Energy-Level Hydrogen Molecular Ion", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 27, phase 5, (2002), p.533-; R.L.Mills and M.Nansteel, P.ray, "Argon-Hydrogen-Strontium Discharge Light Source", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol.30, No. 2, (2002), p.639-; L.Mills, P.ray, "Spectral Emission of Fractional Quantum amounts of Atomic Hydrogen from a Helium-Hydrogen Plasma and the implications for Dark Matter", int.J.Hydrogen Energy, (2002), Vol.27, No. 3, p.301-322; L.Mills, P.ray, "Spectroscopic Identification of a Novel Catalytic Reaction of Potassium and Atomic Hydrogen and Spectroscopic Identification of hydride Ion products" int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.27, No. 2, (2002), p.183-192; L.L.Mills, E.Dayanan, "Novel Alkali and Alkali Earth Hydrides for High Voltage and High Energy Density Batteries", Proceedings of the 17th annual Battery Conference on Applications and Advances (meeting at 17th year Battery application and development), California State University, Long Beach, CA, (15-18 months 1-2002), pages 1-6; R.L.Mills, W.good, A.Voigt, Jinquan Dong, "Minimum Heat of Formation of Potasassiuni Iodo Hydride (minimum heat of formation of potassium iodohydride) ", int.j. hydrogen Energy, vol.26, No. 11, (2001), pp.1199-1208; L.Mills, "The Nature of Free Electrons in Superfluid Helium-a Test of Quantum Mechanics and a Basis to Review The fundaments and Make a comparison to classic Theory", int.J.hydrogenetic energy, Vol.26, No. 10, (2001), pp.1059-; L.Mills, "Spectroscopic Identification of a Novel Catalytic Reaction of atomic hydrogen and the Hydride Ion Product," int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 10, (2001), p.1041-1058; r.l.mills, b.dhandapani, m.nansteel, j.he, a.voigt, "Identification of Compounds Containing new Hydride Ions by nmr Spectroscopy", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 26, phase 9, (2001), page 965-; L.Mills, T.Onsuma and Y.Lu, "Formation of a Hydrogen plasma an incorporated hydrogenation Gas Mixture with abnormal Afterglow Duration" Int.J.hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 7, July, (2001), p.749-762; l.l.mills, "observer of Extreme ultraviolet emission from Hydrogen-KI plasma Produced by Hollow cathode discharge," int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 26, phase 6, (2001), page 579-; r.l.mills, b.dhandapani, m.nanstel, j.he, t.shannon, a.echezuria, "Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Hydride Compounds", int.j.of Hydride Energy, vol.26, No. 4, (2001), p.339-367; R.L.Mills, "Temporal Behavior of Light-Emission in the visible Spectral Range from a Ti-K2CO3-H-Cell (temporal characteristics of Light Emission in the visible Spectral region from Ti-K2CO 3-H-Cell) ", int.J. hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 4, (2001), p.327-332; r.l.mills, m.nattel and y.lu, "observer of Extreme Emission from included and calibrated Hydrogen Gas with a strong metal that produces an abnormal optical measurement of Power Emission", int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 26, phase 4, (2001), page 309-; l.l. mills, "black light Power Technology-ANew Clean Hydrogen Energy Source with the functional for Direct conversion to electric Power," Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Association, 12th Annual u.s.hydrogen Meeting and exposure (U.S. conference and release in 12th year), Hydrogen: the Common Thread (Hydrogen: epidemic trend), The Washington Hilton and tools, Washington DC, (3, 6-8, 2001), p. 671-697; L.Mills, "The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum mechanics," Global Foundation, Inc. Orbis scientific, titled The Role of active and regenerative granular reasons in The Cosmic Accerance of Particles of Origin of gravity of The organic Gamma rays (The Origin of Cosmic Gamma Ray Bursts in The Cosmic Acceleration of Particles of Gravitational force of lovely and reputable), (29th Conference High Energy Physics and science site 1964 (29th Conference High Energy Physics and universe Conference Since 1964)), Dr.Behram N.Kuxuronglu, chairperson, 12.12.17.2000, Lango index, catalog, Klausal year, year 258; r.l.mills, b.dhandapani, n.greenig, j.he, "Synthesis and Characterization of potassium iodohydride Hydride (Synthesis of potassium iodohydride) And characterization) ", int.j.of hydrogenetic energy, volume 25, phase 12, month 12, (2000), page 1185-1203; R.L.Mills, "The Hydrogen Atom accessed regeneration", int.J.of Hydrogen Energy, Vol.25, No. 12, p.12, (2000), p.1171-1183; L.L.Mills, "Black light Power Technology-A New Clean Energy with the Potential for direct conversion to Electricity", Global Foundation International Conference on "Global warming and Energy Policy" (International Conference on the Global Foundation for "Global warming and Energy Square"), Dr.Behram N.Kursunoglu, Consortium, t Lauderdale, FL, 11.26-28.2000, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, p.187-; l.l.mills, j.dong, y.lu, "upset of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen emission from incorporated Heated Hydrogen Gas with catalyst Catalysts" (Observation of far Ultraviolet Hydrogen emission from incandescent Heated Hydrogen Gas and Certain Catalysts), "int.j.hydrogen Energy, volume 25, (2000), page 919-; r.l.mills, "NovelInorganic Hydride", int.j.of Hydrogen Energy, volume 25, (2000), pages 669-; L.Mills, "Novel Hydrogen Compounds from Potassium Carbonate Electrotic Cell", Fusion technol., Vol.37, No. 2, No. 3, (2000), pp.157-; R.L.Mills, W.good, "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol.28, No. 4, month 11 (1995), p.1697-1719; r.l.mills, w.good, r.Shanbach, "dihydro molecular identity", Fusion technol., volume 25, (1994), 103; r.l.mills and s.kneizys, Fusion technol. volume 20, (1991), 65; and the previously published PCT applications WO90/13126, WO92/10838, WO94/29873, WO96/42085, WO99/05735, WO99/26078, WO99/34322, WO99/35698, WO00/07931, WO00/07932, WO01/095944, WO01/18948, WO01/21300, WO01/22472, W00/07931 O01/70627, WO02/087291, WO02/088020, WO 02/16990, WO03/093173, WO03/066516, WO04/092058, WO05/041368, WO05/067678, WO2005/116630, WO2007/051078 and WO 2007/053486; and prior U.S. patent nos. 6,024,935 and 7,188,033, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety (hereinafter "Mills prior publications").

The binding energy (also called ionization energy) of an atom, ion or molecule is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. The hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in formula (1) is hereinafter referred to asHydrino atoms or hydrinos. Radius of(wherein a)_HIs a radius of a common hydrogen atom and p is an integer) isHaving a radius a_HThe hydrogen atom of (a) is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "normal hydrogen atom". Ordinary hydrogen atoms are characterized by their binding energies of 13.6 eV.

Hydrino is formed by ordinary hydrogen atoms and radicals having about

m·27.2eV (2)

Wherein m is an integer. This catalyst is also referred to as energy hole (energy hole) or source of energy hole in earlier patent applications filed by Mills. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely coincides with m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within m.27.2 eV of 10%, preferably 5%, have been found to be suitable for most applications.

This catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atoms with a concomitant proportional decrease in the size of the hydrogen atoms, r_n＝na_H. For example, catalysis from H (n ═ 1) to H (n ═ 1/2) releases 40.8eV and hydrogenRadius from a_HIs reduced toThe catalytic system is provided by ionization of t electrons from the atoms each to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m 27.2eV, where m is an integer.

One such catalytic system includes lithium metal. The first and second ionization energies of lithium are 5.39172eV and 75.64018eV [1 ] respectively]. Then, Li is converted to Li²⁺The double ionization (t ═ 2) reaction of (a) has a net enthalpy of reaction of 81.0319eV, which corresponds to m ═ 3 in equation (2).

Li²⁺+2e^-→Li(m)+81.0319eV (4)

And, the overall reaction is

In another embodiment, the catalytic system comprises cesium. The first and second ionization energies of cesium are 3.89390eV and 23.15745eV, respectively. Then, Cs to Cs²⁺The double ionization (t ═ 2) reaction of (a) has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.05135eV, which corresponds to m ═ 1 in equation (2).

Cs²⁺+2e^-→Cs(m)+27.05135eV (7)

And, the overall reaction is

Additional catalytic systems include potassium metal. The first, second and third ionization energies of potassium are 4.34066eV, 31.63eV and 45.806eV [1 ] respectively]. Then, K is to K³⁺The triple ionization (t-3) reaction of (a) has a net enthalpy of reaction of 81.7767eV, which corresponds to m-3 in equation (2).

K³⁺+3e^-→K(m)+81.7426eV (10)

And, the overall reaction is

As an energy source, the energy released during catalysis is much higher than the energy lost to the catalyst. The energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen are combusted to form water

The enthalpy of formation of water is known as Δ H_f-286 kJ/mole or 1.48eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, each (n ═ 1) common hydrogen atom that is catalyzed releases a net enthalpy of 40.8 eV. Moreover, further catalytic transitions can occur:and so on. Once catalysis has begun, hydrinos are referred to asDisproportionationFurther autocatalytic in the process of (a). This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. But the hydrino catalysis has higher reaction speed than the inorganic ion catalyst because the enthalpy is better consistent with m.27.2 eV.

Further catalytic products of the invention

The hydrino ions of the present invention can pass through the electron source and hydrino (i.e., have aboutA hydrogen atom of the binding energy of whereinAnd p is an integer greater than 1). Hydrido hydride ions consisting of H^-(n-1/p) or H^-(1/p) represents:

the hydrido ions are different from ordinary hydride ions having a binding energy of about 0.8eV, which contain an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons. The latter are hereinafter referred to as "normal hydride ions" or "normal hydride ions". The hydrido ion contains a hydrogen nucleus comprising protium, deuterium or tritium and two indistinguishable electrons at a binding energy according to equation (15).

The binding energy of the new hydridic ion can be expressed by the following equation:

where p is an integer greater than one, s-1/2, pi is pi,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the permeability of the vacuum, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the bohr radius and e is the base charge. The radius is given by

Fractional hydrohydride ion H as a function of p (where p is an integer)^-The binding energy of (n ═ 1/p) is shown in table 1.

TABLE 1. hydrino ion H of formula (15) as a function of p^-Representative binding energies of (n ═ 1/p)

According to the invention, there is provided a hydridic ion (H) having a binding energy according to the formula (15-16)^-) The binding energy is greater than that of the common hydride ion (about 0.8eV) when p is 2 to 23 and p is 24 (H)^-) Less than the binding energy of common hydride ions. For equations (15-16) with p 2 to p 24, the hydride ion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3 and0.69 eV. Compositions containing the novel hydride ions are also provided.

The hydrido ions are different from ordinary hydride ions having a binding energy of about 0.8eV, which contain an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons. The latter are hereinafter referred to as "normal hydride ions" or "normal hydride ions". The hydrido ion contains a hydrogen nucleus comprising protium, deuterium or tritium and two indistinguishable electrons at binding energies according to equation (15-16).

Novel compounds containing one or more hydridic ions and one or more other elements are provided. Such compounds are referred to asHydrided compound。

Common hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754eV ("common hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom") 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecules, 15.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecules"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) H₃ ⁺22.6eV ("common trihydrogen molecular ion"). Herein, "normal" and "normal" are synonymous when referring to the form of hydrogen.

According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound containing at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy, such as (a) a hydrogen atom having about Preferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137; (b) hydride ion (H)^-) Which has an average of

In the above-mentioned manner,

preferably within + -10%, more preferably within + -5%, of the binding energy, wherein p is an integer, preferablyAn integer from 2 to 24; (c) h₄ ⁺(1/p); (d) three fractional hydrogen molecule ion H₃ ⁺(1/p) of aboutPreferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137; (e) di-hydrido having aboutPreferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137; (f) a two-part molecular hydrogen ion having a molecular weight of aboutPreferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137;

according to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound containing at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy, such as (a) a di-hydrino molecular ion having

Preferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, of the total energy, wherein p is an integer, Is the Planck constant bar, m_eIs the electron mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, μ is the reduced nuclear mass and k is the previously solved harmonic force constant [2 ]](ii) a And (b) a binary hydrogen molecule having

Preferably within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, of the total energy, wherein p is an integer, a_oIs the Bohr radius.

According to an embodiment of the invention, wherein the compound contains a negatively charged hydrogen species with increased binding energy, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as protons, common H₂ ⁺Or general H₃ ⁺。

A process for preparing a compound containing at least one hydride ion having an increased binding energy is provided. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrido compounds". The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a molecular weight of aboutWherein m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about(wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137) hydrogen atom with an increased binding energyAnd (4) adding the active ingredients. A further product of the catalytic reaction is energy. The hydrogen atoms of increased binding energy can react with the electron source to produce hydride ions of increased binding energy. The hydride ion with increased binding energy can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one hydride ion with increased binding energy.

Novel hydrogen species and composition species containing novel hydrogen formed by catalysis of atomic hydrogen are disclosed in "Mills prior publications". Novel hydrogen composition materials include:

(a) at least one neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter simply referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy

(i) Greater than the binding energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobserved due to the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy being less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or negatively charged; and

(b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

By "other elements" in this context is meant elements other than hydrogen species that increase binding energy. Thus, the other element may be an ordinary hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and the hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased are charged such that the other elements provide a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordination bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) At least one neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter simply referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy

(i) Greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobserved due to the fact that the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is negatively charged; and

(b) at least one other element.

The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the present invention have a total energy greater than that of a corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. Hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," although certain embodiments of hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy that is less than the first electron binding energy of a corresponding common hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ions of formula (15-16) where p is 24 have a first binding energy smaller than that of the general hydride ions, and the total energy of the hydride ions of formula (15-16) where p is 24 is much larger than that of the corresponding general hydride ions.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) A plurality of neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter simply referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more electrons, hydrino atoms, compounds containing at least one of the increased binding energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom, molecule or ion than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) A plurality of neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter simply referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy

(i) Greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

In one embodiment, compounds are provided that contain at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy selected from the group consisting of: (a) hydride ions having a binding energy according to formula (15-16) ("hydride ions with increased binding energy" or "hydridic ions") which is greater than that of ordinary hydride ions (about 0.8eV) when p is 2 to 23 and less than that of ordinary hydride ions when p is 24; (b) hydrogen atoms having a binding energy greater than that of ordinary hydrogen atoms (about 13.6eV) (the "binding energy increasing hydrogen atoms" or "fractional hydrogen"); (c) hydrogen molecules having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3eV (an "increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "fractional hydrogen"); and (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a binding energy greater than about 16.3eV ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ions" or "binary fraction hydrogen molecular ions").

Characterization and identification of substances with increased binding energy

New chemically generated or chemically assisted plasma sources based on the resonance energy transfer mechanism (rt-plasma) between atomic hydrogen and certain catalysts have been developed, which may be new energy sources. The product is a more stable hydride and molecular hydrogen species such as H^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4). One such source operates by incandescent heating of the hydrogen dissociating agent and the catalyst to provide atomic hydrogen and a gaseous catalyst, respectively, such that the catalyst reacts with the atomic hydrogen to produce a plasma. In particular Mills et al [3-10 ]]At low temperatures (e.g.. apprxeq.10)³K) Strong Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) emissions and particularly low field strengths of about 1-2V/cm from atomic hydrogen and certain atomized elements or certain gaseous ions ionized individually or multiply at integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen of 27.2eV are observed. Many independent experimental observations confirm that rt-plasmas are generated as a result of a new reaction of atomic hydrogen, which produces hydrogen as a chemical intermediate in fractional quantum states at lower energies than the traditional "base" (n ═ 1) state. Energy is released [3, 9, 11-13 ] ]And the final reaction product is a novel hydride compound [3, 14-16]Or lower energy molecular hydrogen [17 ]]. The data supported includes EUV spectra [3-10, 13, 17-22, 25, 27-28]Characteristic emissions from catalyst and hydride ion production [3, 5, 7, 21-22, 27-28]Lower energy hydrogen emission [12-13, 18-20 ]]Chemically formed plasma [3-10, 21-22, 27-28 ]]Specific (> 100eV) broadening of the Barmer α line [3-5, 7, 9-10, 12, 18-19, 21, 23-28]Population inversion of H-ray [3, 21, 27-29 ]]Elevated electron temperature [19, 23-25 ]]Abnormal plasma afterglow period [3, 8 ]]Energy production [3, 9, 11-13 ]]And analysis of novel chemical Compounds [3, 14-16]。

The theory given earlier [6, 18-20, 30] is based on maxwell's formula to solve the electronic structure. The familiar Reed-Bo equation (19)) is presented for the hydrogen excited state of equation (20) with n > 1.

n＝1，2，3，... (20)

An additional consequence is that atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain atoms, excimers, and ions that provide reactions with net enthalpies m · 27.2eV (where m is an integer) that are integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. The reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer to form hydrogen atoms, called hydrino atoms, which are at a lower energy level than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number. That is to say that the first and second electrodes,

p is an integer (21)

The well-known parameter n ═ integer in the reed-ber formula for the hydrogen excited state is replaced. N-1 state of hydrogen and of hydrogenStates are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states (e.g., n-1 to n-1/2) are possible via non-radiative energy transfer. The catalyst thus provides a positive net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (i.e. it resonantly acquires non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atom and releases energy to the surroundings to affect electron transitions to fractional quantum levels). As a result of the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and emits further energy until it reaches a lower energy non-radiative state having a main energy level given by equations (19) and (21). Processes such as hydrogen molecular bond formation that occur in the absence of protons and require collisions are common [31]. Also, some commercial phosphors are based on resonance-based non-radiative energy transfer, including multipole coupling [32 ]]。

Two H (1/p) can react to form H₂(1/p). Hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond lengths and energies with excellent accuracy have been previously solved precisely [30, 33 ] ]. Using the Laplacian with non-radiative confinement in ellipsoid coordinates, the total energy of a hydrogen molecule with a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

Wherein p is an integer, and p is an integer,is the Planck constant bar, m_eIs the electron mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, μ is the reduced nuclear mass, k is the harmonic force constant [30, 33 ] previously solved in a closed form equation with only the fundamental constant]And a_oIs the Bohr radius. Fractional Reed-Berger molecular hydrogen H₂(1/p) the vibrational energy and rotational energy is H₂P of vibrational energy and rotational energy². Thus, for the hydrogen type molecule H₂Vibration energy E for transition between 0 and 1 of (1/p)_vibIs [30, 33 ]]

E_vib＝p²0.515902eV (23)

Wherein for H₂Transition of upsilon 0 to upsilon 1, experimental vibration energyIs prepared from Beutler [34]And Herzberg [35]Given below. For hydrogen type molecule H₂(1/p) transition of J to J +1, rotational energy E_rotIs [30, 33 ]]

Where I is the moment of inertia and for H₂For the J-0 to J-1 transition, the experimental rotational energy is represented by Atkins [36 ]]It is given. P of rotational energy²The inverse p dependence from the kernel spacing and the corresponding effect on I are relied upon. H₂(1/p) predicted internuclear distance 2 c' is

Using well established theory [37], the rotation can provide very accurate measurements of I and nuclear spacing.

Ar⁺It can be used as a catalyst because its ionization energy is about 27.2 eV. Ar (Ar)⁺To Ar²⁺To form H (1/2), which may further serve as both a catalyst and a reactant to form H (1/4) [19-20, 30 ]]. Thus, due to H₂Formation of (1/4) required accumulation of intermediates, so observations of H (1/4) were expected to be flow-dependent. The mechanism was examined by experiments using flowing plasma gas. Neutral molecular emission of a high pressure argon-hydrogen plasma excited by a 12.5keV electron beam is predicted. H₂The rotation line of (1/4) is predicted and captured in the 150-250nm region. Correlating the spectral lines with the corresponding H given by equation (25)₂1/4 of inter-nuclei distances by those predicted by equations (23-24). When p is 4 in the formula (23-24), H₂The predicted energy of the θ v 1 → θ v 0 vibration-rotation series of (1/4) is

He⁺The catalyst criteria-chemical or physical process with enthalpy change equal to integer multiples of 27.2 eV-54.417 eV is 2 · 27.2eV due to its ionization at 54.417 eV-is also met. He (He)⁺Can further be used as a catalyst for the formation of H (1/4) and H (1/2) [19-20, 30 ]]Which may lead to a transition to the other state H (1/p). New emission rays with energy of q · 13.6eV (where q ═ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 11) [18-20 observed previously by Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy recorded by microwave discharge of helium and 2% hydrogen ]. These lines conform to the fractional Reed-Berger states of atomic hydrogen given by equations (19) and (21) for H (1/p).

The line of rotation was observed from an argon-hydrogen plasma excited by an atmospheric pressure electron beam in the region 145-300 nm.Interval of hydrogen energy 4²Multiplied unprecedented energy intervals establish a nuclear spacing of H₂Internuclear distance 1/4 and identified as H₂(1/4) (equations 23-26). Using a high vacuum (10)^-6Torr) capacity, liquefaction of helium-hydrogen plasma gas from a liquid nitrogen cryotrap to separate H₂(1/p) gas and characterized by Mass Spectrometry (MS). By MS, the condensable gas has a higher H₂Ionization energy of [17 ]]. From ions containing the corresponding hydride ions H^-(1/4) chemical decomposition of hydrides and liquefied H from catalytic-plasma gases₂(1/4) gas, also passing through¹HNMR was identified as relative to H at 4.63₂Single peak at 2.18ppm migrating to high magnetic field, which is in line with theoretical prediction [13, 17]. By pairs having a gap H₂(1/4) containing H^-(1/4) study of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of solid samples and vibrational-rotational emission of electron beam sustained argon-hydrogen plasma further characterizes H₂(1/4)。

Water bath calorimetry was used to determine that the measurable energy was generated in the rt-plasma due to reactions that form the states given by equations (19) and (21). In particular, the He/H generated by the Evenson microwave cavity ₂(10%) (500 mTorr), Ar/H₂(10%) (500 mTorr) and H₂O (g) (500 and 200 mTorr) plasma, consistently produced a non-rt-plasma (control) such as He, Kr/H under the same gas flow, pressure and microwave operating conditions₂About 50% more heat. The excess power density of rt-plasma is about 10W-cm^-3. In addition to the unique Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) line, earlier studies using these same rt-plasmas demonstrated other unique features, including significant broadening of the hydrogen Barmer series lines [3-5, 7, 9-10, 12, 18-19, 21, 23-28]And in the case of water plasma, the population inversion of the hydrogen excited state [3, 21, 27-29 ]]. Both the present and early results are in full agreement with the existence of the anticipated exothermic chemical reactions that occurred in the rt-plasma, which were heretofore unknown.

Due to Sr⁺To Sr³⁺Has a net enthalpy of reaction of 2.27.2 eV, so Sr⁺Either alone or with Ar⁺The catalysts together act as a catalyst. Low fields (1V/cm) at low temperatures (e.g.. apprxeq.10) have been previously reported³K) Formation of rt-plasma from atomic hydrogen generated from tungsten filament and strontium evaporated by heating the metal [4-5, 7, 9-10 ]]. Strong VUV emission was observed, which increased with the addition of argon, but was not observed when sodium, magnesium or barium were substituted for strontium or with hydrogen, argon or strontium alone. Observed to come from Ar at 45.6nm ²⁺Characteristic emission of the continuum states without the typical Reedberg series of ArI and ArII lines, which confirm the shift from atomic hydrogen to Ar⁺27.2eV [5, 7, 22 ]]. The predicted Sr is also observed from the strontium-hydrogen plasma³⁺Emitting line [5, 7]]Which supports the rt-plasma mechanism. Time-dependent line broadening of the H-balmer α line was observed corresponding to exceptionally rapid H (25 eV). In the direction of Sr⁺Adding Ar⁺As an additional catalyst, the rt-plasma formed was measured thermally on 20mW cm^-3Excess power.

Compared to ≈ 3eV for pure hydrogen, xenon-hydrogen, and magnesium-hydrogen, significant broadening of the balmer α lines corresponding to average hydrogen atom temperatures of 14eV, 24eV, and 23-45eV is observed for strontium and argon-strontium rt-plasmas and discharges for strontium-hydrogen, helium-hydrogen, argon-hydrogen, strontium-helium-hydrogen, and strontium-argon-hydrogen, respectively. To obtain the same optically measured light output power, the hydrogen-sodium, hydrogen-magnesium and hydrogen-barium mixtures required powers of 4000, 7000 and 6500 times the power of the hydrogen-strontium mixture, respectively, and the addition of argon increased these ratios by about one time. The glow discharge plasma formed at extremely low voltages of about 2V for the hydrogen-strontium mixture is nearly as good as that formed for the hydrogen and sodium-hydrogen mixture alone at 250V and for the hydrogen-magnesium and hydrogen-barium mixture at 140-150V [4-5, 7 ]. These voltages are too low to be explained by conventional mechanisms involving accelerating ions using high superimposed fields. Low voltage EUV and visible light sources are feasible [10 ].

In general, the energy transfer of m.27.2 eV from a hydrogen atom to the catalyst results in the neutralization of the H atomThe interaction of the core field is increased by m times and the electrons are reduced by m orders from the radius a of the hydrogen atom_HDown toRadius of [19-20 ]]. Since K to K³⁺Provides a reaction with a net enthalpy 3.27.2 eV equal to 3 times the atomic hydrogen potential, so it can act as a catalyst to liberate a net enthalpy of 204eV per ordinary hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis [3]. K may then react with product H (1/4) to form yet lower state H (1/7) or a further catalytic transition may occur:and the like, including only hydrinos in a process called disproportionation. Accordingly, due to the multipole expansion of potential energy, the ionization energy and metastable resonance state of hydrinos are m.27.2 eV (equations (19) and (21)) [19-20, 30 ] as given previously]So once catalysis begins, the hydrinos autocatalytic further transition to the lower state. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. The energy transfer of m.27.2 eV from the first fractional hydrogen atom to the second fractional hydrogen atom results in an increase of the central field of the first atom by a factor of m and a decrease of its electrons by an order of m, fromIs reduced toOf (c) is used.

The catalytic product H (1/p) can also react with electrons to form new hydride ions H ^-(1/p) having a binding energy E_B[3，14，16，21，30]：

Where p is an integer greater than one, s-1/2,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius and e is the base charge. The radius of the ion isFrom equation (27), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is 0.75418eV, and is represented by Lykke [38 ]]The experimental values given are 6082.99. + -. 0.15cm^-1(0.75418eV)。

A large body of evidence for energetic catalytic reactions has been previously reported, whichInvolving a resonance energy transfer between a hydrogen atom and K to form a new hydride ion H which is very stable^-(1/p), referred to as hydrido hydride, which has an estimated number p of fractional principal quanta of 4. From K³⁺Characteristic emission is observed, which confirms the resonant non-radiative energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to K of 3 · 27.2 eV. From equation (27), H^-Binding energy E of (1/4)_BIs that

E_B＝11.232eV(λ_vac＝1103.8) (28)

The product hydride ion H was observed spectroscopically at 110nm corresponding to its predicted binding energy of 11.2eV^-(1/4)[3，21]。

The NMR peak migrating to high field is direct evidence of the presence of diamagnetic shielded lower energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to the normal hydride ion and with increased protons. H ^-(1/p) Total theoretical DisplacementFrom H^-The sum of the displacement of (1/1) plus the contribution due to the lower electron energy state gives:

wherein p is an integer greater than 1. The corresponding alkali metal hydrides and alkali metal hydrides (containing H)^-(1/p)) by¹HMAS NMR was characterized and compared to theoretical values. The expected and observed peaks coincide and represent an exact detection without any controversial issue.

Method for preparing new compound KH Cl relative to exo Tetramethylsilane (TMS)¹HMAS NMR spectra showed a large apparent high-field resonance at-4.4 ppm corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-35.9 ppm, which is predicted by theory with p ═ 4 [3, 14-16]And (5) performing anastomosis. This result confirms the previous observation of strong hydrogen Raman emission from the rt-plasma, stable reverse Raman population, excessive afterglow period, high energetic hydrogen atoms, characteristic alkali metal ion emission by catalysis, predicted new spectral lines, and measurement of kinetic beyond any conventional chemistry that forms with atomic hydrogen a signature H^-(1/p) predicted agreement of the catalytic reaction of the more stable hydride ion. Since the comparison of theoretical and experimental shifts in KH @ Cl is a direct proof that the lower energy hydrogen has a large exotherm implied during its formation, the NMR results were repeated by further analysis of infrared (FTIR) spectra to exclude any known interpretation [39 ]。

Elemental analysis identified [14, 16]These compounds contain only alkali metals, halogens and hydrogen, and known hydrides with hydride NMR peaks migrating to high fields are not found in the literatureSuch compositions of compositions. Ordinary alkali metal hydrides, alone or in admixture with alkali metal halides, show peaks of migration to low fields [3, 14-16 ]]. From the literature, H as a possible source of high field NMR peaks^-(1/p) alternative list, restricted to H in the center of U. Due to H^-For Cl in KCl^-The substitution of (2) results in a substitution at 503cm^-1Can exclude the H at the U center as a source of NMR peaks migrating to high fields [39 ]]。

When further characterized, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the hydrided hydride KH × I was performed to determine whether the predicted H given by equation (28) was observed^-(1/4) binding energy, and H before and after 90 days of storage in argon^-(1/4) FTIR analysis of these crystals to search for a gap H with the predicted rotational energy given by equation (24)₂(1/4). Identification of a single spin peak at energy with ortho-para fragmentation due to free rotation of very small hydrogen molecules would represent definitive evidence of its presence due to no other possible attribution [39 ] ]。

Due to the existence of a compound in the formula H^-H was observed in KH I crystals of the (1/4) peak₂(1/4) rotating emission and observed from a 12.5keV beam-sustained plasma of argon with 1% hydrogen due to H₂(1/4) Collision excited H₂(1/4) vibrational-rotational emission, so use of a 12.5keV electron gun produces detectable emission (< 10) below any gas^-5Torr) was investigated by windowless EUV spectroscopy on crystalline electron beam excitation for H trapped in KH Cl lattice₂(1/4), or from H^-(1/4) formation of H₂(1/4) or H formed in situ from K-catalyzed H via electron bombardment₂(1/4)[39]. And confirmation of H by this technique₂(1/4) rotational energy. Consistent results from extensive spectroscopic research techniques provide that hydrogen can be in a lower energy state as H than previously thought possible^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4) exact evidence of the presence of the form. In one embodiment, the product of the Li catalyst reaction and NaH catalyst reaction is H^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4) both, and a further product H for NaH^-(1/3) and H₂(1/3). The present invention provides for their identification and corresponding energy-exothermic reactions through EUV spectroscopy, characteristic emissions from catalysts and hydride ion products, lower energy hydrogen emissions, chemically formed plasma, specific balmer α line broadening, H-line population inversion, elevated electron temperatures, abnormal plasma afterglow period, kinetic generation, and analysis of new chemical compounds. For substance H ^-(1/p) and H₂The preferred discrimination technique of (1/p) is H^-(1/p) and H₂NMR of (1/p), H trapped in the Crystal₂FTIR and H of (1/p)^-(1/p) XPS, H^-(1/p) ToF-SIMs, H₂(1/p) Electron Beam excited emission Spectroscopy, H trapped in the lattice₂(1/p) electron beam emission spectrum, and a spectrum for a beam containing H^-ToF-SIMS identification of the novel compounds of (1/p). Preferred characterization techniques for energetic catalytic reactions and power balances are line broadening, plasma formation and calorimetry. Preferably, H^-(1/p) and H₂(1/p) are each H^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4)。

Brief Description of Drawings

FIG. 1A is a schematic view of an energy reactor and power plant according to the present invention.

FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of an energy reactor and power plant for recycling and regenerating fuel according to the present invention.

Fig. 3A is a schematic view of an energy reactor according to the present invention.

Fig. 4A is a schematic diagram of a discharge power and plasma cell and reactor according to the present invention.

Fig. 1 is an experimental setup comprising a long-filament gas cell to form a lithium-argon-hydrogen rt-plasma and a lithium-hydrogen rt-plasma.

Fig. 2 is a schematic diagram of a reaction cell and a cross-sectional view of an aqueous flow calorimeter for measuring the energy balance of the reaction of the hydrino-forming NaH catalyst. The elements are: 1-an inlet thermistor and an output thermistor; 2-high temperature valve; 3-a ceramic fiber heater; 4-copper water cooling coil; 5-a reactor; 6-insulation; 7-cell thermocouple; and 8-a water flow chamber.

Figure 3 is a schematic diagram of an aqueous flow calorimeter used to measure the energy balance of the reaction of the NaH catalyst forming hydrinos.

FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a reaction mixture comprising (i) R-Ni, Li, LiNH₂And LiBr or LiI or (ii) Pt/Ti dissociators Na, NaH and NaCl or NaBr as reactants. The elements are: 101-a stainless steel pool; 117-inner chamber of the cell; 118-high vacuum flange; 119-a matched blind flange plate; 102-stainless steel tube vacuum line and gas supply line; 103-kiln lid or top insulation; 104-outer heater covered by high temperature insulation; 108-Pt/Ti dissociating agent; 109-reactants; 110-high vacuum turbo pump; 112-a pressure gauge; 111-vacuum pump valve; 113-a valve; 114-a valve; 115-regulator, and 116-hydrogen tank.

Fig. 5 shows the 656.3nm balmer α line widths recorded with a high resolution visual spectrometer for (a) the initial emission of the lithium-argon-hydrogen rt-plasma and (B) the emission at 70 hours of operation. Significant broadening of the lithium lines and only the H lines was observed over time, corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature > 40eV and a fractional population exceeding 90%.

Fig. 6 shows the 656.3nm balmer α line widths recorded with a high resolution (± 0.006nm) visual spectrometer for (a) the initial emission of a lithium-hydrogen rt-plasma and (B) the emission at 70 hours of operation. Broadening of the lithium line and only the H line was observed over time, but attenuated relative to the example with argon-hydrogen gas (95%/5%). The barmer width corresponds to an average hydrogen atom temperature of 6eV and a fractional population of 27%.

FIG. 7 shows the results of DSC (100 ℃ C. and 750 ℃ C.) of NaH at a scanning speed of 0.1 degree/min. A broad endothermic peak was observed at 350 ℃ to 420 ℃, which corresponded to 47kJ/mole and had a phaseSodium hydride decomposition within this temperature range of the desired enthalpy of 57kJ/mole coincided. A large exotherm corresponding to at least-354 kJ/mole H was observed with formation of NaH catalyst in the region of 640 ℃ to 825 ℃₂Enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen, greater than enthalpy of the maximum exothermic reaction possible of H, 241.8 kJ/mole H₂。

FIG. 8 shows MgH at a scan rate of 0.1 degree/min₂Results of DSC (100-. Two sharp endothermic peaks were observed. Centered at 351.75 ℃ and corresponding to 68.61 kJ/mol MgH₂First peak of with 74.4 kJ/mol MgH₂Can be matched. At 647.66 ℃ corresponding to 6.65 kJ/mol MgH₂Coincides with the known melting point of Mg (m) 650 ℃ and a melting enthalpy of 8.48kJ/mole Mg (m). Thus, the expected behavior of the control, no catalyst hydride decomposition was observed.

Figure 9 shows the temperature versus time for calibration run with only the test cell evacuated and resistance heating.

Figure 10 shows power versus time for calibration run with only the test cell evacuated and resistive heating. Numerical integration of the input power curve and the output power curve yields an output energy of 292.2kJ and an input energy of 303.1kJ, corresponding to a flow coupling of 96.4% of the resistive input to the output coolant.

FIG. 11 shows a catalyst containing 0.5g LiNH including catalyst substance 1gLi₂10g LiBr and 15gPd/Al₂O₃The cell temperature over time of the hydrino reaction of the cell of reactants. The reaction releases 19.1kJ of energy in less than 120s to produce a corrected peak power of the system response in excess of 160W.

FIG. 12 shows the use of a catalyst containing 1gLi, 0.5gLiNH₂10gLiBr and 15gPd/Al₂O₃The coolant power over time of the hydrino reaction of the pool of reactants. Numerical integration of the input power curve and the output power curve to which the calibration correction has been applied yields an output energy of 227.2kJ and an input energy of 208.1kJ, corresponding to an excess energy of 19.1 kJ.

FIG. 13 shows the cell temperature over time for an R-Ni control power test using a cell containing reactants including a starting material 15g R-Ni/Al alloy powder of R-Ni and 3.28g Na.

FIG. 14 shows coolant power over time for a control power test using a pool containing reactants including R-Ni starting material 15g R-Ni/Al alloy powder and 3.28g Na. Energy balance is achieved by integrating the values of the calibration corrections of the input power curve and the output power curve to produce an output energy of 384kJ and an input energy of 385 kJ.

FIG. 15 shows cell temperature over time for a hydrino reaction using a cell containing reactants including catalyst mass 15g NaOH-doped R-Ni 2800 and 3.28g Na. The reaction releases 36kJ of energy in less than 90s to produce a system response corrected peak power in excess of 0.5 kW.

FIG. 16 shows coolant power over time for a hydrino reaction using a pool of reactants including catalyst mass 15g NaOH-doped R-Ni 2800 and 3.28g Na. Numerical integration of the input power curve and the output power curve using calibration corrections yields an output energy of 185.1kJ and an input energy of 149.1kJ, corresponding to an excess energy of 36 kJ.

FIG. 17 shows cell temperature over time for a hydrino reaction using a cell containing reactants including catalyst mass 15g of NaOH-doped R-Ni 2400. The cell temperature was ramped from 60 ℃ to 205 ℃ in 60s, with the reaction releasing 11.7kJ of energy in less time to produce a corrected peak power of the system response in excess of 0.25 kW.

FIG. 18 shows coolant power over time for a hydrino reaction using a pool of reactants containing 15g of NaOH-doped R-Ni 2400 as the catalyst material. Numerical integration of the input power curve and the output power curve using calibration correction yields an output energy of 195.7kJ and an input energy of 184.0kJ, corresponding to an excess energy of 11.7 kJ.

FIG. 19 shows the positive ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiBr (m/e ═ 0 to 100).

Fig. 20 shows the positive ToF-SIMS spectra of LiH × Br crystals (m/e ═ 0-100).

FIG. 21 shows a negative ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiBr (m/e ═ 0 to 100).

FIG. 22 shows a negative ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiH Br crystals (m/e 0-100). The main hydride LiHBr^-And Li₂H₂Br^-The only peak observed was.

FIG. 23 shows the positive ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiI (m/e ═ 0-200).

Fig. 24 shows a positive ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiH × I crystals (m/e ═ 0-200). LiHI⁺、Li₂H₂I⁺、Li₄H₂I⁺And Li₆H₂I⁺Is observed only in the positive ion spectrum of LiH × I crystals.

FIG. 25 shows the negative ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiI (m/e ═ 0-180).

Fig. 26 shows a negative ToF-SIMS spectrum of LiH × I crystals (m/e ═ 0-180). Outstanding hydride LiHI^-、Li₂H₂I^-And NaHI^-The only peak observed was.

Figure 27 shows negative ToF-SIMS spectra of NaH coated Pt/Ti after generation of 15kJ excess heat (m/e 20-30). The hydrided compound NaH was observed_x ^-。

Fig. 28 shows the n-ToF-SIMS spectra of R-Ni reacted at 50 ℃ over a 48 hour period (m/e ═ 0-100). The predominant ion on the surface is Na⁺Consistent with surface NaOH incorporation. Ions of other main elements of R-Ni 2400, such as Al, are also observed⁺、Ni⁺、Cr⁺And Fe⁺。

Fig. 29 shows negative ToF-SIMS spectra of R-Ni reacted at 50 ℃ over a 48 hour period (m/e ═ 0-180). The main hydrides, attributed to sodium hydrido and its ionic NaH in combination with NaOH, were observed ₃ ^-And NaH₃NaOH^-And can be ascribed to sodium hydrido hydride NaH_x ^-With NaOH, NaO, OH-and O^-Other unique ions bound.

FIGS. 30A-B show relative to external TMS¹HMAS NMR spectrum. (A) LiH Br showed a broad peak migrating to high field at-2.5 ppm and a peak at 1.13ppm, respectively due to H^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4). (B) LiH I shows that the H is assigned to^-(1/4) broad peak of-2.09 ppm migration to high field, and respectively ascribed to H₂(1/4) and H₂1.06ppm and 4.38 ppm.

FIGS. 31A-B show relative to external TMS¹HMAS NMR spectrum. (A) KH Cl shows a very sharp peak corresponding to a substantially free ionic environment-4.46 ppm migration to high field. (B) KH |, shows a broad-2.31 ppm peak migrating to the high field, similar to the case of LiH | Br and LiH |. Both spectra also have a score of H₂Peak at 1.13ppm of (1/4).

FIGS. 32A-B show relative to external TMS¹HMAS NMR spectra showing non-polarizability as halides and corresponding orientation to H^-(1/4) non-reactivity based selectivity to H content of LiH X of individual molecular species. (A) LiH F contains unpolarized fluorine and is shown to be due to H₂Peak at 4.31ppm and ascribed to H₂Peak at 1.16ppm of (1/4) and absence of H^-(1/4) ion peaks. (B) LiH Cl contains unpolarized chlorine, shown to be due to H ₂Peak at 4.28ppm and ascribed to H₂Peak at 1.2ppm of (1/4) and absence of H^-(1/4) ion peaks.

FIG. 33 shows relative to external TMS¹HMAS NMR spectrum showing one peak migrating to high field at-3.58 ppm, one peak at 1.13ppm and one peak at 4.3ppm, respectively due to H^-(1/4)、H₂(1/4) and H₂。

FIGS. 34A-B show NaH Cl versus external TMS¹H MAS NMR spectra showing hydrogen addition to H₂、H₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4) relative intensity. Addition of hydrogen increases H^-(1/4) peak to reduce H₂(1/4) Peak, but H₂The peak increased. (A) NaH Cl synthesized using hydrogen addition showed a contribution to H^-(1/4) peak of-4 ppm transition to high field, ascribed to H₂(1/4) Peak 1.1ppm and ascribed to H₂A prominent peak of 1.0 ppm. (B) The NaH Cl synthesized without hydrogen addition showed a contribution to H^-(1/4) peak of-4 ppm transition to high field, ascribed to H₂Prominent peak at 1.0ppm of (1/4) and ascribed to H₂Small 4.1ppm peak.

FIG. 35 shows KHSO as the solid acid from NaCl and as the sole hydrogen source₄Relative to external TMS of reacted NaH + Cl of (a)¹H MAS NMR spectrum showing H at-3.97 ppm^-(1/4) Peak sum assigned to H^-(1/3) peak at-3.15 ppm of the peak migrating to high field. Corresponding to H₂(1/4) Peak and H₂The (1/3) peaks are shown at 1.15ppm and 1.7ppm, respectively. Since NaH Cl was synthesized using a solid acid as the H source rather than adding hydrogen and a dissociating agent, both hydrino states were present and lacked H at 4.3ppm ₂Peak(s). (SB ═ sideband).

FIGS. 36A-B show XPS measurement spectra (E)_b0eV to 1200 eV). (A) And LiBr. (B) LiH × Br.

Figure 37 shows high resolution XPS spectra of the 0-85eV binding energy region of LiH by Br and control LiBr (dashed line). The XPS spectrum of LiH × Br differs from that of LiBr by having additional peaks at 9.5eV and 12.3eV that cannot be assigned to known elements and do not correspond to any other elemental peaks. The peak is associated with H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4) performing anastomosis.

FIGS. 38A-B show XPS measurement spectra (E)_b0eV to 1200 eV). (A) NaBr. (B) NaH Br.

Figure 39 shows high resolution XPS spectra of the 0-40eV binding energy region of NaH × Br and control NaBr (dashed line). The XPS spectrum of NaH × Br is compared with the peaks at 9.5eV and 12.3eV that cannot be assigned to known elements and do not correspond to any other elementary element peak, due to the additional peaks at 9.5eV and 12.3eVThe XPS spectra of NaBr are different. The peak is associated with H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4) performing anastomosis.

FIGS. 40A-B show XPS measurement spectra (E)_b0eV to 1200 eV). (A) Pt/Ti. (B) NaH coated Pt/Ti after 15kJ excess heat was generated.

FIGS. 41A-B show high resolution XPS spectra (E)_b0eV to 100 eV). (A) Pt/Ti. (B) NaH coated Pt/Ti after 15kJ excess heat was generated. Pt 4f was observed at 70.7eV, 74eV, and 23eV, respectively _7/2Peak, pt 4f_5/2Peaks and O2 s peaks. For NaH-coated Pt/Ti, Na 2p and Na 2s peaks were observed at 31eV and 64eV, and a valence band was observed only for Pt/Ti.

FIGS. 42A-B show high resolution XPS spectra (E)_b0eV to 50 eV). (A) Pt/Ti. (B) The NaH-coated Pt/Ti XPS spectra differed from the Pt/Ti XPS spectra by having additional peaks at 6eV, 10.8eV and 12.8eV that could not be assigned to known elements and did not correspond to any other elemental peaks. Peaks at 10.8eV and 12.8eV vs. H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4) coincidence, whereas the peak at 6eV coincides with and is ascribed to H^-(1/3). Thus, both hydrino states (1/3 and 1/4) exist as predicted by equation (27).

Figure 43 shows XPS spectra of NaH coated Si with identified elemental peaks (E)_b0eV to 120 eV).

Figure 44 shows high resolution XPS spectra of NaH coated Si (E)_b0eV to 120eV) having peaks at 6eV, 10.8eV and 12.8eV which cannot be assigned to known elements and do not correspond to any other elemental peaks. Peaks at 10.8eV and 12.8eV vs. H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4) coincidence, whereas the peak at 6eV coincides with and is ascribed to H^-(1/3). Thus, both hydrino states (1/3 and 1/4) were present as predicted by equation (27) and were consistent with NaH coated Pt/Ti results shown in figure 42B.

FIGS. 45A-B show high resolution (0.5 cm)^-1) FTIR spectrum (490) -4000cm^-1). (A) And LiBr. (B) Utensil for cleaning buttockIs due to H^-(1/4) LiH x Br sample of NMR peak, heated to > 600 ℃ under dynamic vacuum while retaining-2.5 ppm NMR peak. At 3314, 3259, 2079 (width), 1567 and 1541cm^-1At amide peaks and at 3172 (wide), 1953 and 1578cm^-1The imine peak at (a) is excluded; therefore, they are not the source of the retained-2.5 ppm NMR peak.¹The-2.5 ppm peak in the HNMR spectrum was attributed to H^-(1/4) ions. Furthermore, 1989cm^-1FTIR peaks cannot be assigned to any known compound, but are associated with para-H₂The predicted frequencies of (1/4) coincide.

FIG. 46 shows electron beam excited H with trapping₂150-350nm spectrum of CsCl crystal of (1/4). A series of equally spaced lines with H was observed in the region 220-300nm₂The spacing and density profiles of the P branches of (1/4) are matched.

FIG. 47 shows electron beam excited H with trapping₂(1/4) 100-550nm spectrum of NaH Cl coated silicon wafer. A series of equally spaced lines with H was observed in the region 220-300nm₂The spacing and density profiles of the P branches of (1/4) are matched.

Detailed description of the preferred embodiments

Hydrogen catalyst reactor

A hydrogen catalyst reactor 50 for producing energy and lower energy hydrogen species according to the present invention is shown in fig. 1A and includes a vessel 52 containing an energy reaction mixture 54, a heat exchanger 60, and an energy converter such as a steam generator 62 and a turbine 70. In one embodiment, the catalysis includes reacting atomic hydrogen from source 56 with catalyst 58 to form lower energy hydrogen "hydrinos" and generate power. The heat exchanger 60 absorbs the heat released by the catalytic reaction as the reaction mixture (consisting of hydrogen and catalyst) reacts to form lower energy hydrogen. The heat exchanger exchanges heat with a steam generator 62, the steam generator 62 absorbs heat from the exchanger 60 and produces steam, the energy reactor 50 further includes a turbine 70 that receives steam from the steam generator 62 and provides mechanical power to a generator 80, the generator 80 converts the steam energy into electrical energy that can be received by a load 90 to produce work or for dissipation.

In one embodiment, the energy reacting mixture 54 contains an energy releasing material 56, such as a solid fuel, supplied through the supply channel 42. The reaction mixture may include a source of hydrogen isotope atoms or a source of molecular hydrogen isotopes, and a source of catalyst 58 that resonantly displaces about m.27.2 eV to form lower energy atomic hydrogen, where m is an integer, preferably less than 400, wherein the reaction to form the lower energy state hydrogen occurs by contacting the hydrogen with the catalyst. The catalyst may be in a molten, liquid, gaseous or solid state. The catalytic reaction releases energy, for example, in the form of heat and forms at least one of lower energy hydrogen isotope atoms, molecules, hydride ions, and lower energy hydrogen compounds. Thus, the power pool also includes a lower energy hydrogen chemical reactor.

The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas, dissociation of water (including thermal dissociation), electrolysis of water, hydrogen from a hydride, or hydrogen from a metal-hydrogen solution. In another embodiment, the molecular hydrogen of the energy release material 56 dissociates to atomic hydrogen by the molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst of the mixture 54. Such dissociation catalysts may also absorb hydrogen, deuterium or tritium atoms and/or molecules and include, for example, elements, compounds, alloys or mixtures of noble metals (e.g., palladium and platinum), refractory metals (e.g., molybdenum and tungsten), transition metals (e.g., nickel and titanium), internal transition elements (e.g., niobium and zirconium), and other metals listed in Mills' prior publications. Preferably, the dissociating agent has a high surface area, e.g., a noble metal such as Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, Re, or Rh, or Al ₂O₃、SiO₂Ni above, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the catalyst is provided by ionization of t electrons of an atom or ion into successive energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m 27.2eV, where t and m are both integers. The catalyst may also be provided by transfer of t electrons between the participating ions. the transfer of t electrons from one ion to another provides a net enthalpy of reaction for the sum of the t ionization energies of the electron donating ions minus the ionization energy of the t electrons of the electron accepting ions equal to about m.27.2 eV (where t and m are integers). In another preferred embodiment, the catalyst comprises MH, such as NaH, having an atom M bound to hydrogen, and the enthalpy of m.27.2 eV is provided by the sum of the M-H bond energy and the ionization energy of t electrons.

In a preferred embodiment, the source of catalyst includes a catalytic material 58 supplied through a catalyst supply channel 41, which typically provides aboutPlus or minus a net enthalpy of 1 eV. Catalysts include those given herein and the atoms, ions, molecules and hydrinos described in Mills prior publications (e.g., Table 4 of PCT/US90/01998 and pages 25-46, 80-108 of PCT/US 94/02219) incorporated herein by reference. In embodiments, the catalyst may comprise a catalyst selected from the group consisting of AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C ₂、N₂、O₂、CO₂、NO₂And NO₃And Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K⁺、He⁺、Na⁺、Rb⁺、Sr⁺、Fe³⁺、Mo²⁺、Mo⁴⁺、In³⁺、He⁺、Ar⁺、Xe⁺、Ar²⁺And H⁺And atoms or ions of Ne 'and H'.

Hydrogen catalyst reactor and power system

In one embodiment of the power system, heat is removed by a heat exchanger having a heat exchange medium. The heat exchanger may be a water wall and the medium may be water. Heat can be transferred directly for space and process heating. Alternatively, the heat exchanger medium, e.g. water, undergoes a phase change, e.g. conversion to steam. This conversion may occur in a steam generator. The steam may be used to generate electricity in heat engines such as steam turbines and generators.

One embodiment of a hydrogen catalyst energy and lower energy hydrogen species generation reactor 5 (for recycling or regenerating a fuel according to the present invention) is shown in fig. 2A and includes a boiler 10 containing a solid fuel reaction mixture 11, a hydrogen source 12, a steam tube and steam generator 13, a power converter such as a turbine 14, a water condenser 16, a make-up water source 17, a solid fuel recycler 18, and a hydrogen-to-hydrogen gas separator 19. In step 1, a solid fuel containing a catalyst source and a hydrogen source is reacted to produce hydrino and lower energy hydrogen products. At step 2, the spent fuel is reprocessed to re-supply the boiler 10 to maintain thermodynamic production. The heat generated in the boiler 10 forms steam in the tubes and steam generators, which is delivered to the turbine 14, which in turn generates electricity by powering one generator 14. In step 3, water is condensed by a water condenser 16. Any water lost may be replenished by the water source 17 to complete the cycle to maintain the conversion of heat to electricity. At step 4, lower energy hydrogen products, such as hydrino compounds and hydrogen dichotomy gas, may be removed and unreacted hydrogen may be sent back to the fuel recycler 18 or hydrogen source 12 to be added back to the fuel consumed to replenish the recycled fuel. The gaseous product and unreacted hydrogen can be separated by a hydrogen-hydrogen dichotomous gas separator 19. Any product hydrino compounds may be separated and removed using the solid fuel recycler 18. The processing can be carried out in the boiler or outside the boiler with the solid fuel being returned. Thus, the system may further comprise at least one gas or briquette transporter to move reactants and products to achieve removal, regeneration, and resupply of spent fuel. Make-up for hydrogen consumed in the formation of hydrinos is added from source 12 during the fuel reprocessing process and may include recycled, unconsumed hydrogen. The recirculated fuel maintains thermodynamic production to drive the power plant to produce electricity.

In a preferred embodiment, the reaction mixture includes species of reactants capable of producing an atomic or molecular catalyst and atomic hydrogen which further react to form hydrinos, and the product species formed by the production of the catalyst and atomic hydrogen can be regenerated by at least the step of reacting the product with hydrogen. In one embodiment, the reactor comprises a moving bed reactor, which may further comprise a fluidized reactor section, wherein reactants are continuously supplied while byproducts are removed and regenerated and returned to the reactor. In one embodiment, lower energy hydrogen products, such as hydrino compounds or hydrogen molecules, are collected as the reactants are regenerated. Also, the hydrido ions can be formed into other compounds or converted into dichotomous hydrogen molecules during regeneration of the reactants.

The power system may further include a catalyst condensing device to maintain catalyst vapor pressure by a temperature control device that controls the surface temperature at a lower value than the reaction cell temperature. The surface temperature is maintained at a desired value that provides the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst condensing means is a grid of tubes in the pool. In embodiments having a heat exchanger, the flow rate of the heat transfer agent can be controlled at a rate that maintains the condenser at a desired lower temperature than the main heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the working medium is water and the flow rate at the condenser is higher than the water wall to keep the condenser at a lower, desired temperature. The separated working medium streams may be remixed and sent for space or process heating or for conversion to steam.

The present invention is further described in Mills' prior publications, which are incorporated herein by reference. The cells of the present invention include those previously described and also include the catalysts, reaction mixtures, methods, and systems disclosed herein. The cell energy reactor, plasma electrolysis reactor, isolated electrode reactor, RF plasma reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, gas discharge energy reactor, microwave cell energy reactor, and combination of a glow discharge cell and a microwave and/or RF plasma reactor of the present invention comprises: a source of hydrogen; a source of solid, molten, liquid and gaseous catalyst; a vessel containing hydrogen and a catalyst, wherein the reaction to form lower energy hydrogen occurs by contacting the hydrogen with the catalyst or by reaction of an MH catalyst; and means for removing the lower energy hydrogen product. For power conversion, each cell type can interface with any of the thermal or plasma to mechanical or electrical power converters described in Mills' prior publications, as well as converters known to those skilled in the art, such as heat engines, steam or gas turbine systems, Stirling engines, or thermionic or thermoelectric converters. Further plasma converters include magnetic mirror magnetic to hydrodynamic power converters, plasma powered power converters, gyrotrons, photon bunching microwave power converters, charge migration power or photoelectric converters as disclosed in Mills' prior publications. In one embodiment, the cell includes at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine as set forth in Mills' prior publications.

Hydrogen pool and solid fuel reactor

According to embodiments of the present invention, the reactor for producing hydrino and power may take the form of a hydrogen pool. The gas pool hydrogen reactor of the present invention is shown in fig. 3A. The reactant hydrinos are provided by catalytic reactions using catalysts. The catalytic reaction may take place in the gas phase or in the solid or liquid state.

The reactor of fig. 3A includes a reaction vessel 207 having a chamber 200 capable of containing a vacuum or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. A hydrogen source 221 in communication with the chamber 200 delivers hydrogen to the chamber through a hydrogen supply channel 242. The controller 222 is positioned to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel through the hydrogen supply line 242. A pressure sensor 223 monitors the pressure in the vessel. A vacuum pump 256 is used to evacuate the chamber through vacuum line 257.

In one embodiment, the catalytic reaction occurs in the gas phase. The catalyst may be made gaseous by maintaining the cell temperature at an elevated temperature, which in turn determines the vapor pressure of the catalyst. The molecular and/or atomic hydrogen reactant is also maintained at the desired pressure, which may be within any pressure range. In one embodiment, the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of about 10 millitorr to 100 torr. In another embodiment, the pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of a source of catalyst, e.g., a metal source, and a corresponding hydride, e.g., a metal hydride, in a cell maintained at a desired operating temperature.

The catalyst source 250 for producing hydrino atoms can be placed in a catalyst reservoir 295 and the gaseous catalyst formed by heating. The reaction vessel 207 has a catalyst supply channel 241 for transporting gaseous catalyst from the catalyst reservoir 295 to the reaction chamber 200. Alternatively, the catalyst may be placed inside a reaction vessel in a chemically resistant open container such as an evaporation dish.

The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas and molecular hydrogen. The hydrogen may be atomic hydrogen dissociated by a molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst. Such dissociation catalysts or agents include, for example, Raney nickel (R-Ni), noble metals, and noble metals on a support. The noble metal may be Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir and Rh, and the carrier may be Ti, Nb, Al₂O₃、SiO₂And combinations thereof. Further dissociating agents are Pt or Pd on carbon, which may include hydrogen spillover catalysts, nickel fiber mats, Pd sheets, Ti wool, Pt or Pd electroplated on Ti or Ni wool or mats, TiH, Pt black and Pd black, refractory metals (e.g., molybdenum and tungsten), transition metals (e.g., nickel and titanium), internal transition elements (e.g., niobium and zirconium), and other metals listed in Mills's prior publications. In a preferred embodiment, hydrogen dissociates on Pt or Pd. Pt or Pd can be coated on a carrier material such as titanium or Al ₂O₃The above. In another embodiment, the dissociating agent is a refractory metal such as molybdenum and tungsten, and the dissociated material may be maintained at an elevated temperature by a temperature control device 230, which temperature control device 230 may take the form of a heating coil as shown in cross-section in FIG. 3A. The heating coils are powered by a power supply 225. Preferably, the dissociated material is maintained at the operating temperature of the cell. The dissociating agent may also be operated at a temperature above the bath temperature to more efficiently dissociate, andthe elevated temperature avoids condensation of the catalyst on the dissociating agent. The hydrogen dissociating agent may also be provided by a hot filament such as 280 powered by a power supply 285.

In one embodiment, hydrogen dissociation occurs such that dissociated hydrogen atoms are contacted with a gaseous catalyst to produce hydrino atoms. The catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at a desired pressure by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 295 with a catalyst reservoir heater 298 powered by a power source 272. When the catalyst is placed in the inner boat, the catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at a desired value by controlling the temperature of the catalyst boat (by adjusting the power supply to the boat). The cell temperature is controlled at a desired operating temperature by a heating coil 230 powered by a power supply 225. The cell (referred to as a permeation cell) may also include an internal reaction chamber 200 and an external hydrogen reservoir 290 so that hydrogen may be supplied to the cell by diffusion of hydrogen through a wall 291 separating the two chambers. The temperature of the wall can be controlled with a heater to control the rate of diffusion. The rate of diffusion can be further controlled by controlling the pressure of the hydrogen in the hydrogen reservoir.

To maintain the catalyst pressure at a desired level, the permeation cell with the hydrogen source may be sealed. Optionally, the cell further comprises a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet, such that the valve contacting the reactant gas mixture is maintained at a desired temperature. The cell may further include an absorbent or trap 255 to selectively collect lower energy hydrogen species and/or hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy, and may further include a selectivity valve 206 for releasing the two-fraction hydrogen gas product.

The catalyst may be at least one of the group of atomic lithium, potassium or cesium, NaH molecules and hydrino atoms, wherein the catalytic reaction comprises a disproportionation reaction. The lithium catalyst can be made gaseous by maintaining the cell temperature in the range of 500-1000 deg.c. Preferably, the cell is maintained in the range of 500-. The cell pressure may be maintained below atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. Most preferably, at least one of the catalyst and hydrogen pressures is determined by maintaining a mixture of the catalyst metal and the corresponding hydride, e.g., lithium and lithium hydride, potassium and potassium hydride, sodium and sodium hydride, cesium and cesium hydride, in a cell maintained at the desired operating temperature. The catalyst in the vapor phase may include lithium atoms from lithium metal or a source of lithium metal. Preferably, the lithium catalyst is maintained at a pressure determined by the mixture of lithium metal and lithium hydride at an operating temperature range of 500-. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

In embodiments of the gas cell reactor that include a catalyst reservoir or boat, gaseous Na, NaH catalyst or gaseous catalyst such as Li, K and Cs vapors are maintained in the cell in a superheated state relative to the vapors in the reservoir or boat that are the source of the cell vapors. In one embodiment, the superheated vapor reduces condensation of the catalyst on the hydrogen dissociating agent or dissociating agent of at least one of the metal and metal hydride molecules disclosed below. In embodiments that include Li as a catalyst from the reservoir or boat, the reservoir or boat is maintained at a temperature at which Li vaporizes. H₂Can be maintained at a pressure below that at which a significant mole fraction of LiH is formed at the reservoir temperature. The pressure and temperature to achieve this condition can be determined from a data sheet of Mueller et al, e.g., H at a given isotherm₂FIG. 6.1[40 ] pressure vs. mole fraction]To be determined. In one embodiment, the cell reaction chamber containing the dissociating agent is operated at a higher temperature so that Li does not condense on the walls or dissociating agent. H₂Can be flowed from the reservoir to the cell to increase catalyst transport rate. Flow, e.g., from a catalyst reservoir to a cell and then out of the cell, is a means of removing the hydrino product to avoid inhibiting the reaction. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

Hydrogen is supplied to the reaction from a hydrogen source. Preferably, the hydrogen is supplied by permeation from a hydrogen reservoir. The pressure of the hydrogen reservoir may be in the range of 10 torr to 10,000 torr, preferably in the range of 100 torr to 1000 torr, and most preferably about atmospheric pressure. The cell may be operated at a temperature of about 100 ℃ to 3000 ℃, preferably at a temperature of about 100 ℃ to 1500 ℃, and most preferably at a temperature of about 500 ℃ to 800 ℃.

The hydrogen source may come from the decomposition of the added hydride. Supplying H by osmosis₂The cell design of (a) is one that includes placing an internal metal hydride in a sealed container, where atomic H permeates out at high temperatures. The vessel may contain Pd, Ni, Ti or Nb. In one embodiment, the hydride is placed in a sealed tube containing the hydride, such as an Nb tube, and sealed at both ends with sealers, such as Swagelocks. In the case of sealing, the hydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride. Alternatively, in this case, and in the case of an internal hydride reagent, the hydride may be W.M. Mueller et al [40 ]]At least one of the group of hydrides of salts given in (1), titanium hydrides, vanadium, niobium and tantalum hydrides, zirconium and hafnium hydrides, rare earth metal hydrides, yttrium and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetallic hydrides, and alloys thereof.

In one embodiment, the hydride having an operating temperature of ± 200 ℃ based on the decomposition temperature of each hydride is at least one of the following list:

a rare earth metal hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃, a lanthanum hydride having an operating temperature of about 700 ℃, a gadolinium hydride having an operating temperature of about 750 ℃, a neodymium hydride having an operating temperature of about 750 ℃, a yttrium hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃, a scandium hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃, an ytterbium hydride having an operating temperature of about 850 ℃ - & 900 ℃, titanium hydride having an operating temperature of about 450 ℃, cerium hydride having an operating temperature of about 950 ℃, praseodymium hydride having an operating temperature of about 700 ℃, zirconium-titanium (50%/50%) hydride having an operating temperature of about 600 ℃, an alkali metal/alkali metal hydride mixture such as Rb/RbH or K/KH having an operating temperature of about 450 ℃, and an alkaline earth metal/alkaline earth metal hydride mixture such as Ba/BaH having an operating temperature of about 900-.₂。

The metal in the gaseous state comprises a diatomic covalent molecule. It is an object of the present invention to provide atomic catalysts such as Li as well as K and Cs. Thus, the reactor may further comprise a dissociating agent for at least one of metal molecules ("MM") and metal hydride molecules ("MH"). Preferably, the source of catalyst, H ₂The source and dissociating agents for MM, MH and HH (where M is an atomic catalyst) are matched to operate under the desired pool conditions, e.g., temperature and reactant concentration. In the use of H₂In the case of a hydride source of (c), in one embodiment, the decomposition temperature is within a temperature range that produces the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst. In the case of permeation of a hydrogen source from a hydrogen reservoir to the reaction chamber, the preferred catalyst sources for continuous operation are Sr and Li metals, as the vapor pressure of each can be in the desired range of 0.01 to 100 torr at the temperature at which the permeation occurs. In other embodiments of the permeation cell, the cell is operated at an elevated temperature that allows permeation, after which the cell temperature is reduced to a temperature that maintains the vapor pressure of the volatile catalyst at the desired pressure.

In the gas cell embodiment, the dissociating agent constitutes the means for generating the catalyst and H from the source. Surface catalysts such as Pt or Pd on Ti, iridium, or rhodium alone or on a substrate such as Ti can also function as molecular dissociators for the combination of catalyst and hydrogen atoms. Preferably, the dissociating agent has a high surface area such as Pt/Al₂O₃Or Pd/Al₂O₃。

H₂The source may also be H₂A gas. In this example, the pressure may be monitored and controlled. In the presence of a catalyst and a source of the catalyst such as K or Cs metal and LiNH, respectively ₂This is possible because they are volatile at low temperatures, allowing the use of high temperature valves. LiNH₂The necessary operating temperature of the Li cell is also reduced and less corrosive, allowing long term operation using the feed in the case of a plasma of the filament cell with the filament as hydrogen dissociator.

Yet another embodiment of a gas pool hydrogen reactor with NaH as catalyst comprises having an ion in the reactor poolFilaments of lytic agent and Na in the reservoir. H₂May flow through the reservoir to the main chamber. The power can be controlled by controlling the airflow speed H₂Pressure and Na vapor pressure. The latter can be controlled by controlling the reservoir temperature. In another embodiment, the hydrino reaction is initiated by heating using an external heater and the atomic H is provided by a dissociating agent.

The invention also relates to other reactors for producing the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the invention, such as the di-and hydrino compounds. Further products of the catalytic reaction are plasma, light and kinetic. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as "Hydrogen reactor'or'Hydrogen tank". The hydrogen reactor includes a pool for producing hydrinos. The cell used to generate the hydrinos may take the form of, for example, a gas cell, a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave powered cell. These exemplary cells are disclosed in Mills prior publications and are not meant to be exhaustive. Each of these pools includes: a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one of a solid, molten, liquid or gaseous catalyst for the production of hydrinos; and a vessel for reacting the hydrogen and the catalyst to produce hydrino. As used herein and as contemplated by the subject invention, the term "hydrogen" includes not only protium(s) ((s)) ¹H) And also includes deuterium (²H) And tritium (f)³H)。

Hydrogen discharge power and plasma pool and reactor

The hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor of the present invention are shown in fig. 4A. The hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor of fig. 4A includes a gas discharge cell 307 comprising a hydrogen filled glow discharge vacuum vessel 315 having a chamber 300. The hydrogen source 322 supplies hydrogen to the chamber 300 through the hydrogen supply passage 342 via the control valve 325. The catalyst is contained in the cell chamber 300. A voltage and current source 330 facilitates the passage of current between the cathode 305 and the anode 320. The current may be reversible.

In one embodiment, the material of cathode 305 may Be a source of catalyst such as Fe, Dy, Be, or Pd. In another embodiment of the hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor, the wall 313 of the vessel is electrically conductive and functions as a cathode for the replacement electrode 305, while the anode 320 may be a hollow, e.g., stainless steel, hollow anode. The discharge may vaporize the catalyst source into a catalyst. Molecular hydrogen can be dissociated by electrical discharge to form hydrogen atoms for the production of hydrinos and energy. Additional dissociation may be provided by a hydrogen dissociating agent in the chamber.

Another embodiment of the hydrogen discharge power in which the catalysis takes place in the gas phase and the plasma cell and reactor utilizes a controllable gaseous catalyst. The gaseous hydrogen atoms for conversion to hydrino are provided by the discharge of molecular hydrogen gas. The gas discharge cell 307 has a catalyst supply passage 341 for transporting the gaseous catalyst 350 from the catalyst reservoir 395 to the reaction chamber 300. The catalyst library 395 is heated by a catalyst library heater 392 having a power source 372 to provide gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber 300. The catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by controlling the temperature of catalyst reservoir 395 (by adjusting heater 392 by means of its power supply 372). The reactor also includes a selective ventilation valve 301. A chemically resistant open container, such as a stainless steel, tungsten or ceramic boat, placed inside the gas discharge cell may contain the catalyst. The catalyst in the catalyst boat is heated using a boat heater associated with a power source to provide gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber. Alternatively, the glow gas discharge cell is operated at an elevated temperature to cause the catalyst in the boat to sublimate, boil, or evaporate into the gas phase. The catalyst vapor pressure was controlled by controlling the temperature of the boat and cell (by adjusting the heater with its power supply). To avoid condensation of catalyst in the cell, the temperature is maintained at a temperature above the temperature of the catalyst source, catalyst reservoir 395 or catalyst evaporation dish.

In a preferred embodiment, the catalysis occurs in the gas phase, lithium is the catalyst, and a source of atomic lithium, e.g., lithium metal or a lithium compound such as LiNH, is maintained in the range of about 300-1000 ℃ by maintaining the cell temperature₂It becomes gaseous. Most preferably, the cell is maintained in the range of about 500-. The atomic and/or molecular hydrogen reactant may be maintained at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. Most preferably, the pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of lithium metal and lithium hydride in a chamber maintained at a desired operating temperature. The operating temperature range is preferably in the range of about 300 ℃ - > 1000 ℃ and most preferably the pressure is the pressure reached by the cell at the operating temperature range of about 300 ℃ - > 750 ℃. The cell may be controlled at a desired operating temperature by a heating coil, such as 308 in fig. 4A powered by power supply 385. The cell may also include an internal reaction chamber 300 and an external hydrogen reservoir 390 to allow hydrogen to be supplied to the cell by diffusion of hydrogen through the wall 313 separating the two chambers. The temperature of the wall can be controlled with a heater to control the rate of diffusion. The rate of diffusion can be further controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure in the hydrogen reservoir.

Embodiments of the plasma cell of the present invention regenerate reactants such as Li and LiNH₂. In one embodiment, the reactions given by formulas (32) and (37) produce the hydrino reactants Li and H with a large excess of energy released due to hydrino formation. The product is then hydrogenated by a hydrogen source. In the case of LiH formation, the reaction of one of the catalytic reactants to regenerate the lower energy hydrogen is given by equation (66). This can be achieved with the reactants placed in a reaction zone in the plasma cell, for example in the cathode zone in a hydrogen plasma cell. The reaction may be

LiH+e^-Formation of Li and H- (30)

And then react

Li₂NH+H^-Formation of Li + LiNH₂ (31)

Li + LiNH that may occur to some extent to maintain steady state levels₂。H₂The pressure, electron density and energy can be controlled to obtain the maximum or desired degree of reaction to regenerate the hydrino reactant Li+LiNH₂。

In one embodiment, the mixture is stirred or mixed during the plasma reaction. In yet another embodiment of the plasma regeneration system and method of the present invention, the cell comprises a heated flat bottom stainless steel plasma chamber. LiH and Li₂NH constitutes a mixture of molten Li. Since stainless steel is not magnetic, the liquid mixture can be stirred with a stainless steel coated stir bar driven by a stirring motor on which the flat-bottom plasma reactor is located. The Li-metal mixture may act as a cathode. From LiH to Li and H ^-Reduction of (2) and H^-+Li₂NH to Li and LiNH₂Can be monitored by XRD and FTIR of the product.

In the presence of a catalyst containing Li, LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、LiNO₃、LiX、NH₄X (X is halide), NH₃And H₂In another embodiment of the system of the reaction mixture of substances of group (b), at least one reactant is regenerated by adding one or more reagents and by plasma regeneration. The plasma may be a gas such as NH₃And H₂One kind of (1). The plasma may be maintained in situ (in the reaction cell) or in an external cell in communication with the reaction cell. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, where the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

To maintain the catalyst pressure at a desired level, the cell with the permeate as a source of hydrogen may be sealed. Optionally, the cell further comprises a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet, such that the valve contacting the reactant gas mixture is maintained at a desired temperature.

The plasma cell temperature can be independently controlled over a wide range by insulating the cell and by using supplemental heating power to the heater 380. The control of the catalyst vapor pressure can be independent of the plasma dynamics.

The discharge voltage may be in the range of about 100 to 10,000 volts. The current may be in any desired range at a desired voltage. Also, the Plasma may be Pulsed as disclosed in Mills' prior publication, e.g., PCT/US04/10608 entitled "Pulsed Plasma Power cells and Novel Spectral Lines," which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Boron nitride may constitute a feed for the plasma cell because this material is stable to Li vapor. Crystalline or transparent alumina is another stable feed material of the present invention.

Solid fuel and hydrogen catalyst reactor

The metal in the gaseous state comprises a diatomic covalent molecule. It is an object of the present invention to provide atomic catalysts such as Li as well as K and Cs and molecular catalysts NaH. Thus, in embodiments of the solid fuel, the reactant comprises an alloy, complex, or source of a complex that is reversibly formed with the metal catalyst M and decomposes or reacts to provide a gaseous catalyst, such as Li. In another embodiment, at least one of the catalyst source and the atomic hydrogen source further comprises at least one reactant that reacts to form at least one of a catalyst and atomic hydrogen. In one embodiment, the one or more sources include an amide such as LiNH₂Imides such as Li₂NH, nitrides, e.g. Li₃N and has NH₃At least one of the catalyst metals of (1). The reaction of these species provides both Li atoms and atomic hydrogen. These and other embodiments are given below, where, additionally, K, Cs and Na can be substituted for Li, and the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

The invention includes an energy reactor comprising a reaction vessel constructed and arranged to contain a pressure below, equal to, or above atmospheric pressure, a source of atomic hydrogen in communication with the vessel for chemically generating atomic hydrogen, a source of a catalyst containing at least one of atomic lithium, atomic cesium, atomic potassium, and molecular NaH in communication with the vessel, and may further comprise an absorbent such as a source of an ionic compound for binding to or reacting with a lower energy hydride. The source of catalyst and reactant atomic hydrogen may comprise a solid fuel, which may be regenerated inside or outside of the cell, either continuously or in batches, with a physical process or chemical reaction producing catalyst and H from the source such that an H-catalyzed reaction occurs and forms hydrinos. Thus, embodiments of the present invention of the hydrino reactant include solid fuels, and preferred embodiments include those solid fuels that can be regenerated. Solid fuels can be used in many applications ranging from space and process heating, power generation, power applications, propellants, and other applications well known to those skilled in the art.

Gas or plasma cells of the invention, such as those shown in fig. 3A and 4A, include apparatus for forming catalyst and H atoms from a source. In embodiments of the solid fuel, the pool also includes reactants to provide the catalyst and H at the start of the chemical or physical process. The initiation may be by means of, for example, heating or plasma reaction. It is preferred to maintain the external power requirements for hydrino generation low or zero based on the large power of the hydrino-forming H-catalyzed reaction. With large energy gains, the reactants can be regenerated due to the net release of energy per reaction and regeneration cycle.

In other embodiments, the reactor shown in fig. 3A comprises a solid fuel reactor, wherein the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst source and a hydrogen source. The reaction mixture may be regenerated by providing a flow of reactants and by removing products from the respective product mixture. In one embodiment, the reaction vessel 207 has a chamber 200 capable of containing a vacuum or a pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. At least one source of reagent, such as gaseous reagent 221, communicates with the chamber 200 and transports the reagent to the chamber through at least one reagent supply channel 242. The controller 222 is positioned to control the pressure and flow of reagents into the vessel through the reagent supply channel 242. A pressure sensor 223 monitors the pressure in the vessel. A vacuum pump 256 is used to evacuate the chamber through a vacuum line 257. Alternatively, line 257 represents at least one output pathway, such as a product channel line, for removing material from the reactor. The reactor also includes a heat source, such as heater 230, to raise the reactants to a desired temperature to initiate the catalytic reaction of the solid fuel chemistry and formation of hydrinos. In one embodiment, the temperature is in the range of about 50 to 1000 ℃; preferably, the temperature is in the range of about 100-600 deg.C, and for reactants containing at least a Li/N-alloy system, a temperature in the range of about 100-500 deg.C is desirable.

The cell may also include a source of hydrogen gas and a dissociating agent that forms atomic hydrogen. The vessel may further comprise a hydrogen source 221 in communication with the vessel for regenerating at least one of an atomic catalyst, such as a source of atomic lithium and an atomic hydrogen source. The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas. H₂Gas may be supplied by hydrogen line 242 or permeated from hydrogen reservoir 290. In an exemplary regeneration reaction, sources of atomic lithium and atomic hydrogen may be generated by hydrogen addition according to equations (66-71). The first step of the optional regeneration reaction is given by equation (69).

In one embodiment, the cell size and materials are such that high operating temperatures can be obtained. The cell may be sized for power output to achieve a desired operating temperature. The high temperature materials used for cell construction are niobium and high temperature stainless steels such as Hastalloy. H₂May be other than LiNH₂Internal metal hydrides that react but only release H at very high temperatures. Also, even when the hydride is not reacted with LiNH₂In the case of reaction, hydrides can be reacted with reagents such as Li and LiNH by placing them in open or closed containers in a cell₂And (4) separating. Supplying H by osmosis₂The cell design of (a) is a cell design comprising an internal metal hydride placed in a sealed container in which the atoms H are permeated at high temperatures.

The reactor may also include means for separating the components of the product mixture such as a screen for mechanical separation by differences in physical properties such as size. The reactor may also include means for separating one or more components based on different phase changes and reactions. In one embodiment, the phase change comprises melting using a heater and the liquid is separated from the solid by methods known in the art such as gravity filtration, filtration using pressurized gas assist, and centrifugation. The reaction may comprise a decomposition, e.g. a hydride decomposition or a hydride forming reaction, and the separation may be obtained by melting the corresponding metal and then separating it and by mechanically separating the hydride, respectively. The latter can be obtained by sieving. In one embodiment, the phase change or reaction may result in the desired reactants or intermediates. In embodiments, regeneration, including any desired separation steps, may occur inside or outside the reactor.

Chemical reactor

The chemical reactor of the present invention also includes a source of an inorganic compound such as MX (where M is an alkali metal and X is a halide). In addition to halides, the inorganic compounds may be alkali or alkaline earth metal salts such as hydroxides, oxides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, borates and silicates (other suitable inorganic compounds are described in d.r. lide, CRC Handbook of chemistry and Physics (CRC Handbook of chemistry and Physics), 86 th edition, CRC Press, Taylor, incorporated herein by reference &Francis, Boca Raton, (2005-6), pages 4-45 to 4-97). Inorganic compounds can also act as absorbents in power generation by preventing product build-up and consequent back reactions or other product inhibition. Preferred Li chemistry type power cells contain Li, LiNH₂LiBr or LiI, and R-Ni in the hydrogen cell at about 760 Torr H₂And about 700+ ° c. A preferred NaH chemistry type power cell contains Na, NaX (X is a halide, preferably Br or I) and R-Ni in the hydrogen cell is at about 760 Torr H₂And about 700+ ° c. The cell may also include NaH and NaNH₂At least one of (1). The preferred K chemistry type power cell contains K, KI and the Ni sieve or R-Ni dissociating agent in the hydrogen cell is at about 760 Torr H₂And about 700+ ° c. In one embodiment, H₂The pressure range is about 1 torr to 10⁵And (4) supporting. Preferably the H pressure is maintained in the range of about 760 and 1000 torr. LiHX, such as LiHBr and LiHI, are typically synthesized at temperatures in the range of about 450-550 deg.C, but can be run at lower temperatures (350 deg.C.) in the presence of LiH. NaHX such as NaHBr and NaHI are typically synthesized at a temperature range of about 450-. KHX, such as KHI, is preferably synthesized at a temperature range of about 450-. In embodiments of the NaHX and KHX reactor, the NaHX and K are supplied from a source, such as a catalyst reservoir, wherein the cell temperature is maintained at a temperature level that is higher than the temperature level of the catalyst reservoir. Preferably, the wells are maintained at a temperature in the range of about 300-550 ℃ and the reservoirs are maintained at a lower temperature in the range of about 50-200 ℃.

Another embodiment of a hydrogen reactor having NaH as a catalyst comprises a plasma torch for generating power and a binding energy increasing hydrogen compound such as NaHX (where H is binding energy increasing hydrogen and X is a halide). At least one of NaF, NaCl, NaBr, NaI can be in a plasma gas such as H₂Or noble gas/hydrogen mixtures, e.g. He/H₂Or Ar/H₂Is aerosolized.

Common solid fuel chemistry

The reaction mixture of the present invention includes a catalyst or a source of a catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen (H), wherein at least one of the catalyst and the atomic hydrogen is released by a chemical reaction of at least one species of the reaction mixture or a chemical reaction between two or more species of the reaction mixture. Preferably, the reaction is reversible. Preferably, the energy released is greater than the enthalpy of the catalyst and reactant hydrogen forming reaction, and in the case where the reactants of the reaction mixture are regenerated and recycled, preferably the net enthalpy is released during the cycle of reaction and regeneration due to the substantial energy of formation of the product H state given by equation (1). The substance may be at least one of an element, an alloy, or a compound, such as a molecule or an inorganic compound, each of which may be at least one of a reagent or a product in the reactor. In one embodiment, the substance may form an alloy or compound, such as a molecular or inorganic compound, having at least one of hydrogen and a catalyst. One or more of the reaction mixture species may form one or more reaction product species such that the energy to release H or free catalyst is reduced relative to an example where no reaction product species are formed. Where the reactants provide a catalyst and atomic hydrogen to form a state having an energy level given by equation (1), the reactants include at least one of solid, liquid (including molten), and gaseous reactants. The reaction of forming the catalyst and atomic hydrogen to form states having energy levels given by equation (1) occurs in one or more of a solid phase, a liquid phase (including a molten phase), and a gas phase. Exemplary solid fuel reactions are given herein, and these exemplary solid fuel reactions are certainly not intended to be limiting, as other reactions containing additional reagents are within the scope of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the reaction product species is an alloy or compound of the catalyst and at least one of hydrogen or a source thereof. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture species is a catalyst hydride and the reaction product species is a catalyst alloy or compound having a relatively low hydrogen content. The energy of H release from the hydride of the catalyst can be reduced by alloying or forming a second compound with at least one other species, such as an element or a first compound. In one embodiment, the catalyst is one of Li, K, Cs and NaH molecules, and the hydride is one of LiH, KH, CsH, NaH (solid), while the at least one other element is selected from the group of M (catalyst), Al, B, Si, C, N, Sn, Te, P, S, Ni, Ta, Pt and Pd. The first compound and the second compound may be H₂、H₂O、NH₃、NH₄X (X is a counter ion such as a halide, other anions are described in D.R. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics), 86 th edition, CRC Press, Taylor, incorporated herein by reference&Francis, Boca Raton, (2005-6), pages 4-45 to 4-97), MX, MNO₃、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆、MBH₄、M₃N、M₂NH and MNH₂Wherein M is an alkali metal which can act as a catalyst. In another embodiment, a hydride containing at least one other element than the catalyst element releases H by reversible decomposition.

One or more of the reaction mixture species may form one or more reaction product species such that the energy released from the free catalyst is reduced relative to an example where no reaction product species are formed. Reactive species such as alloys or compounds may release free catalyst by reversible reaction or decomposition. Likewise, a free catalyst may be formed by the reversible reaction of a catalyst source with at least one other species, such as an element or a first compound, to form a species, such as an alloy or a second compound. The element or compound may include at least one of M (catalyst atom), H, Al, B, Si, C, N, Sn, Te, P, S, Ni, Ta, Pt, and Pd. The first compound and the second compound may be H₂、NH₃、NH₄X (wherein X is a counter ion such as a halide), MMX, MNO₃、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆、MBH₄、M₃N、M₂NH and MNH₂Wherein M is an alkali metal which can act as a catalyst. The catalyst may be one of Li, K and Cs and NaH molecules. The catalyst source may be M-M such as LiLi, KK, CsCs, and NaNa. The H source may be MH such as LiH, KH, CsH, or NaH (solid).

The Li catalyst may be alloyed or reacted with at least one other element or compound to form a compound such that the energy barrier for releasing H from LiH or Li from LiH and LiLi molecules is reduced. Alloys or compounds may also release H or Li by decomposition or reaction with other reactive species. The alloy or compound may be LiAlH ₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiBH₄、Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂LiX and LiNO₃One or more of (a). The alloy or compound may be one or more of Li/Ni, Li/Ta, Li/Pd, Li/Te, Li/C, Li/Si, and Li/Sn, where the stoichiometry of Li and any other elements of the alloy or compound is varied to obtain optimal release of Li and H, which then react during the catalytic reaction to form hydrogen in a lower energy state. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In one embodiment, the alloy or compound has the formula M_xE_yWhere M is a catalyst such as Li, K, or Cs, or M is Na, E is other elements, and x and y indicate stoichiometry. M and E_yMay be in any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, x is in the range of 1 to 50 and y is in the range of 1 to 50, and preferably, x is in the range of 1 to 10 and y is in the range of 1 to 10.

In another embodiment, the alloy or compound has the formula M_xE_yE_zWhere M is a catalyst such as Li, K, or Cs, or M is Na, E_yIs the first other element, E_zIs the second other element, and x, y and z indicate stoichiometry. M, E_yAnd E_zMay be in any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, x is in the range of 1 to 50, y is in the range of 1 to 50 and z is in the range of 1 to 50, and preferably, x is in the range of 1 to 10, y is in the range of 1 to 10 and z is in the range of 1 to 10. In a preferred embodiment, E _yAnd E_zSelected from the group of H, N, C, Si and Sn. The alloy or compound may be Li_xC_ySi_z、Li_xSn_ySi_z、Li_xN_ySi_z、Li_xSn_yC_z、Li_xN_ySn_z、Li_xC_yN_z、Li_xC_yH_z、Li_xSn_yH_z、Li_xN_yH_zAnd Li_xSi_yH_zAt least one of (1). In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In another embodiment, the alloy or compound has the formula M_xE_wE_yE_zWhere M is a catalyst such as Li, K, or Cs, or M is Na, E_wIs the first other element, E_yIs a second other element, E_zIs a third other element, and x, w, y and z indicate chemistryAnd (6) metering. M, E_y、E_yAnd E_zMay be in any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, x is in the range of 1 to 50, w is in the range of 1 to 50, y is in the range of 1 to 50 and z is in the range of 1 to 50, and preferably, x is in the range of 1 to 10, w is in the range of 1 to 10, y is in the range of 1 to 10 and z is in the range of 1 to 10. In a preferred embodiment, E_w、E_yAnd E_ZSelected from the group of H, N, C, Si and Sn. The alloy or compound may be Li_xH_wC_ySi_z、Li_xH_wSn_ySi_z、Li_xH_wN_ySi_z、Li_xH_wSn_yC_z、Li_xH_wN_ySn_zAnd Li_xH_wC_yN_zAt least one of (a). In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH. Substances such as M_xE_wE_yE_zAre exemplary and certainly not intended to be limiting as other substances containing additional elements are within the scope of the invention.

In one embodiment, the reaction includes a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of Li catalyst. The reaction includes reaction from hydrogen dissociating agent, H₂Atomic hydrogen source, Li, LiH, LiNO₃、LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、LiX、NH₃、LiBH₄、LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、NH₃And NH₄X (where X is a counter ion such as a halide) and CRC [41]One or more substances from the group of those given in (1). The weight% of the reactants may be in any desired molar range. The reagents can be mixed well using a ball mill.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of catalyst and a source of H. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises reactants that undergo a reaction to form a Li catalyst and atomic hydrogen. The reactant may comprise H₂Hydrino catalyst, MNH₂、M₂NH、M₃N、NH₃、LiX、NH₄X (X is a counter ion such as a halide), MNO₃、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆And MBH₄Wherein M is an alkali metal which can act as a catalyst. The reaction mixture may include a material selected from the group consisting of Li, LiH, LiNO₃、LiNO、LiNO₂、Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂、LiX、NH₃、LiBH₄、LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiOH、Li₂S、LiHS、LiFeSi、Li₂CO₃、LiHCO₃、Li₂SO₄、LiHSO₄、Li₃PO₄、Li₂HPO₄、LiH₂PO₄、Li₂MoO₄、LiNbO₃、Li₂B₄O₇(lithium tetraborate), LiBO₂、Li₂WO₄、LiAlCl₄、LiGaCl₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂TiO₃、LiZrO₃、LiAlO₂、LiCoO₂、LiGaO₂、Li₂GeO₃、LiMn₂O₄、Li₄SiO₄、Li₂SiO₃、LiTaO₃、LiCuCl₄、LiPdCl₄、LiVO₃、LiIO₃、LiFeO₂、LiIO₄，LiClO₄、LiScO_n、LiTiO_n、LiVO_n、LiCrO_n、LiCr₂O_n、LiMn₂O_n、LiFeO_n、LiCoO_n、LiNiO_n、LiNi₂O_n、LiCuO_nAnd LiZnO_n(wherein n ═ 1, 2, 3, or 4), oxyanions (oxyanion), oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizing agents, molecular oxidizing agents such as V₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂And NH₄X (wherein X is nitrate orCRC[41]Other suitable anions given in (a) and a reducing agent. In each instance, the mixture further comprises hydrogen or a source of hydrogen. In other embodiments, where the atomic hydrogen and optional atomic catalyst are chemically generated by reaction of a mixture of species, other dissociating agents may or may not be used. In yet another embodiment, a reactant catalyst may be added to the reaction mixture.

The reaction mixture may also include, for example, H₂SO₃、H₂SO₄、H₂CO₃、HNO₂、HNO₃、HClO₄、H₃PO₃And H₃PO₄Or an acid source such as an anhydrous acid. The latter may include at least one of the following: SO (SO)₂、SO₃、CO₂、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₅、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅。

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises a reactant catalyst to produce reactants that are a lower energy hydrogen catalyst or a source of a lower energy catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen. Suitable reactant catalysts include at least one of the group of sources of acids, bases, halide ions, metal ions, and free radicals. The reactant catalyst may be at least one of the following group: weakly basic catalysts such as Li₂SO₄Weak acid catalysts, e.g. solid acids such as LiHSO₄The source of metal ions being, for example, Ti provided separately³⁺And Al³⁺Ionic TiCl₃Or AlCl₃Free radical sources such as CoX₂(wherein X is a halide such as Cl, wherein Co²⁺Can be reacted with O₂React to form O₂ ^-Group), metals such as Ni, Fe, Co (preferably at a concentration of about 1 mol%), X^-Ion source (X is halide) such as Cl from LiX^-Or F^-Free radical initiator/extender sources such as peroxides, azo compounds and UV light.

In one embodiment, the reactant mixture that forms the lower energy hydrogen contains at least one of a hydrogen source, a catalyst source, and an absorbent for hydrino and an absorbent for electrons from the catalyst when ionized to resonantly accept energy from atomic hydrogen to form hydrino having an energy given by equation (1). The fractional hydrogen absorber can be coupled to lower energy hydrogen to prevent a back reaction to normal hydrogen. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an absorbent for hydrino such as LiX or Li ₂X (X is halide or other anion e.g. from CRC [41 ]]The anion of (a). The electron absorber can perform the absorption of electrons from the catalyst and stabilize catalyst-ion intermediates such as Li²⁺At least one of the intermediates to allow the catalytic reaction to occur with rapid kinetics. The absorbent may be an inorganic compound containing at least one cation and one anion. The cation may be Li⁺. The anion may be halide or CRC [41 ]]Other anions given in (A) include, for example, F^-、Cl^-、Br^-、I^-、NO₃ ^-、NO₂ ^-、SO₄ ^2-、HSO₄ ^-、CoO₂ ^-、IO₃ ^-、IO₄ ^-、TiO₃ ^-、CrO₄ ^-、FeO₂ ^-、PO₄ ^3-、HPO₄ ^2-、H₂PO₄ ^-、VO₃ ^-、ClO₄ ^-And Cr₂O₇ ^2-And other anions of the reactants. The hydride binder and/or stabilizer may be at least one of the group of LiX (X ═ halide) and other compounds comprising the reactants.

In reaction mixtures of, for example, Li, LiNH₂And X (where X is a hydride binding compound), X is at least one of LiHBr, LiHI, a hydrido compound, and a lower energy hydrogen compound. In one embodiment, the catalyst reaction mixture is passed over hydrogen from a hydrogen sourceAdded to regenerate.

In one embodiment, the hydrino products can be combined to form a stable hydrino mixture. The hydride binder may be LiX, where X is a halide or other anion. The hydride binder can react with hydrides having NMR high field shifts greater than TMS. The binder may be an alkali metal halide and the product of hydride bonding may be an alkali metal hydride halide having a NMR high field shift greater than TMS. The hydride may have a binding energy of 11eV to 12eV as determined by XPS. In one embodiment, the product of the catalytic reaction is hydrogen molecules H trapped in a crystalline ionic lattice with a solid NMR peak at about 1ppm and a binding energy of about 250eV relative to TMS ₂(1/4). In one embodiment, product H₂(1/4) is trapped in the crystal lattice of the ionic compound in the reactor such that the selection rule for infrared absorption is such that the molecule becomes IR active and is at about 1990cm^-1FTIR peaks were observed.

Additional sources of atomic Li of the present invention include additional alloys of Li, such as those containing Li with at least one of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, rare earth metals, noble metals, tin, aluminum, other group III and group IV metals, actinides, and lanthanides. Some representative alloys include one or more members of the group of LiBi, LiAg, LiIn, LiMg, LiAl, LiMgSi, LiFeSi, LiZr, LiAlCu, LiAlZr, LiAlMg, LiB, LiCa, LiZn, LiBSi, LiNa, LiCu, LiPt, LiCaNa, LiAlCuMgZr, LiPb, LiCaK, LiV, LiSn, and LiNi. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

In another embodiment, the anion may form a hydrogen-type bond with the Li atom of the covalently bonded Li-Li molecule. This hydrogen-type bond weakens the Li-Li bond to the point where the Li atom is at vacuum energy (equivalent to a free atom) so that it can act as a catalyst atom to form hydrinos. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In one embodiment, the function of the hydrogen dissociating agent is provided by a chemical reaction. The atom H results from the reaction of a reaction mixture of at least two substances or the decomposition of at least one substance. In one embodiment, Li-Li is mixed with LiNH₂React to form atomic Li, atomic H and Li₂And (4) NH. The atomic Li may also be bonded to LiNO₃Or decomposition or reaction of (a). In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In yet another embodiment, in addition to the catalyst or catalyst source that forms the lower energy hydrogen, the reaction mixture includes a heterogeneous catalyst to dissociate MM and MH, such as LiLi and LiH, to provide M and H atoms. The heterogeneous catalyst may comprise at least one element from the group of transition elements, noble metals, rare earth metals and other metals and elements such as Mo, W, Ta, Ni, Pt, Pd, Ti, Al, Fe, Ag, Cr, Cu, Zn, Co and Sn.

In embodiments of Li-carbon alloys, the reaction mixture includes an excess of Li beyond the limit of Li-carbon intercalation reactions. The excess may be in the range of 1% and 1000%, preferably in the range of 1% to 10%. The carbon may also include a hydrogen spillover catalyst with a hydrogen dissociating agent such as Pd or Pt on activated carbon. In yet another embodiment, the cell temperature exceeds the temperature at which Li is fully intercalated into carbon. The cell temperature may be in the range of about 100 to 2000 ℃, preferably in the range of about 200 to 800 ℃, and most preferably in the range of about 300 to 700 ℃. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In the Li silicon alloy embodiment, the bath temperature is in a range that exceeds the temperature at which the silicon alloy, which also contains H, releases atomic hydrogen. The range may be about 50-1500 ℃, preferably about 100 to 800 ℃, and most preferably about 100 to 500 ℃. The hydrogen pressure may be about 0.01 to 10⁵Torr, preferably in the range of about 10 to 5000 torr, and most preferably in the range of 0.1 to 760 torr. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalystIs an atom K, an atom Cs and a molecule NaH.

Reaction mixtures, alloys, and compounds can be formed by mixing a catalyst, such as Li or a source of the catalyst, such as a catalyst hydride, with other elements or compounds or sources of other elements or compounds, such as hydrides of other elements. The catalyst hydride may be LiH, KH, CsH or NaH. The reagents may be mixed by a ball mill. The alloy of the catalyst may also be formed from a source containing an alloy of the catalyst and at least one other element or compound.

In one embodiment, the reaction mechanism of the Li/N system to form the hydrino reactants of atomic Li and H is

LiNH₂+ Li-Li to Li + H + Li₂NH (32)

In other embodiments of Li alloy systems, the reaction mechanism is similar to that of Li/N systems with other alloying elements substituted for N. An exemplary reaction mechanism for conducting the reaction to form the fractional hydrogen reactants (atomic Li and H) involving a reaction mixture containing Li together with at least one of S, Sn, Si, and C is

SH + Li-Li to Li + H + LiS (33)

SnH + Li-Li to Li + H + LiSn (34)

SiH + Li-Li to Li + H + LiSi and (35)

CH + Li-Li yielding Li + H + LiC, (36)

A preferred embodiment of the Li/S alloy catalyst system comprises a catalyst system with Li₂Li with S and Li with LiHS. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

Primary Li/N alloyGold reaction

Lithium in solid and liquid form is a metal, while the gas contains covalent Li₂A molecule. To produce atomic lithium, the reaction mixture of the solid fuel contains Li/N alloy reactants. The reaction mixture may include Li, LiH, LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、NH₃Dissociating agents, sources of hydrogen such as H₂A gas or hydride, a carrier, and an absorbent such as LiX (X being a halide). The dissociating agent is preferably Pt or Pd on a high surface area support inert to Li. The dissociating agent may comprise Pt or Pd on carbon, or Pd/Al₂O₃. The latter support may comprise a material such as LiAlO₂Protective surface coating of (2). For reagent mixtures containing Li/N alloys or Na/N alloys, the preferred dissociating agent is Al ₂O₃Pt or Pd on carbon, Raney nickel (R-Ni), and Pt or Pd on carbon. The carrier of the dissociating agent is Al₂O₃In this case, the reactor temperature may be maintained below a temperature that causes it to react significantly with Li. The temperature may be below the range of about 250 ℃ to 600 ℃. In another embodiment, Li is in the form of LiH, and the reaction mixture comprises LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、NH₃Dissociating agents, sources of hydrogen such as H₂One or more of a gas or hydride, a carrier, and an absorbent such as LiX (X is a halide), wherein LiH is associated with Al₂O₃The reaction of (a) is significantly endothermic. In other embodiments, the dissociating agent may be separated from the equilibrium reactants, wherein the separator passes the H atoms.

Two preferred embodiments include LiH, LiNH₂And Al₂O₃A first reaction mixture of Pd on a powder, and Li, Li₃N, and Al₂O₃A second reaction mixture of hydrogenated Pd on powder, which may also include H₂And (4) qi. The first reaction mixture may be passed through H₂And the second mixture can be regenerated by removing H₂And the dissociating agent is hydrogenated or by reintroducing H₂And regenerated. Reaction to produce catalyst and H and regeneration reactionWhich should be given below.

In one embodiment, LiNH₂Is added to the reaction mixture. LiNH according to the following reversible reaction ₂Atomic hydrogen and atomic Li generation:

Li₂+LiNH₂→Li+Li₂NH+H (37)

and

Li₂+Li₂NH→Li+Li₃N+H (38)

in one embodiment, the reaction mixture contains about 2: 1 Li and LiNH₂. Li-Li and LiNH in the reaction cycle of fractional hydrogen₂React to form atomic Li, atomic H and Li₂NH, and this cycle continues according to equation (38). The reactants may be present in any wt%.

From LiNH₂Formation of Li₂The mechanism of NH involves a first step [42 ] of ammonia formation]：

2LiNH₂Generation of Li₂NH+NH₃ (39)

In the presence of LiH, ammonia reacts to liberate H₂

LiH+NH₃Formation of LiNH₂+H₂ (40)

And the net reaction is consumption of LiNH₂With concomitant formation of H₂：

LiNH₂+ LiH to Li₂NH+H₂ (41)

In the presence of Li, the amide is not consumed because it is energetically much more favorable than the reverse reaction of Li and ammonia:

Li-Li+NH₃formation of LiNH₂+H+Li (42)

Thus, in one embodiment, the reactants include Li and LiNH₂To form atomic Li and atomic H according to formula (37-38).

Li and LiNH as a source of Li catalyst and atomic H₂The reaction mixture of (a) can be regenerated. During the regeneration cycle, including, for example, Li₂NH and Li₃The reaction product mixture of N species may react with H to form LiH and LiNH₂. LiH has a melting point of 688 ℃; however, LiNH₂Melting at 380 ℃ and Li at 180 ℃. LiNH can be physically removed from LiH solid at about 380 DEG C₂The liquid and any Li liquid formed, and then the LiH solid can be heated separately to form Li and H ₂. Li and LiNH may be reacted₂Recombined to regenerate the reaction mixture. And, excess H from the thermal decomposition of LiH₂Can be reused for the next regeneration cycle with some H make-up₂To replace any H consumed in the formation of hydrinos₂。

In a preferred embodiment, the competitive kinetics of hydrogenation or dehydrogenation of one reactant over another is exploited to obtain the desired reaction mixture containing hydrogenated and non-hydrogenated compounds. For example, hydrogen may be added under appropriate temperature and pressure conditions such that the reverse of the reactions of equations (37) and (38) occurs beyond the competing reaction of LiH formation, such that the hydrogenation products are primarily Li and LiNH₂. Alternatively, comprising Li, Li₂NH and Li₃The reaction mixture of compounds of group N can be hydrogenated to form a hydride and LiH can be selectively dehydrogenated by pumping at temperature and pressure ranges and durations that achieve selectivity based on velocity differential kinetics.

In one embodiment, Li is deposited as a large area thin film and LiH and LiNH are formed by adding ammonia₂A mixture of (a). The reaction mixture may also contain an excess of Li. Atomic Li and H are formed according to formula (37-38) withThe subsequent reaction to form a state with an energy given by equation (1). The mixture can then be passed through H ₂Addition and subsequent heating and pumping with selective pumping and H₂Is removed and regenerated.

The reversible system of the invention to produce an atomic lithium catalyst is Li₃An N + H system, which can be regenerated by pumping. The reaction mixture comprises Li₃N and Li₃N sources such as Li and N₂And a source of H, such as H₂And hydrogen dissociators (LiNH)₂、Li₂NH、LiH、Li、NH₃And metal hydrides). H₂And Li₃Reaction of N to produce LiH and Li₂NH; however, Li₃N and from an atomic hydrogen source such as H₂And dissociation agent or H from hydride undergoing decomposition

Li₃N + H to Li₂NH+Li (43)

The atomic Li catalyst can then react with additional atomic H to form hydrinos. By-products such as LiH, Li₂NH and LiNH₂By evacuating the reaction vessel₂Is converted into Li₃And N is added. A representative Li/N alloy reacts as follows:

Li₃N+H→Li₂NH+Li (44)

Li₃N+LiH→Li₂NH+2Li (45)

Li₂NH+LiH→Li₃N+H₂ (46)

Li₂NH+H→LiNH₂+Li (47)

Li₂NH+LiH→LiNH₂+2Li (48)

Li₃n, H sourceAnd the hydrogen dissociating agent is present in any desired molar ratio. Each present in a molar ratio greater than 0 and less than 100%. Preferably the molar ratios are similar. In one embodiment, Li₃N，LiNH₂、Li₂NH, LiH, Li and NH₃And the ratio of H source, e.g., metal hydride, is similar. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

In one embodiment, lithium amide and hydrogen are reacted to form ammonia and lithium:

1/2H₂+LiNH₂→NH₃+Li (49)

can be increased by increasing H₂The concentration drives the reaction to form Li. Alternatively, the forward reaction may be driven by the formation of atomic H using a dissociating agent. The reaction with the atom H is given by the following formula:

H+LiNH₂→NH₃+Li (50)

in one embodiment of the reaction mixture containing one or more compounds that react with the Li source to form the Li catalyst, the reaction mixture comprises Li-derived Li₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、Li、LiH、NH₃、H₂And a dissociating agent. In one embodiment, the Li catalyst is derived from LiNH₂And hydrogen, preferably atomic hydrogen as given in reaction equation (50). The ratio of reactants can be any desired amount. Preferably, the ratios are those of formula (49-50) that are about stoichiometric. With a source of hydrogen such as H₂The addition of gas to replace those that have reacted to form hydrinos, the reaction to form the catalyst is reversible, where the catalyst reaction is given by formula (3-5), and lithium amide is formed by the reaction of ammonia with lithium:

NH₃+Li→LiNH₂+H (51)

in other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH. In a preferred embodiment, the reaction mixture contains a hydrogen dissociating agent, a source of atomic hydrogen, and Na or K and NH ₃. In one embodiment, ammonia reacts with Na or K to form NaNH as the catalyst source₂Or KNH₂. Another embodiment includes a source of K catalyst, such as K metal, such as at least one of the following: NH (NH)₃、H₂And hydrides such as metal hydrides and dissociating agents. Preferred hydrides are hydrides comprising R-Ni, which also act as dissociating agents. Furthermore, a fractional hydrogen absorber such as KX may be present, wherein X is preferably a halide such as Cl, Br or I. The cell may be operated continuously by a replacement source of hydrogen. NH (NH)₃The source of atomic K can be by reversible formation of KN alloy compounds from K-K, e.g., at least one of an amide, imide, or nitride, or by formation of KH with release of atomic K.

In yet another embodiment, the reactants include a catalyst such as Li and a source of atomic hydrogen such as H₂And dissociating agents or hydrides such as hydrogenated R-Ni. H can react with Li-Li to form LiH and Li which can also act as a catalyst to react with additional hydrogen to form hydrinos. Thereafter, Li can be released from LiH by evacuating H₂And is regenerated. The plateau temperature for LiH decomposition at 1 torr is about 560 ℃. LiH can be decomposed at about 0.5 torr and about 500 ℃ below the alloy formation and sintering temperature of R-Ni. The molten Li can be separated from the R-Ni, the R-Ni can be rehydrogenated, and the Li and hydrogenated R-Ni can be sent back to another reaction cycle.

In one embodiment, Li atoms are vapor deposited on the surface. The surface may support or be a source of H atoms. The surface may include at least one of a hydride and a hydrogen dissociating agent. The surface may be R-Ni which may be hydrogenated. The vapor deposition can be from a library containing sources of Li atoms. The Li source can be controlled by heating. One source that provides Li atoms when heated is Li metal. The surface may be maintained at a low temperature, such as room temperature, during vapor deposition. The Li-coated surface can be heated to react Li and H to form the H state given by equation (1). Other thin film deposition techniques known to those skilled in the art also constitute other embodiments of the present invention. Such embodiments include physical atomization, electrospray, aerosol, electric arching, knudsen cell controlled release, distributed cathode injection, plasma deposition, sputtering and other coating methods and systems such as chemical deposition of molten finely dispersed Li, electroplated Li and Li. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

In the case of vapor deposition of Li on the hydride surface, regeneration can be achieved by heating along with pumping to remove LiH and Li, and the hydride can be introduced by H ₂And is rehydrogenated, and in one embodiment Li atoms may be redeposited on the regenerated hydride after the bath is evacuated. In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

Li and R-Ni are present in any desired molar ratio. Each of Li and R-Ni is in a molar ratio of greater than 0 and less than 100%. Preferably, the molar ratios of Li and R-Ni are similar.

In a preferred embodiment, the competitive kinetics of hydrogenation or dehydrogenation of one reactant over another reactant is exploited to obtain a reaction mixture containing hydrogenated and non-hydrogenated compounds. For example, the formation of LiH is thermodynamically favored over the formation of R — Ni hydride. However, the LiH formation rate at low temperatures, e.g., in the range of about 25 ℃ to 100 ℃, is very slow; while in this temperature range the formation of R-Ni hydride proceeds at a high rate at a suitable pressure, e.g., in the range of about 100 torr to 3000 torr. Thus, the reaction mixture of Li and hydrogenated R-Ni can be regenerated from LiH R-Ni by pumping at about 400-500 ℃ to dehydrogenate LiH, cooling the vessel to about 25-100 ℃, adding hydrogen to preferentially hydrogenate R-Ni for the duration of time to achieve the desired selectivity, and then removing excess hydrogen through a drain pool. When an excess of Li is present or added in an excess amount, R — Ni can be used in repeated cycles only by selective hydrogenation. This can be achieved by adding hydrogen at a temperature range and pressure range that achieves selective hydrogenation of R-Ni and then by removing excess hydrogen before the vessel is heated to begin the reaction to form atomic H and atomic Li and the subsequent hydrino reaction. Additional hydrides and catalyst sources may be used in place of Li and R-Ni in this process. In yet another embodiment, R-N is hydrogenated to a large extent in a separate preparation step using elevated temperature and high pressure hydrogen or by using electrolysis. The electrolysis may be in an aqueous alkaline solution. The base may be a hydroxide. The counter electrode may be nickel. In this example, R — Ni can provide atomic H for a long time using appropriate temperatures, pressures, and ramp rates.

LiH has a high melting point of 688 ℃ which may be above the temperature at which the dissociator is sintered or the dissociator metal is allowed to form an alloy with the catalyst metal. For example, where the dissociating agent is R — Ni and the catalyst is Li, the LiNi alloy may be formed at temperatures in excess of about 550 ℃. Thus, in another embodiment, LiH is converted to LiNH₂，LiNH₂Can be removed at its lower melting point so that the reaction mixture can be regenerated. The reaction to form lithium amide from lithium hydride and ammonia is given by the formula:

LiH+NH₃→LiNH₂+H₂ (52)

then melted LiNH₂Can be recovered at a melting point of 380 ℃. LiNH₂Can be converted to Li by decomposition.

Comprising molten LiNH₂In the embodiment of recovery of (1), gas pressure is applied to the LiNH-containing solution₂To increase the speed of separation from the solid component. The screen separator or semi-permeable membrane may retain the solid components. The gas may be an inert gas such as a noble gas or a decomposition product such as nitrogen to confine LiNH₂Decomposition of (3). Gas pressure can also be used to separate the molten Li. To clean any residue from the dissociating agent, a gas stream may be used. Inert gases, e.g. noble gasesA gas is preferred. In the case where residual Li adheres to a dissociating agent such as R — Ni, the residue can be removed by washing with an alkaline solution such as an alkaline aqueous solution, which can also regenerate R — Ni. Alternatively, Li may be hydrogenated and the solid of LiH and R-Ni and any other solid components present may be mechanically separated by means such as sieving. In another embodiment, dissociating agents such as R — Ni and other reactants may be physically separated but maintained in close proximity to allow diffusion of atomic hydrogen into the equilibrium reaction mixture. For example, the equilibrated reaction mixture and dissociating agent may be placed in a closely-positioned evaporation dish with an opening. In other embodiments, the reactor further comprises a plurality of compartments independently containing the dissociating agent and the equilibrated reaction mixture. Each compartment of the separator allows atomic hydrogen formed in the dissociating agent compartment to flow to the compartment of the equilibrium reaction mixture while maintaining chemical separation. The separator may be a metal screen or a semi-permeable inert membrane, which may be metallic. The contents may be mechanically mixed during operation of the reactor. The separated equilibrated reaction mixture and its products can be removed and reprocessed outside of the reaction vessel and returned independently of the dissociating agent or can be independently regenerated within the reactor.

Other embodiments of systems that produce atomic catalyst Li and atomic H include Li, ammonia, and LiH. Atomic Li catalyst and atomic H can be reacted by Li₂And NH₃To produce:

Li₂+NH₃formation of LiNH₂+Li+H (53)

LiNH₂Is NH₃By reacting:

2LiNH₂generation of Li₂NH+NH₃ (54)

In a preferred embodiment, Li is dispersed on a support having a large surface area to react with ammonia. Ammonia can also react with LiH to produce LiNH₂：

LiH+NH₃Formation of LiNH₂+H₂ (55)

And, H₂Can react with Li₂NH reaction to regenerate LiNH₂：

H₂+Li₂NH to LiNH₂+LiH (56)

In another embodiment, the reactant comprises LiNH₂And a dissociating agent. The reaction to form atomic lithium is:

LiNH₂+ H to Li + NH₃ (57)

Li may then react with additional H to form hydrinos.

Other embodiments of systems for generating atomic catalysts, Li and atomic H, include Li and LiBH₄Or NH₄X (X is an anion such as a halide). Atomic Li catalyst and atomic H can be reacted by Li₂And LiBH₄To produce:

Li₂+LiBH₄generation of LiBH₃+Li+LiH (58)

NH₄X can generate LiNH₂And H₂

Li₂+NH₄Formation of LiX + LiNH from X₂+H₂ (59)

Thereafter, atomic Li may be generated according to the reactions of formulas (32) and (37). In another embodiment, the reaction mechanism for the Li/N system to form the hydrino reactants of atomic Li and H is

NH₄X + Li-Li to Li + H + NH₃+LiX (60)

Wherein X is a counter ion, preferably a halide.

Atomic Li catalysts can be prepared by Li₂NH or Li₃N and through H₂The dissociation of the formed atom H yields:

Li₂NH + H to LiNH₂+Li (61)

Li₃N + H to Li₂NH+Li (62)

In yet another embodiment, the reaction mixture includes nitrides of metals other than Li, such as those of Mg CaSr Ba Zn and Th. The reaction mixture may include a metal exchanged with Li or a metal that forms a mixed metal compound with Li. The metal may be from the group of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and transition metals. The compounds may also include N such as amides, imides, and nitrides.

In one embodiment, the catalyst Li is chemically generated by an anion exchange reaction, such as a halide (X) exchange reaction. For example, at least one of Li metal and Li-Li molecules reacts with a halide compound to form atomic Li and LiX. Alternatively, LiX reacts with metal M to form atoms Li and MX. In one embodiment, lithium metal is reacted with a lanthanide halide to form Li and LiX, where X is a halide. An example is CeBr₃With Li₂React to form Li and LiBr. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture also includes the reactants and products of the Haber process [43 ]. The product may be NH_xAnd x is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. These products can react with Li or Li-containing compounds to form atomic Li and atomic H. For example, Li-Li may be reacted with NH_xReact to form Li and possibly H:

Li-Li+NH₃formation of Li + LiNH₂+H (63)

Li-Li+NH₂Formation of LiNH₂+Li (64)

Li-Li+NH₂Generation of Li₂NH+H (65)

In other embodiments K, Cs and Na replace Li, wherein the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs and molecular NaH.

Mixtures of compounds that melt at a lower temperature than the melting point of one or more of the compounds alone may be used. Preferably, a eutectic mixture may be formed which is a mixture of reactants such as Li and LiNH₂The molten salt of (1).

The chemistry of the mixture can vary very significantly based on the physical state of the reactants and the presence or absence of solvents or added solutes or alloying substances. The purpose of the changing physical state of the present invention is to control the reaction rate and change the thermodynamics to obtain sustainable lower energy hydrogen reactions using the addition of H from an H source. For polymers comprising reactants such as Li and LiNH₂The Li/N alloy system of (a) can be used as a solvent for alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and mixtures thereof. For example, excess Li may be used as LiNH₂To contain solvated Li and LiNH ₂Will have different reaction kinetics and thermodynamics relative to solid state mixtures. The former effect, control of the kinetics of the lower energy hydrogen reaction, can be adjusted by controlling the properties of the solute and solvent, such as temperature, concentration and molar ratio. After the reaction to produce the atomic catalyst and atomic hydrogen, the latter action can be used to regenerate the original reactants. This is the route when the product cannot be directly regenerated by hydrogenation.

One embodiment in which the regeneration of the reactants is facilitated by the solvent or added solute or alloying substances includes lithium metal, where the hydrogenation of Li is not complete such that Li remains the solvent and the reactants. In Li solvent, with the addition of H from the source, the following regeneration reaction can occur to form LiH:

LiH+Li₂NH to 2Li + LiNH₂ (66)

For polymers comprising reactants such as Li and LiNH₂The Li/N alloy system of (a), alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and mixtures thereof may be used as the solvent. In one embodiment, the solvent is selected such that the solvent can reduce LiH to Li and form an unstable solvent hydride with concomitant release of H. Preferably, the solvent may be one having reduced Li⁺And the ability to form the corresponding hydride of low thermal stability, one or more of the group of Li (excess), Na, K, Rb, Cs and Ba. In case the melting point of the solvent is higher than the desired melting point, e.g. in case of Ba with a high melting point of 727 ℃, the solvent may be mixed with other solvents, e.g. metals, to form a solvent with a lower melting point, e.g. a solvent comprising a eutectic mixture. In one embodiment, one or more alkaline earth metals may be mixed with one or more alkali metals to lower the melting point and increase the reduction of Li ⁺And decreases the stability of the corresponding solvent hydride.

Another embodiment in which regeneration of the reactants is facilitated by a solvent or added solute or alloying substances includes potassium metal. Li and LiNH₂Potassium metal in the mixture can reduce LiH to Li and form KH. Since KH is thermally unstable at intermediate temperatures, e.g., 300 deg.C, it promotes Li₂NH to Li and LiNH₂Further hydrogenation of (2).

Thus, K may catalyze the reaction given by equation (66). The reaction steps are

LiH + K to Li + KH (67)

KH+Li₂NH to K + Li + LiNH₂ (68)

Wherein H is added at a rate where it is consumed by lower energy hydrogen production. Alternatively, K catalytically generates Li and H from LiH, wherein Li is obtained from Li₂Hydrogenation of NH directly to LiNH₂. The reaction steps are

Li₂NH +2H to LiH + LiNH₂ (69)

LiH + K to KH + Li (70)

KH generates K + H (gas) (71)

In addition to the favourable condition of instability of hydrides (KH), amides (KNH)₂) And are also unstable so that the exchange of lithium amide with potassium amide is not thermodynamically favored. In addition to K, Na is a preferred metal solvent because it reduces LiH and has a lower vapor pressure. Other examples of suitable metal solvents are Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Sn. The solvent may comprise a mixture of metals, for example a mixture of two or more alkali or alkaline earth metals. Preferred solvents are Li (excess) and Na above 380 ℃ because above this temperature Li can be mixed in Na.

In another embodiment, an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal is used as the regenerated catalyst according to formulas (70-71). In one embodiment, LiNH is first melted by melting₂Reacting LiNH₂From LiH/LiNH₂The mixture was removed. Thereafter, a metal M may be added to catalyze the conversion of LiH to Li. M can be selectively removed by distillation. Na, K, Rb and Cs form hydrides that decompose at relatively low temperatures and form thermally decomposed amides; thus, in another embodiment, at least one reactant can be a catalytic conversion of LiH to Li and H according to the corresponding reaction of K given by equation (67-71). In addition, some alkaline earth metals, such as Sr, can form very stable hydrides, which can be used to convert LiH to Li by reaction of LiH and the alkaline earth metal to form a stable alkaline earth hydride. By operating at elevated temperatures, hydrogen can be supplied from the alkaline earth metal hydride via decomposition of the lithium inventory, primarily Li. The reaction mixture may be packagedInclude Li and LiNH₂X and a dissociating agent, wherein X may be a lithium compound such as LiH, Li₂NH、Li₃N and a small amount of alkaline earth metal that forms a stable hydride to generate Li from LiH. The hydrogen source may be H₂A gas. The operating temperature may be sufficient to make H available.

In one embodiment, LiNO₃LiNH useful for the production of Li and H in a set of coupled reactions₂A source. Considering the content of Li and LiNH₂And LiNO₃From Li and LiNH₂Production of Li₃N and release of H₂Is obtained by the reaction of

LiNH₂+2Li→H₂+Li₃N (72)

From released H₂(formula (72)) and LiNO₃To form an equilibrium of water and lithium amide₂The reduction reaction is:

4H₂+LiNO₃→LiNH₂+3H₂O (73)

the resulting LiNH can then be used in reaction equation (72)₂And equilibrium Li, and the coupling reactions given by equations (72) and (73) can occur until Li is completely consumed. The overall reaction is given by

LiNO₃+8Li+3LiNH₂→+3H₂O+4Li₃N (74)

The water can be removed dynamically by methods such as condensation or reacted with absorbents to avoid its interaction with substances such as Li, LiNH₂、Li₂NH and Li₃And (4) carrying out N reaction.

Exemplary regeneration of Li catalyst reactants

The invention also includes the generation or regeneration of the reaction from any by-products formed during the reactionA method and system for mixing to form the state given by equation (1). For example, in the energy reactor embodiment, the reaction mixture is catalyzed, e.g., Li, LiNH₂And LiNO₃By methods known to those skilled in the art such as Cotton and Wilkinson [43]From, for example, LiOH and Li₂Any by-products of O are regenerated. The components of the reaction mixture containing the by-products may be liquid or solid. The mixture is heated or cooled to the desired temperature and the products are physically separated by methods known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, LiOH and Li ₂O is a solid, Li, LiNH₂And LiNO₃Is a liquid and the solid component is separated from the liquid component. LiOH and Li₂O can pass through H₂Reduced at high temperatures or converted to lithium metal by electrolysis of molten compounds or mixtures containing them. The electrolytic cell may include a cell containing LiOH, Li₂O、LiCl、KCl、CaCl₂And NaCl. The cell is constructed of a material resistant to Li corrosion, such as a BeO or BN container. The Li product can be purified by distillation. LiNH₂Are formed by methods known in the art such as reaction of Li with nitrogen and subsequent hydrogen reduction. Alternatively, LiNH₂Can be reacted with Li and NH₃React to form directly.

Including Li, LiNH in the initial reaction mixture₂And LiNO₃In the case of at least one of them, Li metal may be regenerated by, for example, an electrolytic method, LiNO₃Can be generated from Li metal. One key step in eliminating the difficult nitrogen fixation step is Li metal and N₂React to form Li₃N (even at room temperature). Li₃N may be combined with H₂React to form Li₂NH and LiNH₂。Li₃N can react with an oxygen source to form LiNO₃. In one embodiment, Li₃N is used to refer to lithium (Li), lithium nitride (Li)₃N), oxygen (O)₂) Oxygen source, lithium imide (Li)₂NH) and lithium amide (LiNH) ₂) Lithium nitrate (LiNO) as a reactant or intermediate of at least one or more of (a) or (b)₃) In the synthesis of (1).

In one embodiment, the oxidation reaction is

LiNH₂+2O₂→LiNO₃+H₂O (75)

Li₂NH+2O₂→LiNO₃+LiOH (76)

Li₃N+2O₂→LiNO₃+Li₂O (77)

NO can be used as lithium nitrate₂NO and O₂From Li by the following reaction₂O and LiOH regeneration:

3Li₂O+6NO₂+3/2O₂→6LiNO₃ (78)

Li₂O+3NO₂→2LiNO₃+NO (79)

NO+1/2O₂→NO₂ (80)

LiOH+NO₂+NO→2LiNO₂+H₂o (Industrial art) (81)

2LiOH+2NO₂→LiNO₃+LiNO₂+H₂O (82)

Lithium oxide can be converted to lithium hydroxide by reaction with steam:

Li₂O+H₂O→2LiOH (83)

in one embodiment, Li₂O is converted to LiOH, followed by reaction with NO according to equation (81)₂And NO.

Both lithium oxide and lithium hydroxide can be converted to lithium nitrate by treatment with nitric acid followed by drying:

Li₂O+2HNO₃→2LiNO₃+H₂O (84)

LiOH+HNO₃→LiNO₃+H₂O (85)

LiNO can be prepared by treating lithium oxide or lithium hydroxide with nitric acid₃. In turn, nitric acid can be prepared by known industrial methods, for example by the Haber process followed by the Ostwald process and then by Cotton and Wilkinson [43]The hydration and oxidation of NO given in (1). In one embodiment, an exemplary sequence of steps is:

LiOH+HNO₃→LiNO₃+H₂O (87)

in particular, the Haber process may be used to convert N to N using catalysts such as alpha-iron containing oxides at elevated temperatures and pressures₂And H₂Production of NH₃. Ammonia can be used to form LiNH from Li₂. The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO at a catalyst such as a hot platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst. NO may also react further with oxygen and water to form nitric acid, which may react with lithium oxide or lithium hydroxide to form lithium nitrate. Crystalline lithium nitrate reactant was then obtained by drying. In another embodiment, NO and NO ₂Directly with one or more of lithium oxide and lithium hydroxide to form lithium nitrate. Regenerated Li, LiNH₂And LiNO₃And then returned to the reactor at the desired molar ratio. In yet another exemplary regeneration reactor, embodiments of the reactor include Li, LiNH₂And LiCoO₂Of (2) a reactant。LiOH、Li₂O and Co and their lower oxides are by-products. The reactants can be reacted by LiOH and Li₂Electrolysis of O to Li. LiNH₂By reaction of Li with NH₃Or N₂After reaction with H₂And reacting to regenerate. CoO₂And lower oxides thereof may be regenerated by reaction with oxygen. LiCoO₂Can be reacted with CoO through Li₂Is formed by the reaction of (a). Li and LiNH₂And LiCoO₂And then returned to the tank in a batch or continuous regeneration process. In LiIO₃Or LiIO₄In the case of reagents of a mixture, IO₃ ^-And/or IO₄ ^-Can be regenerated by reaction of iodine or iodide ions with a base and can also undergo electrolysis to the desired anion, which can act as LiIO₃Or LiIO₄Is precipitated, dried and dehydrated.

NaH molecular catalyst

In yet another embodiment, a hydrogen-containing compound such as MH (where H is hydrogen and M is another element) is used as the hydrogen source and catalyst source. In one embodiment, the catalytic system is provided by the cleavage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of each of the t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV and Wherein m is an integer.

One such catalytic system includes sodium. The bond energy of NaH is 1.9245eV 44]. The first and second ionization energies of Na are 5.13908eV and 47.2864eV [1 ] respectively]. Based on these energies, the NaH molecule can act as a catalyst and a source of H because the bond energy of NaH adds Na to Na²⁺The double ionization (t ═ 2) of (a) is 54.35eV (2 × 27.2eV), which corresponds to m ═ 2 in the formula (2). The catalyst reaction is given by

Na²⁺+2e^-+H→NaH+54.35eV (89)

And, the overall reaction is

As given in chapter 5 of reference [30] and reference [20], the hydrogen atom H (1/p) p 1, 2, 3.. 137 can undergo a further transition to a lower energy state given by equation (1), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom that resonates and non-radiatively accepts m · 27.2eV with an opposite change in its potential energy. The general formula of the transition from H (1/p) to H (1/(p + m)) induced by resonance transfer from m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by

H(1/p′)+H(1/p)→H⁺+e^-+H(1/(p+m))+[2pm+m²-p′²]·13.6eV (91)

At high hydrogen concentrations, the transition from H (1/3) (p 3) to H (1/4) (p + m 4) with H as catalyst (p 1; m 1) can be rapid

Due to H in the halide^-(1/4) and its stability to ionization relative to other reactive species, and it reacts by reaction 2H (1/4) → H ₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4)+H⁺→H₂The corresponding molecule formed (1/4) is a favorable product of the catalytic action of hydrogen.

The NaH catalytic reaction may be synergistic because of the bond energy of NaH, Na to Na²⁺The sum of the potential energies of the double ionization (t ═ 2) and H of (A) is 81.56eV (3.27.2 eV), which is a factorThis corresponds to the case where m in formula (2) is 3. The catalyst reaction is given by

Na²⁺+2e^-+H+H_{Fast-acting toy} ⁺+e^-→NaH+H+81.56eV (94)

And, the overall reaction is

Wherein H_{Fast-acting toy} ⁺Is a fast hydrogen atom having a kinetic energy of at least 13.6eV

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of a source of NaH molecules and hydrogen. The NaH molecule can act as a catalyst to form the H state given by equation (1). The source of NaH molecules may comprise at least one of: na metal, a source of hydrogen, preferably atomic hydrogen, and NaH (solid). The hydrogen source may be H₂A gas and at least one of a dissociating agent and a hydride. Preferably, the dissociating agent and hydride may be R-Ni. Preferably, the dissociating agent may also be Pt/Ti, Pt/Al₂O₃And Pd/Al₂O₃And (3) powder. The solid NaH may be a source of at least one of NaH molecules, H atoms, and Na atoms.

In a preferred embodiment, one of atomic sodium and molecular NaH is provided by a reaction between Na in metallic, ionic or molecular form and at least one other compound or element. The source of Na or NaH may be at least one of: metallic Na, inorganic compounds containing Na, e.g. NaOH, and in CRC [41 ] ]Other suitable Na compounds such as NaNH₂、Na₂CO₃And Na₂O, NaX (X is a halide), and NaH (solid). The other element may be H, a displacer, orA reducing agent. The reaction mixture may include at least one of: (1) sources of sodium, e.g. Na (m), NaH, NaNH₂、Na₂CO₃、Na₂O, NaOH, NaOH-incorporated R-Ni, NaX (X is a halide), and NaX-incorporated R-Ni, (2) a hydrogen source, such as H₂Gases and dissociating agents and hydrides, (3) displacing agents, such as alkali or alkaline earth metals, preferably Li, and (4) reducing agents, such as metals, e.g., alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, transition metals, e.g., Ti, aluminum, B, metal alloys, e.g., AlHg, NaPb, NaAl, LiAl, and sources of metals alone or in combination with reducing agents, e.g., alkaline earth metal halides, transition metal halides, lanthanide halides, and aluminum halides. Preferably the alkali metal reducing agent is Na. Other suitable reducing agents include metal hydrides such as LiBH₄、NaBH₄、LiAlH₄Or NaAlH₄. Preferably, the reducing agent reacts with NaOH to form NaH molecules and Na products such as Na, NaH (solid) and Na₂And O. The source of NaH may be R-Ni containing NaOH and a reactant, such as a reducing agent, to form a NaH catalyst such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal or Al intermetallic R-Ni. Further exemplary agents are alkali or alkaline earth metals and oxidizing agents such as AlX ₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_nWherein X is a halide, preferably Br or I. Alternatively, the reaction mixture may contain another compound containing an absorbent or dispersant such as Na which may be incorporated into a dissociating agent such as R-Ni₂CO₃、Na₃SO₄And Na₃PO₄At least one of (1). The reaction mixture may further comprise a carrier, wherein the carrier may be incorporated into at least one reactant of the mixture. The support may preferably have a large surface area that facilitates the formation of NaH catalyst from the reaction mixture. The carrier may comprise R-Ni, Al, Sn, Al₂O₃For example gamma, beta or alpha alumina, sodium aluminate (according to Cotton [45 ]]Beta-alumina having other ions present, e.g. Na⁺And has an idealized constitution Na₂O·11Al₂O₃) Lanthanide oxides such as M₂O₃(preferably M ═ La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd and Er), Si, silica, silicates, zeolites, lanthanides, transition metals, metal alloys, e.g. alloys of alkali and alkaline earth metals with Na, rare earth metals, SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or SiO₂Supported Ni, and other supported metals such as at least one of aluminum supported platinum, palladium or ruthenium. The support can have a high surface area and contain a High Surface Area (HSA) material such as R-Ni, zeolites, silicates, aluminates, alumina nanoparticles, porous Al ₂O₃Pt, Ru or Pd/Al₂O₃Carbon, Pt or Pd/C, inorganic compounds, e.g. Na₂CO₃Silica and a zeolitic material, preferably zeolite Y powder. In one embodiment, the support is, for example, Al₂O₃(and Al of the dissociating agent, if present)₂O₃Support) with a reducing agent such as a lanthanide to form a surface-modified support. In one embodiment, the surface Al is exchanged with a lanthanide to form a lanthanide-substituted support. This support may be incorporated into a source of NaH molecules such as NaOH and reacted with a reducing agent such as a lanthanide. Subsequent reaction of the lanthanide-substituted support with the lanthanide will not significantly alter it, and the incorporated NaOH on the surface can be reduced to NaH catalyst by reaction with the reducing agent lanthanide.

In one embodiment, where the reaction mixture contains a source of NaH catalyst, the source of NaH may be an alloy of Na and a source of hydrogen. The alloy may include an alloy of at least one of those known In the art, such as sodium metal and one or more other alkali or alkaline earth metals, transition metals, Al, Sn, Bi, Ag, In, Pb, Hg, Si, Zr, B, Pt, Pd, or other metals, and the source of H may be H ₂Or a hydride.

Reagents such as a source of NaH molecules, a source of sodium, a source of NaH, a source of hydrogen, a displacer and a reductant are present in any desired molar ratio. Each present in a molar ratio greater than 0 and less than 100%. Preferably, the molar ratios are similar.

Preferred embodiments include NaH and Al₂O₃Reaction mixture of Pd on powder, wherein the reaction mixture can be purified by adding H₂Regeneration

In one embodiment, Na atoms are vapor deposited on the surface. The surface may be supported or a source of H atoms to form NaH molecules. The surface may contain hydrides and hydrogen dissociators, e.g. Pt, Ru or Pd/Al₂O₃(which may be hydrogenated). Preferably the surface area is large. The vapor deposition may be from a library containing a source of Na atoms. The Na source can be controlled by heating. One source that provides Na atoms when heated is Na metal. The surface may be maintained at a low temperature, such as room temperature, during vapor deposition. The Na-coated surface can be heated to promote the reaction of Na and H to form NaH, and can also react NaH molecules to form the H state given by equation (1). Other thin film deposition techniques well known in the art also constitute other embodiments of the present invention. Such embodiments include physical atomization, electrospray, aerosol, electric arching, knudsen cell controlled release, distributed cathode injection, plasma deposition, sputtering and other coating methods and systems such as chemical deposition of molten finely dispersed Na, electroplated Na and Na. Na metal can be dispersed in a high surface area material, preferably Na ₂CO₃Carbon, silica, alumina, R-Ni and Pt, Ru or Pd/Al₂O₃To increase the activity of forming NaH upon reaction with another reagent such as H or a source of H. Other dispersing materials are known in the art such as Cotton et al [46 ]]Those given in (1).

In one embodiment, at least one reactant containing a reducing agent or NaH source, such as Na and NaOH, undergoes aerosolization to produce a corresponding reactant vapor to react to form NaH catalyst. Na and NaOH may react in the cell to form NaH catalyst, wherein at least one species undergoes aerosolization. The aerosolized material may be transported to a sump to react to form NaH catalyst. The means of conveying the aerosolized matter may be a carrier gas. Aerosolization of reactants can use a mechanical agitator and a carrier gas, such as a noble gas, to transport the reactants into a cell for reaction to form NaH catalyst. In one embodiment, Na as the source of NaH and the reducing agent is aerosolized by becoming charged and electrically dispersed. At least one of the reactants, such as Na and NaOH, may be mechanically aerosolized in a carrier gas or they may undergo ultrasonic aerosolization. The reactants may be forced through an orifice plate to form a vapor. Alternatively, the reactants may be heated in situ to very high temperatures to be vaporized or sublimed to form a vapor. The reactants may also contain a source of hydrogen. The hydrogen may react with Na to form NaH catalyst. Na may be present as a vapor. The cell may include a dissociating agent to dissociate from H ₂Atomic hydrogen is formed. Other methods of achieving aerosolization known to those skilled in the art are part of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture contains at least one substance from the group consisting of a source of Na or Na, a source of NaH or NaH, a source of metal hydride or metal hydride, a source of metal hydride-forming reactant or reactant, a hydrogen dissociating agent, and a source of hydrogen. The reaction mixture may also contain a carrier. The metal hydride forming reactant may contain a lanthanide, preferably La or Gd. In one embodiment, La may react reversibly with NaH to form LaH_n(n is 1, 2, 3). In one embodiment, the hydride exchange reaction forms a NaH catalyst. The general reaction which is reversible can be given by the following formula

The reaction given by equation (96) applies to the other MH type catalysts given in table 2. The reaction may proceed with the formation of hydrogen that may be dissociated to form atomic hydrogen that reacts with Na to form a NaH catalyst. The dissociating agent is preferably Pt, Pd or Ru/Al₂O₃At least one of powder, Pt/Ti and R-Ni. Preferably, the dissociating agent carrier is Al₂O₃La containing at least the surface substituted for Al or containing Pt, Pd or Ru/M₂O₃A powder wherein M is a lanthanide. The dissociating agent may be separated from the remaining reaction mixture, wherein The detacher transports the H atoms.

Preferred embodiments include NaH, La and Al₂O₃A reaction mixture of Pd on a powder, wherein the reaction mixture may be regenerated in embodiments by adding H, separating NaH and lanthanide hydride by sieving, heating lanthanide hydride to form La, and mixing La and NaH. Alternatively, the regeneration comprises the steps of: separating Na from the lanthanide hydride by melting Na and removing the liquid phase, heating the lanthanide hydride to form La, hydrogenating Na to NaH, and mixing La and NaH. The mixture may be passed through a ball mill.

In one embodiment, a high surface material such as R — Ni is doped with NaX (X ═ F, Cl, Br, I). The incorporated R-Ni reacts with the reagent that will displace the halide to form at least one of Na and NaH. In one embodiment, the reactant is at least an alkali or alkaline earth metal, preferably at least one of K, Pb, Cs. In another embodiment, the reactant may be an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride, preferably KH, RbH, CsH, MgH₂And CaH₂At least one of (1). The reactant may be both an alkali metal and an alkaline earth metal hydride. The general reaction which is reversible is given by the formula

NaOH catalyst reaction to form NaH catalyst

NaOH and Na form Na₂The reaction of O and NaH is

NaOH+2Na→Na₂O+NaH (98)

The exothermic reaction may promote the formation of NaH (gas). Thus, Na metal can act as a reducing agent to form the catalyst NaH (gas). Other examples of suitable reducing agents having a similar highly exothermic reduction reaction with a source of NaH are basesMetals, alkaline earth metals such as at least one of Mg and Ca, metal hydrides such as LiBH₄、NaBH₄、LiAlH₄Or NaAlH₄B, Al, a transition metal such as Ti, a lanthanide such as at least one of La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd and Er, preferably La, Tb and Sm. Preferably, the reaction mixture contains a high surface area material (HSA material) with a dopant, such as NaOH, that constitutes the source of the NaH catalyst. Preferably, conversion of dopants on materials with high surface area to catalysts is achievable. The conversion may occur by a reduction reaction. The reductant may be provided as a gas stream. Preferably, Na flows into the reactor as a gas stream. In addition to the preferred reducing agent Na, other preferred reducing agents are other alkali metals, Ti, lanthanides or Al. Preferably, the reaction mixture comprises NaOH doped with HSA material, preferably R-Ni, wherein the reducing agent is Na or intermetallic Al. The reaction mixture may also contain a source of H, such as a hydride or H ₂Gas and dissociating agent. Preferably the source of H is hydrogenated R-Ni.

In one embodiment, the reaction temperature is maintained below the temperature at which the reducing agent, e.g., lanthanide, is alloyed with the catalyst source, e.g., R — Ni. In the case of lanthanides, the reaction temperature is preferably not more than 532 ℃, such as Gasser and Kefif [47 ]]Shown is the alloying temperature of Ni and La. In addition, the reaction temperature is maintained lower than that of Al with R-Ni₂O₃The temperature at which the reaction occurs to a significant extent is for example in the range of 100 ℃ to 450 ℃.

In one embodiment, Na is formed as a product of a reaction that produces NaH catalyst, such as the reaction given by equation (98)₂O, with a hydrogen source to form NaOH which can further serve as a source of NaH catalyst. In one embodiment, the regeneration reaction of NaOH from equation (98) in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

Na₂O + H → NaOH + Na Δ H ═ 11.6 kJ/mol NaOH (99)

NaH → Na + H (1/3) Δ H-10,500 kJ/mol H (100)

And

NaH → Na + H (1/4) Δ H-19,700 kJ/mole H (101)

Thus small amounts of NaOH and Na with atomic hydrogen sources or atomic hydrogen are used as catalyst sources for the NaH catalyst which in turn forms large yields of hydrinos through multiple cycles of regenerative reactions such as those given by formulas (98-100). In one embodiment, Al (OH) from the reaction given by equation (102) ₃The reaction given by formula (98-101) can be carried out as a source of NaOH and NaOH having Na and H therein to form hydrinos

3Na+Al(OH)₃→NaOH+NaAlO₂+NaH+1/2H₂ (102)

In one embodiment, the intermetallic Al acts as a reducing agent for the formation of the NaH catalyst and the equilibrium reaction is given by

3NaOH+2Al→Al₂O₃+3NaH (103)

This exothermic reaction can promote the formation of NaH (gas) to promote the very exothermic reaction given by formula (88-92), where NaH regeneration from Na occurs in the presence of atomic hydrogen.

Two preferred embodiments include a first reaction mixture of Na and R-Ni containing about 0.5 wt% NaOH (with Na as the reducing agent) and a second reaction mixture of R-Ni containing about 0.5 wt% NaOH (with intermetallic Al as the reducing agent). The reaction mixture can be regenerated by adding NaOH and NaH as a source of H and a reducing agent.

In one embodiment of the energy reactor, the NaH source, such as NaOH, is regenerated by adding a hydrogen source, such as a hydride, and at least one of hydrogen gas and a dissociating agent. The hydride and dissociating agent may be hydrogenated R-Ni. In another embodiment, the NaH source, e.g., NaOH-doped R — Ni, is regenerated by at least one of rehydrogenation, addition of NaH, and addition of NaOH, wherein the addition may be via physical mixing. Mixing may be carried out mechanically by means of a device such as a ball mill.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises a reaction with NaOH or Na₂O reacts to form a very stable oxide and the oxide-forming reactant of NaH. Such reactants include cerium, magnesium, lanthanides, titanium, or aluminum or compounds thereof such as AlX₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_n(wherein X is a halide, preferably Br or I) and a reducing compound such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. In one embodiment, the source of NaH catalyst comprises R — Ni containing a sodium compound, such as NaOH on its surface. Thereafter, NaOH reacts with the oxide-forming reactant (e.g., AlX)₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_n) Reaction with an alkali metal M to form NaH, MX, and Al, respectively₂O₃、MgO、La₂O₃、Ce₂O₃And Ti₂O₃。

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes R — Ni doped with NaOH and an added alkali or alkaline earth metal to form at least one of Na and NaH molecules. Na may also be derived from sources such as H₂The H of a gas or hydride, such as R-Ni, reacts to form NaH catalyst. The subsequent catalytic reaction of NaH forms the H state given by equation (1). Addition of alkali metal or alkaline earth metal M Na can be obtained by the following reaction⁺Reduction to Na:

NaOH + M to MOH + Na (104)

2NaOH + M to M (OH)₂+2Na (105)

M can also react with NaOH to form H and Na

2NaOH + M to Na₂O+H₂+MO (106)

Na₂O + M to M₂O+2Na (107)

Thereafter, by reaction with H from the reaction, e.g., as given by equation (106), and from R-Ni and any added H source, the catalyst NaH may be formed by the reaction

Na + H to NaH (108)

Na is a preferred reducing agent because it is yet another source of NaH.

Hydrogen may be added to reduce the NaOH and form NaH catalyst

NaOH+H₂Formation of NaH + H₂O (109)

H in R-Ni can reduce NaOH to Na metal and water that can be removed by pumping.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture contains one or more compounds that react with a source of NaH to form NaH catalyst. The source may be NaOH. The compound may comprise LiNH₂、Li₂NH and Li₃And N. The reaction mixture may also include a source of hydrogen such as H₂. In one embodiment, the reaction of sodium hydroxide with lithium amide to form NaH and lithium hydroxide is

NaOH+LiNH₂→LiOH+NaH+1/2N₂+LiH (110)

The reaction of sodium hydroxide and lithium imide to form NaH and lithium hydroxide is

NaOH+Li₂NH→Li₂O+NaH+1/2N₂+1/2H₂ (111)

And the reaction of sodium hydroxide and lithium nitride to form NaH and lithium oxide is

NaOH+Li₃N→Li₂O+NaH+1/2N₂+Li (112)

Alkaline earth metal hydroxide catalyst reaction to form NaH catalyst

In one embodiment, a source of H is provided to a source of Na to form the catalyst NaH. The Na source may be a metal. The source of H may be a hydroxide. The hydroxide may be alkali metal hydroxide, alkaline earth metal hydroxide, transition metal hydroxide and Al (OH) ₃At least one of (a). In one embodiment, Na reacts with hydroxide to form the corresponding oxide and NaH catalyst. In one embodiment, wherein the hydroxide is Mg (OH)₂The product is MgO. In one embodiment, wherein the hydroxide is Ca (OH)₂The product is CaO. Such as Cotton [48 ]]As given in (a), the alkaline earth metal oxide may react with water to regenerate the hydroxide. The hydroxide may be collected as a precipitate by means such as filtration and centrifugation.

For example, in one embodiment, the reaction to form the NaH catalyst and the Mg (OH)₂The regeneration cycle of (A) is provided by the following reaction

3Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaH+MgO+Na₂O (113)

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂ (114)

In one embodiment, the reaction to form the NaH catalyst and Ca (OH)₂The regeneration cycle of (a) is provided by the following reaction:

4Na+Ca(OH)₂→2NaH+CaO+Na₂O (115)

CaO+H₂O→Ca(OH)₂ (116)

Na/N alloy for forming NaH catalystReaction of

Sodium in the solid and liquid states is a metal, while gaseous sodium contains covalent Na₂A molecule. To form the NaH catalyst, the reaction mixture of the solid fuel includes Na/N alloy reactants. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture, solid fuel reaction and regeneration reactions include those of the Li/N system, where Na replaces Li and the catalyst is molecular NaH, except that the solid fuel reaction produces molecular NaH instead of atomic Li and H. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises one or more compounds that react with a source of NaH to form a NaH catalyst. The reaction mixture may include Na, NaH, NaNH ₂、Na₂NH、Na₃N、NH₃Dissociating agents, sources of hydrogen such as H₂A gas or hydride, a carrier, and an absorbent such as NaX (X is a halide). The dissociating agent is preferably Pt, Ru or Pd/Al₂O₃And (3) powder. For high temperature operation, the dissociating agent may contain Pt or Pd on a large surface area support that is suitably inert to Na. The dissociating agent may be Pt or Pd/Al on carbon₂O₃. The latter support may contain a material for the protective surface coating, for example NaAlO₂. The reactants may be present in any wt%.

Preferred embodiments include Na or NaH, NaNH₂、Al₂O₃Reaction mixture of Pd on powder, wherein the reaction mixture can be purified by adding H₂And is regenerated.

In one embodiment, the NaNH is₂Is added to the reaction mixture. NaNH₂Generation of NaH according to a reversible reaction

Na₂+NaNH₂→NaH+Na₂NH (117)

And

2NaH+NaNH₂→NaH(g)+Na₂NH+H₂ (118)

in the reaction cycle of fractional hydrogen, Na-Na and NaNH₂Reacting to form NaH molecules and Na₂NH, and NaH forms hydrinos and Na. Thus, the reaction is reversible, according to which:

Na₂NH+H₂→NaNH₂+NaH (119)

and

Na₂NH+Na+H→NaNH₂+Na₂ (120)

in one embodiment, the NaH of formula (119) is a molecule such that this reaction is another reaction that produces a catalyst.

The reaction of sodium amide and hydrogen to form ammonia and sodium hydride is

H₂+NaNH₂→NH₃+NaH (121)

In one embodiment, the reaction is reversible. The reaction may be carried out by increasing H ₂The concentration to form NaH. Alternatively, the forward reaction may be driven by the formation of atomic H using a dissociating agent. The reaction is given by

2H+NaNH₂→NH₃+NaH (122)

The exothermic reaction can drive the formation of NaH (gas).

In one embodiment, the reaction is performed from NaNH as given in the reaction equation (121-122)₂And hydrogen, preferably atomic hydrogen, to form the NaH catalyst. The ratio of reactants can be any desired amount. Preferably, the ratio is about stoichiometric for those of formulas (121-122). With a source of hydrogen such as H₂Addition of gas or hydride to replace those that have reacted to form hydrinos, the reaction to form the catalyst being reversible, wherein the catalyst reaction is disclosedIs given by formula (88-95) and forms sodium amide by reaction of ammonia with Na with additional NaH catalyst:

NH₃+Na₂→NaNH₂+NaH (123)

in one embodiment, the HSA material is doped with NaNH₂. The incorporated HSA material reacts with the reagent that will displace the amide group to form at least one of Na and NaH. In one embodiment, the reactant is an alkali or alkaline earth metal, preferably Li. In another embodiment, the reactant is an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride, preferably LiH. The reactant may be both an alkali metal and an alkaline earth metal hydride. The source of H, e.g., H, may be provided in addition to the source of H provided by any other reagent of the reaction mixture, e.g., hydride, HSA material, and displacer ₂And (4) qi.

In one embodiment, the sodium amide undergoes reaction with lithium to form lithium amide, lithium imide, or lithium nitride and a Na or NaH catalyst. The reaction of sodium and lithium amide to form lithium imide and NaH is

2Li+NaNH₂→Li₂NH+NaH (124)

The reaction of sodium amide and lithium hydride to form lithium amide and NaH is

LiH+NaNH₂→LiNH₂+NaH (125)

The reaction of sodium amide, lithium and hydrogen to form lithium amide and NaH is

Li+1/2H₂+NaNH₂→LiNH₂+NaH (126)

In one embodiment, the reaction of the mixture forms Na, and the reactants further comprise a source of H that reacts with Na to form the catalyst NaH by a reaction such as the following reaction:

Li+NaNH₂formation of LiNH₂+Na (127)

And

na + H to NaH (128)

LiH+NaNH₂Formation of LiNH₂+NaH (129)

In one embodiment, the reactant comprises NaNH₂Replacement of NaNH₂The reactant of the amide group of (a) such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, preferably Li, and may additionally include a source of H such as MH (M ═ Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba), H₂And a hydrogen dissociating agent, and a hydride.

Reagents for the reaction mixture, e.g. M, MH, NaH, NaNH₂The HAS material, hydride and dissociating agent are present in any desired molar ratio. M, MH, NaNH₂And the dissociating agent are each present in a molar ratio greater than 0 and less than 100%, preferably the molar ratios are similar.

Other embodiments of systems for producing the molecular catalyst NaH include Na and NaBH₄Or NH₄X (X is an anion such as a halide). Molecular NaH catalyst can be reacted with Na₂And NaBH₄The reaction of (a) to (b):

Na₂+NaBH₄generation of NaBH₃+Na+NaH (130)

NH₄X can generate NaNH₂And H₂

Na₂+NH₄X to NaX + NaNH₂+H₂ (131)

Thereafter, NaH catalyst may be formed according to the reaction of formula (117) -129). In another embodiment, the reaction mechanism for the formation of the Na/N system of the hydrino catalyst NaH is

NH₄X + Na-Na generates NaH + NH₃+NaX (132)

Preparation and regeneration of NH catalyst reactants

In one embodiment, NaH molecules or Na and hydrogenated R — Ni can be regenerated by systems and methods in accordance with those disclosed in the Li-based reactant systems. In one embodiment, Na may be released from NaH by evacuation of H₂To regenerate from solid NaH. The plateau temperature for NaH decomposition at about 1 torr is about 500 ℃. NaH can be decomposed at about 1 torr and about 500 c below the alloy formation and sintering temperature of R-Ni. Molten Na may be separated from R-Ni, R-Ni may be rehydrogenated, and Na and hydrogenated R-Ni may be sent back to another reaction cycle. In the case of Na vapor deposition on the surface of hydrides, regeneration can be achieved by heating with pumping to remove Na, hydrides and by introducing H ₂But is rehydrogenated and in one embodiment Na atoms may redeposit on the regenerated hydride after the bath is drained.

In a preferred embodiment, the competitive kinetics of hydrogenation or dehydrogenation of one reactant over another reactant is exploited to obtain a reaction mixture containing hydrogenated and non-hydrogenated compounds. For example, the formation of NaH solids is thermodynamically favored over the formation of R — Ni hydrides. However, the NaH formation rate is slow at low temperatures, e.g., in the range of about 25 ℃ to 100 ℃; while the formation of R-Ni hydride proceeds at a high rate at this temperature range under moderate pressure, e.g., in the range of about 100 torr to 3000 torr. Thus, a reaction mixture of Na and hydrogenated R-Ni can be regenerated from NaH solids and R-Ni by pumping at about 400-500 ℃ to dehydrogenate NaH, cooling the vessel to about 25-100 ℃, adding hydrogen to preferentially hydrogenate R-Ni for the duration of time to achieve the desired selectivity, and then removing excess hydrogen through a drain sump. When excess Na is present or added in excess amounts, R-Ni can be used in repeated cycles by selective hydrogenation alone. This can be achieved by adding hydrogen at a temperature and pressure range that achieves selective hydrogenation of R-Ni and then removing excess hydrogen before the vessel is heated to start the reaction to form atomic H and atomic NaH and the subsequent reaction to produce the H state given by equation (1). Alternatively, a reaction mixture containing Na and a hydrogen source, such as R-Ni, can be hydrogenated to form a hydride, and NaH solids can be selectively dehydrogenated by pumping over a range and duration of temperatures and pressures that achieve selectivity based on different kinetics.

In embodiments having a powder source of powdered reactants, such as catalyst and reductant, the reductant powder is mixed with the catalyst source powder. For example, NaOH-doped R — Ni providing NaH catalyst is mixed with metal or metal hydride powders, such as lanthanides or NaH, respectively. In one embodiment of a reaction mixture having a solid material such as a dissociating agent, a support, or an HSA material incorporated or coated with at least one other substance of the reaction mixture, mixing may be achieved by ball milling or incipient wetness. In one embodiment, the surface may be coated by immersing the surface in a solution of a substance such as NaOH or NaX (X is a counter ion such as a halide) followed by drying. Alternatively, NaOH may be incorporated into the Ni/Al alloy or R-Ni by etching with concentrated NaOH (deoxygenated) using the same procedure [49] as is well known in the art for etching R-Ni. In one embodiment, an HSA material, e.g., R-Ni, incorporated with a substance such as NaOH, is reacted with a reducing agent such as Na to form a NaH catalyst that reacts to form hydrinos. Excess reducing agent, e.g., Na, can then be removed from the product by evaporation, preferably under vacuum at elevated temperature. The reducing agent may be concentrated to be recycled. In another embodiment, at least one of the reducing agent and the product species is removed by use of a transport medium, e.g., a gas or a liquid such as a solvent, and the removed species can be separated from the transport medium. The material may be separated by methods well known in the art, such as precipitation, filtration or centrifugation. The material is directly recycled or further reacted into a chemical form suitable for recycling. Furthermore, NaOH can be regenerated by H reduction or by reaction with a steam gas stream. In the former case, excess Na may be removed by evaporation (preferably under vacuum at elevated temperature). Alternatively, the reaction product may be removed by rinsing with an appropriate solvent, such as water, the HSA material may be dried, and the initial reactants may be added. Separately, the product can be regenerated to the original reactant by methods known to those skilled in the art. Alternatively, the reaction product separated by rinsing the R-Ni, such as NaOH, may be used in the process of etching R-Ni to regenerate it. In embodiments that include reactants that react with the HSA material, the product, e.g., oxide, can be treated with a solvent, e.g., a dilute acid, to remove the product. The HSA material can then be reincorporated and reused, and the removed product can be regenerated by known methods.

Reducing agents such as alkali metals can be used, for example, in Cotton [48 ]]The methods and systems known to those skilled in the art given in (1) from the group containing the corresponding compounds, preferably NaOH or Na₂And (4) regenerating products of O. One method involves electrolysis in a mixture such as a eutectic mixture. In yet another embodiment, the reduction product may include at least some oxide, e.g., a lanthanide metal oxide (such as La)₂O₃). The hydroxide or oxide can be dissolved in a weak acid such as hydrochloric acid to form the corresponding salt such as NaCl or LaCl₃. The treatment with the acid may be a gas phase reaction. The gas may be a low pressure gas stream. The salt may be treated with a product reducing agent, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, to form the original reducing agent. In one embodiment, the second reducing agent is an alkaline earth metal, preferably Ca, wherein NaCl or LaCl₃Is reduced to Na or La metal. Methods known to those skilled in the art are in Cotton [48 ] which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety]Is given in (1). CaCl₃The other products of (a) are recovered and recycled. In an alternative embodiment, H is used at elevated temperatures₂The oxide is reduced.

In one embodiment, wherein the NaAlH₄Is a reducing agent and the product includes Na and Al that need not be separated from the R-Ni product. Without separation, R-Ni is regenerated to be catalytic A source of the agent. Regeneration may be by addition of NaOH. NaOH can partially etch R-Ni Al 49]It is dried for reuse [50]. Alternatively, Na and Al are reacted in situ or separated from the reaction product mixture and used as in Cotton [51 ]]With H given in₂Reaction directly to form NaAlH₄Or by reaction of the recovered NaH with Al to form NaAlH₄。

R-Ni is a preferred HSA material with NaOH as the NaH catalyst source. In one embodiment, the Na content from the article of manufacture is in a range of about 0.01mg to 100mg per gram of R-Ni, preferably in a range of about 0.1mg to 10mg per gram of R-Ni, and most preferably in a range of about 1mg to 10mg Na per gram of R-Ni. The R-Ni or Ni alloy may further include a co-catalyst such as at least one of Zn, Mo, Fe, and Cr. The R-Ni or alloy may be at least one of: r. grace Davidson Raney 2400, Raney 2800, Raney 2813, Raney3201 and Raney 4200, preferably 2400, or embodiments of these materials etched or doped with Na. The NaOH content of R-Ni can be increased by a factor in the range of about 1.01 to 1000 times. The solid NaOH may be added via mixing by methods such as ball milling, or it may be dissolved in solution to obtain the desired concentration or pH. The solution may be added to R-Ni and the water evaporated to obtain the incorporation. The incorporation can be in the range of about 0.1 μ g to 100mg per gram of R-Ni, preferably in the range of about 1 μ g to 100 μ g per gram of R-Ni, and most preferably in the range of about 5 μ g to 50 μ g per gram of R-Ni. In one embodiment, 0.1g of NaOH is dissolved in 100ml of distilled water and 10ml of NaOH solution is added to 500g of un-decanted R-Ni from w.r.grace Chemical Company (e.g. batch #2800/05310) with an initial total content of Na of about 0.1 wt%. After which the mixture is dried. Drying can be achieved by heating at 50 ℃ for 65 hours under vacuum. In another embodiment, incorporation can be achieved by ball milling NaOH with R-Ni, e.g., about 1 to 10mg of NaOH per gram of R-Ni.

R-Ni can be dried according to standard R-Ni drying procedure [ 50%]Dried to dryness. R-Ni may be decanted and dried under vacuum at a temperature range of about 10-500 c, preferably at 50 c. The duration may be from about 1 hour toWithin the range of 200 hours, preferably the duration is about 65 hours. In one embodiment, the H content of the dried R-Ni is in the range of about 1ml to 100ml H/g R-Ni, preferably the H content of the dried R-Ni is in the range of about 10 to 50ml H/g R-Ni (where ml gas is at STP). Controlling the drying temperature, time, vacuum pressure and gas flow (if any, e.g. He, Ar or H) during and after drying₂) To obtain a dry and desired H content.

In one embodiment of R-Ni incorporated with a source of NaH catalyst, such as NaOH, preparation of R-Ni from a Ni/Al alloy includes the step of etching the alloy with an aqueous NaOH solution. The concentration of NaOH, etching time, and rinse exchange are varied to achieve the desired level of NaOH binding. In one embodiment, the NaOH solution is oxygen free. The molar concentration is in the range of about 1 to 10M, preferably in the range of about 5 to 8M, and most preferably about 7M. In one embodiment, the alloy is reacted with NaOH for 2 hours at about 50 ℃. The solution is then diluted with water, e.g., deionized water, and brought to Al (OH) ₃A precipitate forms. In this example, water-soluble Na [ Al (OH) is formed₄]NaOH and Al (OH)₃Is at least partially prevented to enable the incorporation of NaOH into the R-Ni. Binding can be obtained by drying the R-Ni but not decanting. The pH of the diluted solution may be in the range of 8 to 14, preferably in the range of 9 to 12, and most preferably in the range of about 10-11. Argon gas bubbles may be passed through the solution for about 12 hours, and the solution is then dried.

After reaction of the reducing agent and the catalyst source to form hydrinos (H having a state given by formula (1)), the reducing agent and the catalyst source are regenerated. In one embodiment, the reaction product is isolated. The reduction product may be separated from the product of the catalyst source. In one embodiment, wherein at least one of the reducing agent and the catalyst source is a powder, the product is mechanically separated based on at least one of particle size, shape, weight, density, magnetic properties, or dielectric constant. Particles with significant differences in size and shape can be mechanically separated using a sieve. Particles with large differences in density can be separated by buoyancy differences. Particles with large differences in permeability can be magnetically separated. Particles with large differences in dielectric constant can be electrostatically separated. In one embodiment, the product is ground to reverse any sintering. Grinding with ball mill.

Methods known to those skilled in the art can be used for the separation of the present invention by using routine experimentation. In general, as described in Earle [52], which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, mechanical separation can be divided into four groups: settling, centrifuging, filtering and screening. In a preferred embodiment, the separation of the particles is obtained by at least one of sieving and the use of a classifier. The size and shape of the particles in the starting materials can be selected to obtain the desired product separation.

In yet another embodiment, the reducing agent is a powder or is converted to a powder and separated from other components of the product reaction mixture, such as HSA material. In embodiments, Na, NaH, and the lanthanide element comprise at least one of the reducing agent and the reducing agent source, and the HSA material composition is R — Ni. The reduction product may be separated from the product mixture by converting any unreacted non-powdered reducing metal to a hydride. The hydride may be formed by the addition of hydrogen. The metal hydride may be ground to form a powder. The powder may then be separated from other products, such as the product of the catalyst source, based on the difference in particle size. The mixture may be separated by agitating the mixture through a series of sieves selective for certain size ranges to produce separation. Alternatively, or in combination with sieving, R-Ni particles are separated from metal hydrides or metal particles on the basis of a large difference in magnetic permeability between the particles. The reduced R-Ni product may be magnetic. Unreacted lanthanide metal and hydrogenated metal and any oxides such as La ₂O₃Weakly paramagnetic and diamagnetic, respectively. The product mixture may be agitated by a series of strong magnets, alone or in combination with one or more sieves, to facilitate separation based on at least one of a strong adhesion or attraction of the R-Ni product particles to the magnets and a size difference of the two grades of particles. In embodiments using a sieve and an externally applied magnetic field, the latter incorporating gravityThe external force is to pull the smaller R-Ni product particles through the screen while the weakly paramagnetic or diamagnetic particles of the reduced product are retained on the screen due to their larger size. The alkali metal can be recovered from the corresponding hydride by heating and optionally by using a vacuum. The isolated hydrogen may be reacted with the alkali metal in another set of repeated reaction-regeneration cycles. There may be more than one batch at different stages in the cycle. The hydride and any other compounds may be separated and then reacted to form the metal separately from the metal formation from the hydride.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is regenerated by vapor deposition techniques, preferably where the reactants are on the surface of the HSA material, e.g., R-Ni. In yet another embodiment having other coatings of desired reactants containing at least one of a source of NaH catalyst on the surface and a material that supports the formation of NaH catalyst, such as an HSA material, the reactants are provided by reacting a gas stream with an HSA material, such as R-Ni. The deposited reactants may contain at least one of the group of: na, NaH, Na ₂O、NaOH、Al、Ni、NiO、NaAl(OH)₄Beta-alumina, Na₂O·nAl₂O₃(n-an integer from 1 to 1000, preferably 11), Al (OH)₃And Al in the alpha, beta and gamma forms₂O₃. The elements, compounds, intermediates and species of vapor deposition and the sequence and composition of the gas streams and the chemistry of forming the reactants from the gas streams, which are the desired reactants or are converted to the desired reactants, are well known to those skilled in the art of vapor deposition. For example, alkali metals can be directly vapor deposited, while any metal with a low vapor pressure, such as Al, can be vapor deposited from gaseous halides or hydrides. Furthermore, oxide products such as Na₂O may react with a hydrogen source to form a hydroxide, such as NaOH. The hydrogen source may include a steam gas stream to regenerate NaON. Alternatively, NaOH may be used as H₂Or H₂A source is formed. Furthermore, hydrogenation of HSA material, e.g. R-Ni, can be obtained by supplying hydrogen gas and removing excess hydrogen by methods such as pumping. NaOH can be obtained by precisely controlling the reaction from sources such as steam or hydrogenThe total moles of H are stoichiometrically regenerated. Any additional Na or NaH formed at this stage can be removed by evaporation and decomposition and evaporation, respectively. Alternatively, oxide or hydroxide products such as Na ₂O or excess NaOH may be removed. This can be obtained by conversion to a halide, such as NaI, which can be removed by distillation or evaporation. Evaporation can be achieved using heat or by maintaining a vacuum at elevated temperatures. Conversion to halide may be obtained by reaction with an acid such as HI. The treatment may be by a gas stream comprising an acid gas. In another embodiment, any excess NaOH is removed by sublimation. This is as in Cotton [53 ]]The temperatures given in (1) occur in the temperature range of 350-400 ℃ under vacuum. Any evaporation, distillation, transport, gas flow process or process related to the reactants may also contain a carrier gas. The carrier gas may be an inert gas such as a noble gas. Further steps may include mechanical mixing or separation. For example, NaOH and NaH may also be mechanically deposited or removed, respectively, by methods such as ball milling and sieving.

Where the excess is an element other than the desired first element, e.g., Na, the other element may be substituted with a second, e.g., Na, using methods known in the art. The step may include evaporation of excess reductant. Large surface area materials such as R-Ni can be etched. The etching may use a base, preferably NaOH. The etch product may be decanted with substantially all of any solvent, such as water, that is mechanically removed, for example, by decanting and possibly centrifuging. The etched R-Ni may be dried under vacuum and recycled.

Additional MH-type catalysts and reactions

Another catalyst system of MH type comprises aluminum. The bond energy of AlH is 2.98eV [44 ]]. The first and second ionization energies of Al are 5.985768eV and 18.82855eV [1 ]]. Based on these energies, AlH molecules can act as catalyst and H source because the bond energy of AlH adds Al to Al²⁺The double ionization (t ═ 2) of (a) is 27.79eV (27.2eV), which corresponds to m ═ 1 in the formula (2). The catalyst reaction is given by

Al²⁺+2e^-+H→AlH+27.79eV (134)

And the overall reaction is

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of AlH molecules and a source of AlH molecules. The AlH molecular source may comprise Al metal and a hydrogen source, preferably atomic hydrogen. The hydrogen source may be a hydride, preferably R-Ni. In another embodiment, the catalyst AlH is generated by the reaction of an oxide or hydroxide of Al with a reducing agent. The reducing agent comprises at least one of the previously given NaOH reducing agents. In one embodiment, a source of H is provided to a source of Al to form catalyst AlH. The Al source may be a metal. The source of H may be a hydroxide. The hydroxide may be an alkali metal hydroxide, an alkaline earth metal hydroxide, a transition metal hydroxide, and Al (OH)₃At least one of (1).

Raney nickel can be prepared by the following two reaction steps:

Ni+3Al→NiAl₃(or Ni)₂Al₃) (136)

Na[Al(OH)₄]Readily dissolved in concentrated NaOH. It can be washed in deoxygenated water. The Ni prepared contains Al (10 wt%, which can vary), is porous and hasHas a large surface area. It contains a large amount of H, i.e. Ni-AlH in the Ni lattice_x(x is 1, 2, 3).

R-Ni can react with another element to produce a chemical release of AlH molecules that then undergo catalysis according to the reaction given by the formula (133-135). In one embodiment, the AlH release is produced by a reduction reaction, etching or alloy formation. One such other element M is a Ni moiety that reacts with R-Ni to promote AlH_xTo release alkali or alkaline earth metals of the AlH molecules which subsequently undergo catalytic action. In one embodiment, M may react with Al hydroxide or oxide to form Al metal that may further react with H to form AlH. The reaction can be initiated by heating and the rate can be controlled by controlling the temperature. M (alkali or alkaline earth metal) and R-Ni are present in any desired molar ratio. Each of M and R-Ni is present in a molar ratio greater than 0 and less than 100%. Preferably the molar ratios of M and R-Ni are similar.

In one embodiment, Al atoms are vapor deposited on the surface. The surface may support or may be a source of H atoms to form AlH molecules. The surface may contain at least one of a hydride and a hydrogen dissociating agent. The surface may be R-Ni which may be hydrogenated. The vapor deposition may be from a library containing a source of Al atoms. The Al source can be controlled by heating. One source that provides Al atoms when heated is Al metal. The surface may be maintained at a low temperature, such as room temperature, during the vapor deposition process. The Al coated surface can be heated to promote the reaction of Al and H forming AlH, and can also promote the reaction of AlH molecules to form the H state given by equation (1). Other thin film deposition techniques well known in the art for forming layers of at least one of Al and other elements, such as metals, also constitute embodiments of the present invention. Such embodiments include physical atomization, electrospray, aerosol, electric arching, knudsen cell controlled release, distributed cathode injection, plasma deposition, sputtering, and other coating methods and systems such as chemical deposition of molten finely dispersed Al, electroplated Al, and Al.

In one embodiment, the source of AlH includes R-Ni and other Raney metals or alloys of Al known in the art, such as R-Ni or alloys containing at least one of Ni, Cu, Si, Fe, Ru, Co, Pd, Pt, and other elements and compounds. The R-Ni or alloy may also contain a promoter such as at least one of Zn, Mo, Fe, and Cr. R-Ni may be at least one of: r. grace davidson Raney 2400, Raney 2800, Raney 2813, Raney 3201, Raney 4200, or embodiments of these materials that are etched or doped with Na. In another embodiment of the AlH catalyst system, the catalyst source comprises a Ni/Al alloy, wherein the ratio of Al to Ni is in the range of about 10-90%, preferably in the range of about 10-50%, and most preferably in the range of about 10-30%. The catalyst source may comprise palladium or platinum and also Al as a raney metal.

The AlH source may also include AlH₃。AlH₃Can be deposited on or with Ni to form NiAlH_xAnd (3) alloying. The alloy may be activated by the addition of a metal, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises AlH₃R-Ni and metals such as alkali metals. The metal may be supplied at elevated temperature from a reservoir by evaporation or gravity fed from a source running down over R-Ni. In one embodiment, AlH molecules or Al and hydrogenated R-Ni can be regenerated by following the systems and methods disclosed for other reaction systems.

Another catalyst system of MH type includes chlorine. The bond energy of HCl is 4.4703eV 44]. The first, second and third ionization energies of Cl are 12.96764eV, 23.814eV and 39.61eV [1 ] respectively]. Based on these energies, HCl can act as a catalyst and a source of H because of the HCl's bond energy plus Cl to Cl³⁺The triplet ionization (t ═ 3) of (a) is 80.86eV (3 · 27.2eV), which corresponds to m ═ 3 in the formula (2). The catalyst reaction is given by

Cl³⁺+3e^-+H→HCl+80.86eV (139)

And the overall reaction is

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes HCl or a source of HCl. The source may be NH₄Cl or solid acids and chlorides such as alkali or alkaline earth metal chlorides. The solid acid may be MHSO₄、MHCO₃、MH₂PO₄And MHPO₄Wherein M is a cation such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cation. Other such solid acids are known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reactants include an HCl catalyst in an ionic lattice, such as HCl in an alkali or alkaline earth metal halide (preferably chloride). In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a strong acid such as H₂SO₄And ionic compounds such as NaCl. The reaction of the acid and an ionic compound such as NaCl produces HCl in the crystal lattice as a hydrino catalyst and a source of H.

In general, table 2 shows a hydrino-type MH hydrogen catalyst that produces hydrinos as provided by the breaking of M-H bonds plus the ionization of each of t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV (where M is an integer). Each MH catalyst is given in the first column and the corresponding M-H bond can be given in the second column. The atom M of the MH species given in the first column is ionized to provide the net enthalpy of reaction m.27.2 eV which adds the bond energy in the second column. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in column eight, where m is given in column ninth. The electrons participating in ionization are given together with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). For example, the bond energy of NaH 1.9245eV 44]Given in the second column. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is denoted by IPn and by CRC [1 ]]It is given. That is, for example, Na +5.13908eV → Na⁺+e^-And Na⁺+47.2864eV→Na²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁5.13908eV and a second ionization potential IP₂47.2864eV, given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction of cleavage of NaH bond and double ionization of Na is 54.35eV as given in column eight, and m ═ 2 in formula (2) as given in column ninth. Further, H can react with each of the MH molecules given in table 2 to form a hydrino having a doubled quantum number p (equation (1)) relative to the catalyst reaction product of MH alone as given by exemplary equation (92).

TABLE 2 MH-type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of about m.27.2 eV.

In another embodiment of MH type catalysts, the reactants include sources of SbH, SiH, SnH, and InH. In embodiments where a catalyst MH is provided, the source contains M and H₂Source and MH_xAt least one of, e.g., Sb, Si, Sn, and In and H₂Source and SbH₃、SiH₄、SnH₄And InH₃At least one of (1).

The reaction mixture may also include a source of H and a source of catalyst, where the source of at least one of H and catalyst may be a solid acid or NH₄X, wherein X is a halide, preferably Cl, to form the HCl catalyst. Preferably, the reaction mixture may comprise NH₄X, solid acid, NaX, LiX, KX, NaH, LiH, KH, Na, Li, K, carrier, hydrogen dissociating agent and H₂Wherein X is a halide, preferably Cl. The solid acid may be NaHSO₄、KHSO₄、LiHSO₄、NaHCO₃、KHCO₃、LiHCO₃、Na₂HPO₄、K₂HPO₄、Li₂HPO₄、NaH₂PO₄、KH₂PO₄And LiH₂PO₄. The catalyst may be at least one of NaH, Li, K, and HCl. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of a dissociating agent and a carrier.

Other thin film deposition techniques well known in the art also constitute embodiments of the present invention. Such embodiments include physical atomization, electrospray, aerosol, electric arching, knudsen cell controlled release, distributed cathodoinjection, plasma deposition, sputtering, and other coating methods and systems such as chemical deposition of molten finely dispersed M, electroplating M, and M, where MH constitutes the catalyst.

In each instance of MH sources containing M alloys, such as Al and AlH, respectively, the alloys may be represented by H₂Sources such as H₂And (4) gas hydrogenation. H may be provided to the alloy during the reaction₂Or H may be supplied during the reaction with a varying H pressure₂To form an alloy with the desired H content. In this example, the initial H₂The pressure may be about zero. The alloy may be activated by the addition of a metal, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. For the MH catalyst and MH source, the hydrogen gas may be maintained in the range of about 1 torr to 100 atmospheres, preferably about 100 torr to 10 atmospheres, more preferably 500 torr to 2 atmospheres. In other embodiments, the hydrogen source is from a hydride, such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride or a transition metal hydride.

High density atomic hydrogen can undergo a three-body-collision reaction to form hydrinos, where one H atom undergoes a transition to form the state given by equation (1) and two other H atoms ionize. The reaction is given by

2H⁺+2e^-→2H[a_H]+27.21eV (142)

And, the overall reaction is

In another embodiment, the reaction is given by

2H_{Fast-acting toy} ⁺+2e^-→2H[a_H]+54.4eV (145)

And, the overall reaction is

In one embodiment, the material providing a high density of hydrogen atoms is R-Ni. The atom H can be derived from decomposition of H in R-Ni and from H ₂Sources such as H supplied to the cell₂H of gas₂At least one of disassociates. R-Ni can react with an alkali or alkaline earth metal M to enhance the creation of a layer of atomic H to promote catalysis. R-Ni can be regenerated by adding hydrogen after evaporating the metal M to rehydrogenate R-Ni.

Reference to the literature

D.R.Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Handbook of CRC Chemistry and Physics), 78 th edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, (1997), pages 10-214 to 10-216; hereinafter referred to as CRC ".

R.L.Mills, "The Nature of The Chemical Bond revised and alternative Maxwellian Approach", Physics assays, Vol.17, No. 3, (2004), p.342-389. Published in http:// www.blacklightpower.com/pdf/technical/H2paper Table Figures Caption 111303.pdf, which is incorporated by reference.

R.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, W.good, P.Jansson, M.Nansteel, J.He, A.Voigt, "Spectroscopic and NMR Identification of novelHydroide Ions in Fractional Quantum States Formed by the exothermic Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen and Certain Catalysts" Spectroscopic Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen with Atomic catalysis, Vol.28, (2004), pp.83-104.

R.Mills and M.Nanstel, P.ray, "Argon-Hydrogen-Strontium discharge Source," IEEE Transactions on plasma science, Vol.30, No. 2, (2002), p.639-.

R.Mills and M.Nanstel, P.ray, "Bright Hydrogen-Light Source to Aescinant Energy Transfer with Strong and Argon Ions (Bright Source of Hydrogen due to the resonance Energy Transfer of Strontium and Argon Ions)," New Journal of Physics, Vol.4, (2002), pp.70.1-70.28.

R.Mills, J.Dong, Y.Lu, "Observation of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen emission from incorporated Heated Hydrogen Gas with Catalysts catalyst with far Ultraviolet Hydrogen emission from incandescent heating", int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.25, (2000), p.919-.

R.Mills, M.Nanstel, and P.ray, "treatment bright Plasma-Light Source Dual to Energy resource of Plasma of Structure with Hydrogen," J.of Plasma Physics, Vol.69, (2003), page 131-.

H.Conrads, R.Mills, Th.Wrubel, "Emission in the Deep vacuum ultraviolet from a Plasma Formed by incandescent Heating of Hydrogen and Trace Potassium Carbonate" and "Emission in Deep vacuum ultraviolet from Plasma generated by incandescent Heating of Hydrogen and Trace Potassium Carbonate", Plasma resources Science and Technology, Vol.12, (3003), pp.389 395.

R.L.Mills, J.He, M.Nansteel, B.Dhandapani, "Catalysis of atomic hydrogen to New Hydrides as a New Power Source," has been filed.

R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Low-Voltage EUVand Visible Light Source Dual to Catalysis of Atomic Hydrogen," was filed.

J.Phillips, R.L.Mills, X.Chen, "Water Bath Calorimetric Study of excess Heat in 'Resonance Transfer' plasma," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.96, No. 6, p.3095-.

R.L.Mills, X.Chen, P.ray, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Plasma Power Source Based on a Catalytic Reaction by Water Bath Calorimetry of Atomic Hydrogen catalyzed Reaction by Water Bath Calorimetry", Thermochimica Acta, Vol. 406/1-2, (2003), pp.35-53.

R.l.mills, y.lu, m.nansteel, j.he, a.voigt, b.dhandpani, "Energetic Catalyst-Hydrogen Plasma Reaction as a Potential New energy source," Division of fuel Chemistry, "Session: chemistry of Solid, Liquid, and gases Fuels (conference: Chemistry of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Fuels), 227th American Chemical Society National Meeting (227 th National congress of American Chemical Society), 3.28.2004 to 4.1.1.Anaheim, Calif.

R.Mills, B.Dhandapani, M.Nansteel, J.He, T.Shannon, A.Echezuria, "Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Hydride Compounds", int.J.of Hydride Energy, Vol.26, No. 4, (2001), p.339-367.

R.Mills, B.Dhandapani, M.Nanstel, J.He, A.Voigt, "Identification of Compounds Containing new Hydride Ions by NMR Spectroscopy", int.J.hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 9, (2001), page 965. 979.

R.Mills, B.Dhandapani, N.Greenig, J.He, "Synthesis and characterization of Potassium iodide Hydride", int.J.of Hydrogen Energy, Vol.25, No. 12, month 12, (2000), p.1185, 1203.

R.L.Mills, Y.Lu, J.He, M.Nanstel, P.ray, X.Chen, A.Voigt, B.Dhandapani, "Spectral Identification of New States of Hydrogen," filed.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, "Extreme Ultraviolet Spectroscopy of helium-Hydrogen Plasma", J.Phys.D., Applied Physics, Vol.36, (2003), p.1535. pages 1542.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, M.Nansteel, X.Chen, J.He, "New Power Source from Fractional Quantum resources Levels of atomic fuels superior to Internal Combustion," J mol.struct., vol.643, stages 1-3, (2002), pages 43-54.

R.Mills, P.ray, "Spectral Emission of Fractional Quantum levels of Atomic Hydrogen from a Helium-Hydrogen Plasma and implications for Dark Matter," Int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.27, No. 3, (2002), pp.301-322.

21.R.L.Mills，P.Ray，″A Comprehensive Study of Spectra of theBound-Free Hyperfine Levels of Novel Hydride Ion H^-(1/2), Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Air (bound-free hyperfine levels of novel hydride ions H^-(1/2), comprehensive study of spectra of hydrogen, nitrogen and air), ", int.j. hydrogen Energy, Vol.28, No. 8, (2003), pp.825-871.

R.Mills, "Spectroscopic Identification of a Novel Catalytic Reaction of atomic Hydrogen and the Hydride Ion Product," int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 10, (2001), p.1041-1058.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, R.M.Mayo, J.He, "comparison of Glow Discharge Hydrogen plasma and microwave Hydrogen plasma Excessive Barmer α Line Broadening using Certain Catalysts" of Applied Physics, Vol.92, No. 12, (2002), pp.7008 and 7022.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "compatibility of ExcesBalmer α Line amplification of Induction and catalysis Coupled RF, Microwave, and Glow Discharge plasma with alumina Catalysts (Comparison of excessive Barmer α Line Broadening of Inductively and Capacitively Coupled RF, Microwave, and Glow Discharge Hydrogen plasma using Certain Catalysts)," IEEE Transactions on plasma science, Vol.31, No. (2003), pp.338-.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, "fundamental Changes in the chemistry of a microwave Plasma Dual to Combining Argon and Hydrogen (significant change in the properties of microwave Plasma Due to the combination of Argon and Hydrogen)", New Journal of Physics, www.njp.org, Vol.4, (2002), pp.1-22.17.

J.Phillips, C.Chen, "Evidence of an Energetic Reaction Between helium and Hydrogen Species in RF-Generated plasma" has been filed.

R.Mills, P.ray, R.M.Mayo, "CW HI Laser Based on a statically engaged Lyman particle Formed from incorporated synthesized hydrogenated hydrogenogens with Certain Group I Catalysts", IEEETransactions on Plasma Science, Vol.31, No. 2, (2003), p.236. sub.247.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, "Stationary Inverted Lyman particle formation from incorporated catalyst gases with Certain Catalysts", J.Phys.D., Applied Physics, Vol.36, (2003), page 1504-.

R.Mills, P.ray, R.M.Mayo, "The functional for a hydrogen Water-Plasma Laser (Potential of hydrogen water-Plasma Laser)", Applied Physics letters, Vol.82, No. 11, (2003), pp.1679-.

R.Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of classic Quantum Mechanics; published in http:// www.blacklightpower.com/the book/book download, shtml, 10.2007.

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34.H.Beutler，Z.Physical Chem.，″Die dissoziationswarme deswasserstoffmolekuls H₂Aus einem neuen ultravioletten resonanzbandenzugbestimt (molecule H determined by a novel uv resonance technique)₂Heat of dissociation) ", Vol.27B, (1934), p.287-302.

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38.K.R.Lykke，K.K.Murray，W.C.Lineberger，″Thresholdphotodetachment of H^-(H^-Light separation threshold of (A) ", Phys. Rev.A, Vol.43, No. 11, (1991), p.6104-6107.

39.R.Mills，J.He，Z.Chang，W.Good，Y.Lu，B.Dhandapani，″Catalysis of Atomic Hydrogen to Novel Hydrogen Species H^-(1/4)andH₂(1/4) as a New Power Source (atomic Hydrogen to New Hydrogen substance H as New energy Source)^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4), "int.j. hydrogen Energy, Vol.32, No. 12, (2007), pp.2573-2584.

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D.R.Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Handbook of CRC Chemistry and Physics), 86 th edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, (2005-6), pages 4-45 to 4-97, which is incorporated herein by reference.

W.i.f.david, m.o.jones, d.h.gregory, c.m.jewell, s.r.johnson, a.walton, p.edwards, "a Mechanism for Non-stoichimetric methanol Reaction in the Lithium Amide/Lithium Imide Hydrogen Storage Reaction" j.am.chem.soc., 129, (2007), 1594-.

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45.F.A. cotton, G.Wilkinson, C.A. Murillo, M.Bochmann, advanced dInorganic Chemistry, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, (1999), Chapter 6.

F.a. cotton, g.wilkinson, c.a. murillo, m.bochmann, advanced dinorganic Chemistry, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, inc., New York, (1999), page 95.

J-G.Gasser, B.Kefif, "Electrical resistivity of liquid nickel-lanthanum and nickel-cerium alloys", physical review B, Vol.41, No. 5, (1990), p.2776-.

F.a. cotton, g.wilkinson, c.a. murillo, m.bochmann, advanced dinorganic Chemistry, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, inc., New York, (1999).

Choudhary, S.K. Chaudhari, "learning of Raney Ni-Al alloy with kalli; kinetics of hydrogen evolution (leaching of Raney Ni-Al alloys with alkali; hydrogen release kinetics), "J.chem.Tech.Biotech, Vol.33 a, (1983), p.339-349.

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F.a. cotton, g.wilkinson, c.a. murillo, m.bochmann, advanced trinorganic Chemistry, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, inc., New York, (1999), page 190-191.

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53.F.A. cotton, G.Wilkinson, C.A. Murillo, M.Bochmann, advanced dInorganic Chemistry, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, (1999), page 98.

Experiment of

The formula numbers, part numbers and reference numbers given later in this experimental section refer to those given in this experimental section of the present disclosure.

Abstract

Research technical data from a broad spectrum strongly and consistently indicate that hydrogen can exist in lower energy states than previously thought possible. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from the otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the energy-accepting catalyst. The product is H (1/p), fractional Redberg state of atomic hydrogen, referred to as "fractional hydrogen atoms", where (p.ltoreq.137 is an integer) in place of the well-known parameter n ═ integer in the reed-solomon equation for the hydrogen excited state. Atomic lithium and molecular NaH act as catalysts because they meet the catalyst criteria-chemical or physical processes with an enthalpy change equal to an integer m times the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2eV (e.g. m-3 for Li and m-2 for NaH). Using the chemically generated catalytic reactants, a new alkali metal halo hydrido hydride compound (MH X; M ═ Li or Na, X ═ halide) and a binary hydrogen molecule H were tested₂(1/4) corresponding hydrido hydride ion H^-(1/4) a specific prediction based on a closed form formula of the energy level.

First, the Li catalyst was tested. Li and LiNH₂Is used as a source of atomic lithium and hydrogen atoms. Batch calorimetry using water flow, from 1g Li, 0.5g LiNH₂10g LiBr and 15g Pd/Al₂O₃The measured power was about 160W with an energy balance of-19.1 kJ. The observed energy balance is 4.4 times the maximum theoretical value on a known chemical basis. Next, when the kinetic reaction mixture is used for chemical synthesis, Raney nickel (R-Ni) acts as a dissociating agent, with LiBr as an absorbent for the catalytic product H (1/4) to form LiH X and H ₂(1/4) is trapped in the crystal. ToF-SIMs showed LiH X peaks.¹HMAS NMRLiH Br and LiH I showed large apparent high field resonance at-2.5 ppm, which coincided with H in the LiX matrix^-(1/4). NMR Peak at 1.13ppm fit gap H₂(1/4) and in FTIR spectra at 1989cm^-1Observed as normal H₂Of rotational frequency of 4²Multiple H₂(1/4) frequency of rotation. The XPS spectra recorded for LiH × Br crystals show peaks around 9.5eV and 12.3eV, which cannot be attributed to any known element based on the absence of any other elementary element peak, but which are associated with H in two chemical environments^-(1/4) binding energy anastomosis. Another feature of the energy process is the low temperature (e.g. ≈ 10) observed when atomic Li is present with atomic hydrogen³K) And a very low field strength of about 1-2V/cm, called resonant transfer-or rt-plasma. A broadening of the time-dependent line of the hbalmmer α was observed, corresponding to exceptionally rapid H (> 40 eV).

NaH uniquely achieves high reaction kinetics due to the catalyst reaction which relies on the release of intrinsic H, which simultaneously undergoes a transition to form H (1/3) which further reacts to form H (1/4). High temperature Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was performed on ionic NaH under helium atmosphere at a very slow ramp rate (0.1 ℃/min) to increase the amount of molecular NaH formation. A new exothermic effect of-177 kJ/mole NaH was observed in the temperature range of 640 ℃ to 825 ℃. To achieve high power, it will have about 100m ²R-Ni surface coating per g surface area with NaOH and reaction with Na metalTo form NaH. Using water flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power from 15g R-Ni was about 0.5kW with an energy balance of-36 kJ when reacted with Na metal, compared to Δ H ≈ 0kJ from R-Ni starting material R-NiAl alloy. The observed energy balance of the NaH reaction was-1.6X 10⁴kJ/mol H₂In excess of the enthalpy of combustion-241.8 kJ/mol H₂66 times higher.

ToF-SIMs show sodium hydrido NaH_xPeak(s). Of NaH Br and NaH Cl¹HNMR spectra showed large apparent high-field resonances at-3.6 ppm and-4 ppm, respectively (which coincide with H)^-(1/4)) and display anastomosis H₂(1/4) NMR peak at 1.1 ppm. KHSO from NaCl and solid acid as sole hydrogen source₄The reacted NaH Cl of (a) includes two fractions of hydrogen states. H was observed at-3.97 ppm^-(1/4) NMR Peak, and H^-The (1/3) peak also appeared at-3.15 ppm. Corresponding H was observed at 1.15ppm and 1.7ppm, respectively₂(1/4) and H₂(1/3) peak. XPS spectra recorded for LiH Br showed peaks of about 9.5eV and 12.3eV, which coincided with the results from LiH Br and KH I; however, sodium hydrido hydride shows another H of 6eV^-(1/3) XPS peak without the hydrogen state of the two fractions of the halide peak. From H excited by a 12.5keV electron beam ₂(1/4) was also observed to have a common H₂4 of energy of²The expected rotational transition of the multiple energy.

I. Introduction to

Mills [1-12] applied Classical laws to explain the structure of bound electrons and subsequently developed a Unified Theory based on these laws with results matching the observations of fundamental physical and chemical phenomena from quark to cosmic levels, known as Grand Unified Theory of Classic Physics (GUTCP). This paper is the first of a series of two papers that include two specific predictions for GUTCP, including the presence of hydrogen atoms in lower energy states and the transition of atomic hydrogen to lower energy states that represent powerful new energy sources [2 ].

GUTCP predicts reactions involving resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-accepting catalyst to form hydrogen in a lower energy state than previously thought possible. Specifically, the product is H (1/p), fractional Reed-Berth atomic hydrogen, wherein(p.ltoreq.137 is an integer) in place of the well-known parameter n ═ integer in the reed-solomon equation for the hydrogen excited state. Prediction of He⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺Li, K and NaH are catalysts because they meet the catalyst criteria-chemical or physical processes with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2 eV. Research technical data from extensive spectra strongly and consistently support these states, known as hydrinos such as "small hydrogens", and the presence of corresponding diatomic molecules, known as bi-fractional hydrogen molecules. Some of these previous related studies that support the possibility of new reactions of atomic hydrogen that produce hydrogen in fractional quantum states of lower energy than the traditional "base" (n ═ 1) states include Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy, characteristic emissions from catalysts and hydride ion products, lower energy hydrogen emissions, chemically formed plasma, barmer α line broadening, population inversion of H-rays, elevated electron temperatures, abnormal plasma afterglow periods, kinetic generation, and analysis of new chemical compounds [13-40 ]。

Recently, several unexpected physical celestial results have been published that support the presence of hydrinos. In 1995, Mills published GUTCP predictions [41], suggesting that cosmic dilation is accelerated by the same equation that accurately predicts the quack mass before it is measured. This was confirmed in 2000, to the surprise of cosmologists. Mills made another prediction about the properties of GUTCP-based dark matter, which might soon be confirmed. Based on recent evidence, Bournaud et al [42-43] suggest that the dark substance is hydrogen in a dense molecular form that is not known to be unusual in how it behaves in an unobservable way, except by its gravitational effect. Theoretical models predict that dwarf stars, which form collision fragments from giant astroids, should be free of non-heavy daughter dark material. So their weight should be consistent with the stars and gases in them. By analyzing the observed gas dynamics of this regenerated constellation, Bournaud et al [42-43] have measured the gravitational mass of a series of dwarf galaxy located on a ring surrounding giant galaxy that recently experienced collisions. Contrary to the predictions of cool-dark matter (CDM) theory, their results indicate that they contain a large amount of dark components amounting to about twice as much as visible matter. This heavy molecular dark matter is controversial for being cold molecular hydrogen, but it differs from ordinary molecular hydrogen in that they cannot be traced at all by traditional methods such as CO line emission. These results are consistent with the prediction that the dark material is didehydro.

The emission lines recorded in the cold interstellar region containing dark material correspond to H (1/p), the fractional Reed-Berth atomic hydrogen [29 ] given by equations (2a) and (2c)]. These emission lines [27-29 ] with energies of q · 13.6eV (where q ═ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 11) were also observed in the Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectrum recorded by microwave discharge of helium containing 2% hydrogen]. These He⁺The catalyst criteria-chemical or physical process with enthalpy change equal to integer multiples of 27.2 eV-is met because it ionizes at 54.417eV, which is 2 · 27.2 eV. He (He)⁺The product of the catalytic reaction of (1/3) can also act as a catalyst leading to a transition to the other state H (1/p).

The j.r.rydberg shows that the spectral lines for all atomic hydrogens are given by a fully empirical relationship:

wherein R is 109,677cm^-1，n_f＝1，2，3，...，n_iAnd n is 2, 3, 4_i＞n_f。Bohr、And Heisenberg, each developed the theory for atomic hydrogen giving energy levels consistent with the reed equation.

n＝1，2，3，... (2b)

Wherein e is the basic charge,. epsilon_oIs the vacuum permeability and a_HIs the radius of the hydrogen atom. The excited energy state of atomic hydrogen is given by formula (2a) where n > 1 in formula (2 b). The state where n ═ 1 is the "base" state of the "pure" photonic transition (i.e., the state where n ═ 1 can absorb a photon and enter an excited electronic state, but it cannot release a photon and enter a lower energy electronic state). However, electron transitions from the ground state to lower energy states are possible through resonant non-radiative energy transfers such as multipole coupling or resonant collision mechanisms. Processes such as hydrogen molecular bond formation without photon generation and requiring collisions are common [44 ] ]. Also, some commercial phosphors are based on non-radiative energy transfer including multi-pole coupled resonance [45 ]]。

Theory previously reported [1, 13-40]Predicting the potential energy E of atomic hydrogen_h27.2eV (where E_hIs a hartley) of some atomic, excimer, and ionic and diatomic hydrides of reaction. Specific substances (e.g. He) that need to be identifiable based on their known electronic energy levels⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺K, Li, HCl and NaH) are present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer followed by q.13.6 eV emission or a transfer to q.13.6 eV of H to form extraordinarily hot, excited H [13-17, 19-20, 32-39]And hydrogen atoms lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen, which corresponds to the fractional predominant quantum number. Namely, it is

p.ltoreq.137 is an integer (2c)

The well-known parameter n ═ integer in the reed-ber formula for the hydrogen excited state is replaced. N-1 state of hydrogen and of hydrogenStates are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states (e.g., n-1 to n-1/2) are possible via non-radiative energy transfer. The catalyst thus provides a positive net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (i.e. it takes a non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atom resonance and releases energy to the surroundings to affect the electron transition to the fractional quantum level). As a result of the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and gives off further energy until it reaches a non-radiative state with a lower energy given by equations (2a) and (2c) with a main energy level.

The catalytic product H (1/p) can also react with electrons to form new hydride ions H^-(1/p) having a binding energy E_B[1，13-14，18，30]：

Where p is an integer greater than 1, s is 1/2,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the permeability of the vacuum, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m_PIs the mass of the proton, a_oIs a Bohr radius and an ionic radius ofFrom equation (3), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is 0.75418eV, and is represented by Lykke [46 ]]The experimental values given are 6082.99. + -. 0.15cm^-1(0.75418eV)。

The NMR peak migrating to high field is direct evidence of the presence of hydrogen in the lower energy state of the diamagnetic shield with a reduced radius relative to the ordinary hydride ion and with an increased proton. Displacement by ordinary hydrogen ions H^-The sum of the shift of (A) plus the fraction due to the lower energy state gives [1, 15 ]]：

Wherein for H^-P is 0 and for H^-(1/p) p is an integer greater than 1, and α is a fine structure constant.

H (1/p) can react with a proton and two H (1/p) can react to form H separately₂(1/p)⁺And H₂(1/p). Hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond lengths and energies were previously solved from laplacian in ellipsoid coordinates with non-radiative confinement.

Total energy E of hydrogen molecular ions having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital_TIs that

Where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, μ is the reduced atomic nucleus mass, and k is the harmonic force constant [1, 6] previously solved in a closed form formula with only the fundamental constant. The total energy of a hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

Hydrogen molecule H₂Bond dissociation energy of (1/p) E_DIs the total energy sum of the corresponding hydrogen atoms E_TDifference therebetween

E_D＝E(2H(1/p))-E_T (8)

Wherein [47]

E(2H(1/p))＝-p²27.20eV (9)

E_DAre given by equations (8-9) and (7):

E_D＝-p²27.20eV-E_T

＝-p²27.20eV-(-p²31.351eV-p³0.326469eV) (10)

＝p²4.151eV+p³0.326469eV

from reference [1, 6]]H of (A) to (B)₂、D₂、H₂ ⁺And D₂ ⁺The calculated and experimental parameters of (a) are given in table 3.

TABLE 3.H₂、D₂、H₂ ⁺And D₂ ⁺Maxwell closed type calculated and experimental parameters of

^aHas no pair of_oscThe resulting slight decrease in nuclear spacing is corrected for

Since the electrons are significantly closer to the fractional radius in the ellipsoid coordinates of the nucleus, H₂(1/p) of¹HNMR resonance is predicted from H₂Is/are as follows¹Migration of HNMR resonance to high fields [1, 6]]. For the previous [1, 6]]Obtained H₂(1/p) predicted displacementIs formed by H₂And H is dependent on p being an integer greater than 1₂Given by the sum of the terms (1/p)

Wherein for H₂P is 0.

For the hydrogen form of molecule H ₂In the transition of (1/p) upsilon 0 to upsilon 1, the vibration energy E_vibIs [1, 6 ]]

E_vib＝p²0.515902eV (13)

Wherein p is an integer and H₂Experimental vibrational energy of transition of υ 0 to υ 1Is prepared from Beutler [48 ]]And Herzberg [49 ]]Given below.

For the hydrogen form of molecule H₂(1/p) transition of J to J +1, rotational energy E_rolIs [1, 6 ]]

Where p is an integer, I is the moment of inertia and H₂Experimental rotational energy of the transition from J to J +1 of (1) by Atkins [50 ]]It is given.

P of rotational energy²The inverse p-dependence from the kernel spacing and the corresponding influence on the moment of inertia I are relied upon. H₂(1/p) predicted internuclear distance 2 c' is

The formation of new hydrogen is very energetic. New chemically generated or chemically assisted plasma sources (rt-plasmas) based on resonance energy transfer mechanisms have been developed, which may be new energy sources. One such source operates by incandescent heating of the hydrogen dissociating agent and the catalyst to provide atomic hydrogen and a gaseous catalyst, respectively, such that the catalyst reacts with the atomic hydrogen to produce a plasma. In particular Mills et al [13-21, 38-39 ]]At low temperatures (e.g.. apprxeq.10)³K) Strong extreme ultraviolet Emission (EUV) is observed, as well as a particularly low field strength of about 1-2V/cm from atomic hydrogen and certain atomized elements or certain gaseous ions, ionized individually or multiply at integer multiples of the potential energy 27.2eV of atomic hydrogen.

K to K³⁺A reaction is provided having a net enthalpy that is equivalent to three times the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. It has been previously reported [13-21, 38-39 ]]The presence of these gaseous atoms and thermally dissociated hydrogen forms an rt-plasma with strong EUV emission and a stable inverted raman particle number. Other non-catalyst metals such as Mg do not generate plasma. Significant line broadening of the balmer α, β and γ lines at 18eV was observed. The emission from the rt-plasma occurs even when the electric field applied to the plasma is zero. Since a conventional discharge power source is not present, the formation of plasma will require energetic reactions. The cause of doppler broadening is the relative thermal motion of the transmitter to the observer. Line broadening is a measure of atomic temperature and is a measure of K and Sr for catalysts with hydrogen⁺Or Ar⁺In particular [13-21, 38-39 ]]A significant increase was expected and observed. The observation of high hydrogen temperatures without conventional interpretation would indicate that the rt-plasma must have a source of free energy. The energetic chemical reaction is further suggested by the finding that broadening is time-dependentYinqi [13-14, 20 ]]. Thus, the thermal power balance is calorimetrically measured. The reaction is exothermic because 20mW cm was determined by Calvet calorimetry ^-3Excess power of [20 ]]. In yet another embodiment, KNO₃And raney nickel are used as the K catalyst and source of atomic hydrogen, respectively, to produce the corresponding exothermic reaction. The energy balance is Δ H-17,925 kcal/mol KNO₃It is KNO₃About 300 times the expected energy balance of the most energetic known chemistry, and-3585 kcal/mol H₂Which is to assume the maximum possible H₂In stock-57.8 kcal/mol H produced by combustion of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen₂More than 60 times the assumed maximum enthalpy [14 ]]. Additional important evidence of the ability to catalyze reactions was previously reported [13-15, 24-26, 30-31 ]]Involving resonance energy transfer between hydrogen atoms and K to form new hydride ions H, respectively, which are very stable^-(1/p) and molecule H₂(1/4). From K³⁺Characteristic emission was observed, which confirms the resonance non-radiative energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to K, the predicted catalyst, of 3 · 27.2 eV. From the formula (3), H^-Binding energy E of (1/4)_BIs that

E_B＝11.232eV(λ_vac＝110.38nm) (16)

The product hydride ion H was observed by EUV spectroscopy at 110nm^-(1/4) corresponding to a predicted binding energy of 11.2eV [13-15, 24-26, 30-31 ]]. Previous confirmation of H by XPS measurement of its binding energy^-(1/4). The XPS spectrum of KH x I differs from that of KI in that it has H that does not fit any other fundamental element peaks but differs from the two different chemical environments ^-(1/4)E_bAdditional features at 8.9eV and 10.8eV, consistent with 11.2eV hydride ion (equation (3)). Relative of the new compound KH Cl to the external Tetramethylsilane (TMS)¹HMASNMR spectra showed a large apparent high-field resonance at-4.4 ppm corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-35.9 ppm (which is consistent with the theoretical prediction of p ═ 4) [13-15, 25-26, 30-31]. Elemental analysis and identification [13-15, 25-26, 30-31 ]]These compounds contain only alkali metals, halogens and hydrogenAnd no known hydride compounds of this composition having hydride NMR peaks migrating to high fields can be found in the literature. Ordinary alkali metal hydrides, alone or in admixture with alkali metal halides, show peaks of shifting to low fields [13-15, 25-26, 30-31 ]]. From the literature, H as a possible source of high field NMR peaks^-(1/p) list of alternatives, restricted to H in the center of U. This is due to H^-For Cl in KCl^-The substitution of (2) results in a substitution at 503cm^-1Is excluded by the absence of strong and characteristic infrared vibrational bands [51]。

As a further characterization, a compound having H was performed^-FTIR analysis of crystalline KH × I of (1/4) and observed the gap H with predicted rotational energy given by equation (14)₂(1/4). Front [13-14 ] ]The line of rotation was observed in an argon-hydrogen plasma excited by an atmospheric pressure electron beam in the region 145-300 nm. Energy interval of hydrogen 4²Multiple unprecedented energy intervals establish H₂1/4 of internuclear distance and identifies H₂(1/4) (equations 13-15). The spectrum is asymmetric with missing P-branch projections corresponding to a rotating state with an increasing population in the excited v-1 vibrational state. This is due to the high rotational energy (ten times the thermal energy), the short lifetime of the rotationally excited state, and the low cross section for electron beam rotational excitation; however, dipole excitation of the vibration is permissible. Thus, only the υ 1, J0 state is significantly increased in population from e-beam excitation, and the transition occurs with Δ J > 0 during the transition from υ 1 to υ 0. Having H by NMR^-KH Cl of (1/4) is readily produced in a 12.5keV electron beam exciting the gap H observed in an argon-hydrogen plasma₂(1/4) similar emission [13-14 ]]. In particular, detectable emission (< 10) can be produced below any gas by using a 12.5keV electron gun^-5Torr) of the crystal was investigated for H trapped in KH Cl lattice ₂(1/4). H was also confirmed by this technique₂(1/4) rotational energy. These results confirm that the former ones formed by the formation reaction of hydrido-containing hydrinos have strong hydrogen Raman emission and the likePlasma observations, stable reversed raman population, excessive afterglow period, energetic hydrogen atoms, characteristic alkali metal ion emission by catalysis, predicted new spectral lines, and observations of kinetic measurements beyond any conventional chemistry, which is labeled H with respect to atomic hydrogen formation^-(1/p) predicted agreement of the catalytic reaction of the more stable hydride ion. Since the comparison of the energy of theory and experiment is a direct proof of lower energy hydrogen with a large implied exotherm during its formation, we report these results in this paper when additional predicted catalysts, Li and NaH, repeat these experiments.

The catalyst system used to generate and analyze the predicted hydride compound includes a lithium atom. The first and second ionization energies of lithium are 5.39172eV and 75.64018eV [52 eV ] respectively]. Then, Li is converted to Li²⁺The two-ionization (t ═ 2) reaction of (a) has a net enthalpy of reaction of 81.0319eV, which corresponds to 3 · 27.2 eV.

Li²⁺+2e^-→Li(m)+81.0319eV (18)

And, the overall reaction is

Lithium is a metal in both solid and liquid state and the gas contains covalent Li ₂Molecule [53 ]]Each of which has a bond energy of 110.4 kJ/mole [54 ]]. To form atomic lithium, LiNH is added to the reaction mixture₂。LiNH₂Atomic hydrogen is also produced, according to a reversible reaction [55-64 ]]：

Li₂+LiNH₂→Li+Li₂NH+H (20)

And

Li₂+Li₂NH→Li+Li₃N+H (21)

the energy of the reaction of lithium amide to lithium nitride and lithium hydride is exothermic [65-66 ]:

4Li+LiNH₂→Li₃n +2LiH Δ H ═ 198.5 kJ/mole LiNH₂ (22)

Therefore, it should occur to a significant extent. The specific prediction of energetic reactions given by equations (17-19) was detected by rt plasma formation and H-line broadening. The power generated was measured by water flow, batch calorimetry. Thereafter, H having energies given by equations (3) and (5-15), respectively^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4) expected product by magnetic Angle solid State proton Nuclear magnetic resonance Spectroscopy (MAS)¹HNMR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMs), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).

A hydrogen-containing compound such as MH (where M is an element other than hydrogen) serves as a hydrogen source and a catalyst source. The catalytic reaction is provided by the cleavage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of each of the t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about M · 27.2eV, where M is an integer. One such catalytic system includes sodium. The bond energy of NaH is 1.9245eV [54 ] ]And the first and second ionization energies of Na are 5.13908eV and 47.2864eV [52]. Based on these energies, NaH molecules can act as a catalyst and a source of H because the bond energy of NaH adds Na to Na²⁺The double ionization (t ═ 2) of (a) was 54.35eV (2 · 27.2 eV). The catalyst reaction is given by

Na²⁺+2e^-+H→NaH+54.35eV (24)

And, the overall reaction is

As given in chapter 5 of reference [1] and reference [29], the hydrogen atom H (1/p) p 1, 2, 3.. 137 can undergo further transitions to lower energy states given by equations (2a) and (2c), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom whose resonance with an opposite change in its potential energy does not radiatively accept m · 27.2 eV. The general formula of the transition from H (1/p) to H (1/(p + m)) induced by resonance transfer from m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by

H(1/p′)+H(1/p)→H⁺+e^-+H(1/(p+m))+[2pm+m²-p′²]·13.6eV (26)

At high hydrogen atom concentrations, the transition from H (1/3) (p 3) to H (1/4) (p + m 4) with H as catalyst (p 1; m 1) can be rapid

The NaH catalyst reaction may be synergistic because of the bond energy of NaH, Na to Na²⁺The sum of the potential energies of the double ionization (t ═ 2) and H is 81.56eV (3 · 27.2 eV). The catalyst reaction is given by

Na²⁺+2e^-+H+H_{Fast-acting toy} ⁺+e^-→NaH+H+81.56eV (29)

And, the overall reaction is

Wherein H_{Fast-acting toy} ⁺Are fast hydrogen atoms having a kinetic energy of at least 13.6 eV. H ^-(1/4) forms a stable hydride halide and reacts with the reaction mixture 2H (1/4) → H₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4)+H⁺→H₂(1/4) the corresponding molecules formed are, together, advantageous products [13-15, 24-26, 30-31 ]]. The corresponding hydrino atom H (1/4) is a preferred end product consistent with observations because the quantum state with p ═ 4 has more multipolarity than the quadrupole, giving it a long theoretical lifetime, H (1/4) can be formed directly from H (e.g., equation (36-38)) or via a multipole transition (e.g., equation (23-27)), in the latter case with a quantum number p ═ 2 corresponding to the dipole and quadrupole transitions, respectively; l ═ 0, 1 and p ═ 3; the higher energy H (1/p) states of l ═ 0, 1, 2 have theoretically allowed rapid transitions.

The sodium hydride formed by the reaction of gaseous hydrogen and metallic sodium is generally in the form of an ionic crystalline compound. And, in the gaseous state, sodium contains a binding energy of 74.8048 kJ/mol [54]Na of (2)₂Molecule [53 ]]. It has been found that when nah(s) is heated at a very slow ramp rate (0.1 ℃/min) under a helium atmosphere to form nah (g), the predicted exothermic reaction given by equations (23-25) is observed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) at elevated temperatures. To achieve high kinetics, the chemical system is designed to greatly increase the amount and rate of nah (g) formation. From heat of formation [54, 65 ] ]Calculated conversion of NaOH and Na to Na₂Reaction of O and nah(s) releases Δ H ═ -44.7kJ per mole NaOH:

NaOH+2Na→Na₂o + nah(s) Δ H ═ 44.7 kJ/mole NaOH (31)

This exothermic reaction can drive the nah (g) formation and be utilized to drive the very exothermic reaction given by equations (23-25). The regeneration reaction in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

Na₂O + H → NaOH + Na Δ H → 11.6 kJ/mol NaOH (32)

NaH → Na + H (1/3) Δ H-10,500 kJ/mol H (33)

And

NaH → Na + H (1/4) Δ H-19,700 kJ/mol H (34)

Thus, small amounts of NaOH, Na and atomic hydrogen serve as catalyst sources for the NaH catalyst, which in turn forms large yields of hydrinos through multiple cycles of regenerative reactions such as those given by formulas (31-34). Will have a width of about 100m²R-Ni, a large surface area per gram and containing H, is surface coated with NaOH and reacted with Na metal to form NaH (g). Since the energy balance in the formation of nah (g) can be negligible due to the small amounts involved, batch calorimetry, using water flow, specifically measures the energy and power produced by the fractional hydrogen reaction given by equations (23-25). Thereafter, R-Ni 2400 was prepared to contain about 0.5 wt% NaOH, and the intermetallic Al served as the reducing agent for forming NaH catalyst during the calorimetry measurements. Calculated from the heat of formation NaOH + Al to Al ₂O₃+ reaction of NaH [65 ]]Is exothermic Δ H ═ 189.1kJ per mole NaOH. The equilibrium reaction is given by

3NaOH+2Al→Al₂O₃+3NaH Δ H ═ -189.1 kJ/mole NaOH (35)

This exothermic reaction can drive the formation of NaH (g) and be utilized to drive the very exothermic reaction given by equations (23-25), where NaH regeneration occurs from Na in the presence of atomic hydrogen. The exothermic reaction given by equation (35) produced negligible Δ H ═ 0.024kJ of background heat during the measurement for 0.5 wt% NaOH.

It has been previously reported [28-29]The reaction product H (1/p) can undergo further reaction to a lower energy state. For example, Ar⁺To Ar²⁺The catalyst of (a) reacts to form H (1/2), which may further act as both a catalyst and a reactant to form H (1/4) [1, 13-14, 28-29 ]]And the corresponding advantageous molecule H₂(1/4) (observed when different catalysts were used) [13-14]. Thus, from equations (23-25) and reference [29 ]]The predicted products of the NaH catalysts of Table 1 are H having energies given by equations (3) and (5-15), respectively^-(1/3) and H₂(1/4). They pass through MAS¹H NMR and ToF-SIMs for detection

Another catalyst system of MH type includes chlorine. The bond energy of HCl is 4.4703eV [54 ]]. The first, second and third ionization energies of Cl are 12.96764eV, 23.814eV and 39.61eV [52 eV ] ]. Based on these energies, HCl can act as a catalyst and a source of H because of the HCl's bond energy plus Cl to Cl³⁺The triplet ionization (t ═ 3) of (a) was 80.86eV (3 · 27.2 eV). The catalyst reaction is given by

Cl³⁺+3e^-+H→HCl+80.86eV (37)

And the overall reaction is

The expected product is then H₂(1/4)。

Alkali chlorides include Cl and H, usually from H₂And (O) contamination. Thus, some HCl may form interstitially in the crystalline matrix. Due to H⁺Can most easily replace Li⁺And the substitution is in Cs⁺Is least possible, it is expected that alkali metal chlorides may form HCl, which undergoes catalysis to form H₂(1/4) and has a tendency of increasing formation speed in the order of the group I elements. Due to differences in lattice structure, MgCl₂HCl catalyst cannot be formed; therefore, it served as a chlorine control. This condition applies to other alkaline earth metal halides and transition metal halides such as copper halides, which can be used as a halide for H₂(1/4) control formation. One exception from this group is Mg in the appropriate lattice²⁺Due to Mg²⁺To Mg³⁺The ionization of (A) is 80.1437eV 52]It is close to 3.27.2 eV. These assumptions are made by the reaction of alkali metal halides MgX₂(X ═ F, Cl, Br, I) and CuX₂(X ═ F, Cl, Br) by electron beam excitation, and the purpose thereof is to determine the expected H ₂Whether the emission of (1/4) is selectively observed when a catalyst reaction is possible is not otherwise observed. NMR of these compounds were recorded to look for the corresponding predicted H₂(1/4) Peak to compare with emission results.

II Experimental method

Rt-plasma and line broadening measurements. Test apparatus [15-21 ] comprising a thermally insulated stainless steel cell with a lid (which incorporates ports for inlet and outlet gases) as described previously]Production of LiNH in (FIG. 1)₂Argon-hydrogen (95/5%) and LiNH₂Hydrogen rt-plasma. Titanium filaments (55cm long, 0.5mm diameter) as heaters and hydrogen dissociators were in the cell. 1g of LiNH was placed in a glove box under dry argon atmosphere of 1 atm₂(Alfa Aesar 99.95%) was placed in the center of the cell. The cell was sealed and removed from the glove box. The cell was maintained at 50 ℃ for 4 hours at a pressure of 1 torr with a flow of 30sccm of helium. The filament power was increased to 200W at 20W every 20 minutes. At 120W, the filament temperature is estimated to be in the range of 800 to 1000 ℃. The temperature of the outer cell wall was about 700 deg.c. The cell was then operated with or without an argon-hydrogen (95/5%) flow rate of 5.5sccm maintained at 1 torr. In addition, the cell was operated with a hydrogen stream replacing argon-hydrogen (95/5%). LiNH ₂Is evaporated by filament heaterAs evidence of the presence of Li lines. The argon-hydrogen or hydrogen plasma is present by using the previously described [15-21 ]]Measured with a Jobin Yvon Horiba 1250M spectrometer with a CCD detector, recording the visible spectrum of the Barmer region using an entrance/exit slit of 80/80 μ M and a 3 second integration time. Argon-hydrogen (95/5%) -LiNH with a titanium filament was measured initially and periodically during operation₂Or hydrogen-LiNH₂Rt-width of the balmer α line at 656.3nm emitted by the plasma. As a further control, LiNH-free samples were used₂Run the experiment with each flowing gas.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements. Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) measurements were performed using the DSC mode of a Setam HT-1000 calorimeter (Setam, France). Two mating alumina glove fingers were used as the sample compartment and the reference compartment. This means that control of the reaction atmosphere is allowed. 0.067g NaH was placed in a flat bottom Al-23 crucible (Alfa-Aesar, 15mm height x10mm ODx8mm ID). The crucible was then placed at the bottom of the sample alumina glove finger well. For reference, an alumina sample (Alfa-Aesar, -400 mesh powder, 99.9%) having a weight matched to the sample was placed in a matched Al-23 crucible. All samples were processed in a glove box. Each alumina glove finger well was sealed in the glove box, removed from the glove box and then quickly connected to a Setaram calorimeter. The system is immediately evacuated to a pressure of 1 millitorr or less. The cell was backfilled with 1 atm of helium, evacuated again and then refilled with helium to 760 torr. The cells were then inserted into an oven and their positions in the DSC instrument were fixed. The furnace temperature was raised to the desired starting temperature of 100 ℃. The oven temperature was scanned from 100 ℃ to 750 ℃ at a ramp rate of 0.1 degrees/minute. As a control, MgH ₂Replacing NaH. Mixing 0.050gMgH₂The sample (Alfa-Aesar, 90%, remainder Mg) was added to the sample cell and the same weight of alumina (Alfa-Aesar) was added to the reference cell. Both samples were also processed in a glove box.

Water flow, batch calorimetry. About 60cm³A volumetric cylindrical stainless steel reactor (1.0 "Outside Diameter (OD), 5.0" long, and 0.065 "wall thickness) is shown in FIG. 2, the cell also including a rim having a 0.035" wall thicknessA welded 2.5 "long cylindrical thermocouple well along the centerline, which houses a type K thermocouple (Omega) read by a meter (DAS). For the cell sealed with the high temperature valve, 3/8 "OD, 0.065" thick SS tube welded at the bottom of the cell off center 1/4 "as a port to introduce a combination of reagents including the following groups (i)1g Li, 0.5g LiNH₂10g LiBr and 15g Pd/Al₂O₃(ii)3.28g Na, 15g Raney (R-) Ni/Al alloy, (iii) 15g R-Ni doped with NaOH and (iv) 3 wt% Al (OH) doped with Ni/Al alloy₃. With this outlet spot-sealed, the SS tube had an 1/4 "OD and a 0.02" wall thickness. The glove box was loaded with reactants and a valve was connected to the port of the tubing to seal the cell and connect to a vacuum pump before removing the cell from the glove box. The cell was evacuated to a pressure of 10 millitorr and flexed. The cell is then sealed with a valve or hermetically by spot welding 1/2 "from the cell while the remaining tube is severed.

The reactor was mounted inside a cylindrical calorimeter cell shown in fig. 3. The stainless steel chamber had a 15.2cm ID, 0.305cm wall thickness and a 40.4cm length. Both ends of the chamber were sealed by a removable stainless steel plate and a Viton O-ring. The space between the reactor and the inner surface of the cylindrical chamber is filled with a high temperature insulating material. The gas composition and pressure in the chamber are controlled to regulate the heat transfer between the reactor and the chamber. The interior of the chamber was first filled with 1000 torr helium gas to allow the cell to reach ambient temperature, after which the chamber was evacuated during the calorimetry run to increase the cell temperature. Then, 1000 torr of helium gas was added to increase the heat transfer rate from the hot pool to the coolant and balance any heat associated with the P-V work. The relative diameters of the reactor and chamber are such that the heat flow from the reactor to the chamber is predominantly radiant. The heat was removed from the chamber by turbulent flow of cooling water through a 6.35mm OD copper tube which was tightly coiled (63 turns) around the outer cylindrical surface of the chamber. The reactor and chamber system was designed to safely absorb 50kW thermal power pulses with a duration of one minute. The absorbed energy is then released to the cooling water stream in a controlled manner as measured by calorimetry. The temperature rise of the cooling water was measured at the inlet and outlet of the cooling coil by a precision thermistor probe (Omega, OL-703-PP, 0.01 ℃). The inlet water temperature was controlled by a circulating water bath of Cole Parmer (digital Polymer, model 12101-41) with a temperature stability of 0.01 ℃ and a cooling capacity of 900W at 20 ℃. A well-insulated eight-liter surge tank was installed downstream of the water bath to reduce temperature fluctuations caused by the water bath cycling. Coolant flow through the system was controlled by FMI model QD variable flow positive displacement laboratory pump. The cooling water flow rate is set by a variable area flow meter with a high precision control valve. The flow meter was calibrated directly by in situ water collection. The second flow rate measurement is made by a turbine flow meter (McMillan co., G111 Flometer, ± 1%), which continuously outputs the flow rate to the data acquisition system. The heat cells were mounted in a capped HDPE tank filled with melamine foam insulation to minimize heat loss from the system. Careful measurement of the thermal power delivered to the coolant and comparison with the measured input power indicated that the heat loss was less than 2-3%.

The calorimeter was calibrated with a precision heater applied for a set period of time to determine the percent recovery of total energy applied by the heater. By integrating the total output power P over time_TTo determine energy recovery. The power is given by

WhereinIs the mass flow rate, C_pIs the specific heat of water and Δ T is the absolute change in temperature between inlet and outlet, where two thermistors are mated to use a constant flow without input powerAny offset is corrected. In the first step of the calibration check, the empty reaction cell, which is equivalent to the latter detected power cell containing the reactant, is evacuated to below 1 torr and inserted into the calorimeter vacuum chamber. The chamber was evacuated and then filled to 1000 torr with helium gas. The unpowered aggregations reach equilibrium during a period of about two hours when the temperature difference between the thermistors becomes constant. The system was run for another hour to verify the difference due to the absolute calibration of the two sensors. The amount corrected was 0.036 ℃, and it was confirmed to be consistent for all tests performed at the reported data set

To increase the cell temperature per output power, helium gas was evacuated from the chamber by a vacuum pump and the chamber was maintained at a pressure below 1 torr under dynamic pumping ten minutes before the end of the ten hour equilibration period. A power of 100.00W was applied to the heaters (50.23V and 1.991A) for a period of 50 minutes. During this time, the bath temperature rose to about 650 ℃ and the maximum change in water temperature (outlet minus inlet) was about 1.2 ℃. After 50 minutes, the program points the power to zero. To increase the rate of heat transfer to the coolant, the chamber was re-pressurized with 1000 torr of helium gas and allowed to aggregate to fully reach equilibrium for the full 24 hour period as evidenced by observation of full equilibrium in the flow thermistor.

The hydrino reaction procedure followed the procedure of a calibration run, but the cell contained reagents. The equilibration period with 1000 torr helium in the chamber was 90 minutes. A power of 100.00W was applied to the heater and after 10 minutes, the helium gas was evacuated from the chamber. After evacuation, the cell was heated at a faster rate and the reagent reached a hydrino reaction threshold temperature of 190 ℃ in 57 minutes. The onset of the reaction was confirmed by a rapid rise in the pool temperature to 378 ℃ in about 58 minutes. After ten minutes, the power was stopped and helium was reintroduced slowly into the cell at 150sccm over a1 hour period.

The reactants were R-Ni 2800 doped with 0.1 wt% NaOH or R-Ni 2400 doped with 0.5 wt% NaOH (elemental analysis was provided by manufacturer W.R. Grace Davidson and was performed by elemental division on samples treated in an inert atmosphereChromatography (Galbraith) confirmed the presence of wt% NaOH) and the products after reaction of these reactants and a mixture containing Li (1g) and LiNH₂(0.5g) (Alfa Aesar 99%), LiBr (10g) (Alfaaesar ACS grade 99 +%), and Pd/Al₂O₃(15g) Those reaction mixtures (1% Pd, alfaaaesar) were analyzed by quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a closed sample holder (Bruker model # a100B37) loaded in a glove box under argon and analyzed with a Siemens D5000 diffractometer using Cu emissions in the 10 ° -70 ° range 40kV/30mA with a step size of 0.02 ° and a counting time of eight hours. In addition, a weighed sample of R-Ni in a 16.5cc stainless steel cell connected to a vacuum system with a total volume of 291cc was heated at a varying temperature range from 25 ℃ to 550 ℃ to decompose any physisorbed or chemisorbed gases and to characterize and quantify the released gases. N flow rate of 14 ml/min by mass spectrometry, quantitative gas chromatography (with ShinCarbon ST 100/120 micro-packed column (2m length, 1/16' OD), 14 ml/min ₂Carrier gas, oven temperature of 80 ℃, injector temperature of 100 ℃ and thermal conductivity probe temperature of 100 ℃ HP 5890Series II) and determine hydrogen content by using ideal gas laws and measured pressure, volume and temperature. Hydrogen was the major component in each analysis, while only traces of water were detected by mass spectrometry, and < 2% methane was also quantified by gas chromatography. By liquefying H in a liquid nitrogen trap₂O, Pump out Hydrogen, and allow all water to evaporate traces of water in R-Ni and the control were quantified independently of hydrogen by using a sample size of less than 5g which produced a saturated water-vapor pressure at room temperature.

Synthesis and solid phase of LiH Br, LiH I, NaH Cl and NaH Br¹HMAS NMR. By reacting hydrogen as the source of atomic catalyst and additional atomic H with Li (1g) and LiNH₂Reaction of (0.5g) (Alfa Aesar 99%) with the corresponding alkali metal halide (10g) LiBr (Alfa Aesar ACS grade 99 +%) or LiI (Alfa Aesar 99.9%) as additional reactants synthesized lithium bromo and lithium iodo hydrids (LiH Br and LiH I). According to the previously described method [13-14 ]]The compounds were prepared in a stainless steel gas cell (fig. 4) also containing raney nickel (15g) (w.r.grace Davidson) as a hydrogen dissociating agent. The reactor is at 500 DEG C The kiln was run for 72 hours with make-up hydrogen addition to cycle the pressure range between 1 torr and 760 torr. The reactor was then cooled under a helium atmosphere. The sealed reactor was then opened in a glove box under an argon atmosphere. The NMR samples were placed in glass ampoules, sealed with rubber septa, and transferred out of the glove box to be flame sealed. The above-described reactions were carried out on solid samples of LiH X (X is halide) on Spectral Data Services, Inc., Champaign, Illinois, as described previously¹HMAS NMR[13-14]. Chemical shifts are referenced to the outer TMS. XPS was also performed on crystalline samples treated as air sensitive material.

Since the synthesis reaction involves LiNH₂And Li₂NH is the reaction product, both alone as a control or run in LiBr or LiI matrices. LiNH₂Is a commercial starting material and is produced by LiNH₂Reaction with LiH [67 ]]And through LiNH₂Decomposition of [68 ]]Synthesis of Li₂NH, with Li confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD)₂NH product. To exclude the possibility of alkali metal halides affecting the local environment of protons or any given known substance producing NMR resonances migrating towards high fields relative to common peaks, LiH (Aldrich Chemical Company 99%), LiNH was included ₂And Li₂The NH control was run with an equimolar mixture of LiX. The control was prepared by mixing equimolar amounts of the compounds in a glove box under argon. To further exclude F centers as potential contributors to the local environment of protons of any given known species that produce NMR resonance towards high field migration, electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR) was performed on LiH × Br and LiH × I samples. For ESR studies, samples were loaded into Suprasil quartz tubes of 4mm OD and evacuated to 10^-4The final pressure of torr. ESR spectra were recorded at room temperature and 77K using a Bruker ESP 300X-band spectrometer. The magnetic field was calibrated using a Varian E-500 gauss meter. The microwave frequency was measured by an HP 5342A frequency counter.

Elemental analysis was performed at Galbraith Laboratories to confirm product composition and exclude the possibility of any transition metal hydride or other foreign hydride that may produce NMR detectable amounts of peaks migrating to high fields. In particular, the abundance of all elements (Li, H, X) present in the product and the stainless steel reaction vessel and R-Ni (Ni, Fe, Cr, Mo, Mn, Al) was determined.

NaH Cl and NaH Br are synthesized by the reaction of hydrogen as the source of NaH catalyst and intrinsic atomic H with Na (3.28g) and NaH (1g) (Aldrich Chemical Company 99%) and the corresponding alkali metal halide (15g) NaCl or NaBr (Alfa Aesar ACS grade 99 +%) as additional reactants. The compounds were prepared in a stainless steel gas cell (FIG. 4) also containing Pt/Ti (Pt coated Ti (15 g); Titan Metal fabrators, platinized titanium micro-flat anode, 0.089cmx0.5cmx2.5cm, with 2.54 μm platinum) as a hydrogen dissociator. Each synthesis was run according to the method described for Li except that the kiln was maintained at 500 ℃, and NaH × Cl synthesis was repeated without addition of hydrogen to determine the effect of using NaH(s) as the sole hydrogen source. XPS on NaH Cl because there is no base element peak probably in H ^-(1/4), and NMR studies of both products were performed.

From NaCl (10g) and the solid acid KHSO as sole hydrogen source, in a kiln maintained at 580 deg.C₄(1.6g) to synthesize NaH Cl. NMR was performed to detect H in the direction according to the formula (27)^-(1/4) the rapid reaction due to lack of free H₂Or H formed by the reaction of formula (23-25) when H of a hydride dissociating agent is partially suppressed at a high concentration^-(1/3) whether it can be observed.

A Silicon wafer (2g, 0.5X0.5X0.05cm, Silicon Quest International, Silicon (100), doped with boron, purified by heating to 700 ℃ under vacuum) was cleaned by placing it in a reaction containing Na (1.7g), NaH (0.5g), NaCl (10g) and Pt/Ti (15g), in which NaCl was initially heated to 400 ℃ under vacuum to remove any H₂(1/4)) was coated with the products NaH Cl and NaH. The reaction was run in a kiln at 550 ℃ for 19 hours at an initial hydrogen pressure of 760 torr. XPS was performed at a point containing a silicon wafer coated with only sodium hydrido hydride (NaH @ -coated Si). NaH Cl coated silicon wafers (NaH Cl coated Si) were studied by electron beam excitation spectroscopy. Compressed particles of NaH Cl crystalsIs also recorded.

TOF-SIMS spectra. Crystalline samples of LiH Br, LiH I, NaH Cl, NaH Br and corresponding alkali halide controls were sprinkled on the surface of double-sided tape and characterized using a physical electronics TFS-2000 ToF-SIMS instrument. Basic ion gun use ⁶⁹Ga⁺A liquid metal source. On each sample (60 μm)²Is analyzed. To remove surface contaminants and expose new surfaces, the samples were sputter cleaned using a 180 μm x100 μm grating for 60 seconds. Pore size was set to 3 and ion current was 600pA, yielding 10¹⁵Ion/cm²Total ion amount.

During acquisition, a bundled (pulse width 4ns bundled to 1ns) 15kV beam [69-70 ] was used]The ion gun is operated. Total ion content of 10¹²Ion/cm². Charge neutralization was active and the post acceleration voltage was 8000V. Positive and negative SIMS spectra were obtained. Representative post-splash data is reported.

Further, 0.1g of Na, 0.5g of NaH and 15g of Pt/Ti were loaded into a hydrothermal cell and subjected to hydrothermal method under the same conditions as described for Na and R-Ni. The cell generated 15kJ of excess energy; however the theoretical energy balance from NaH decomposition is endothermic +1.2 kJ. Therefore, in order to confirm the presence of hydrido as an excessive heat source corresponding to the reaction given by the formula (23-25), a sample of Pt/Ti coated with sodium hydrido (NaH coated Pt/Ti) was directly analyzed by the same procedure as the crystalline sample except that the sputtering was 100 s. Unreacted Pt/Ti coated with starting material served as a control. XPS was also performed.

TOF-SIMS of R-Ni 2400 reacted at 50 ℃ for a 48-hour period was also carried out by the same procedure as the crystalline sample. The reaction to form hydrinos is given by the formula (32-35). Sodium hydrido compounds with NaOH are predicted as the surface is coated.

FTIR spectroscopy. As described previously [13-14 ]]Use of transmittance mode with DTGS in Department of chemistry, Princeton University, New JerseyNicolet 730 FTIR spectrometer at 4cm for the detector^-1FTIR analysis was performed on solid samples of LiH × Br, KBr particles. The sample is treated under an inert atmosphere. Resolution was 0.5cm^-1. Comprising LiNH₂、Li₂NH and Li₃Controls for N are commercially available except Li₂NH，Li₂NH by LiNH₂Reaction with LiH [67 ]]Synthesis and passage of LiNH₂Decomposition of [68 ]]Synthesis, confirmation of Li by X-ray diffraction (XRD)₂NH product.

XPS spectra. A series of XPS analyses were performed on the crystalline samples using a Scienta 300XPS spectrometer. A fixed analyzer transmission mode and scan acquisition mode are used. The step energy in the reconnaissance scan is 0.5eV, the step energy in the high resolution scan is 0.15eV, the time per step in the reconnaissance scan is 0.4 seconds and the number of scans is 4. In the high resolution scan, the time per step is 0.3 seconds and the number of scans is 30. C1s of 284.5eV is used as an internal standard.

Gap H of electron beam excitation₂(1/4) UV spectrum. Trapping in alkali halide MgCl via electron bombardment studies of crystals₂Neutralizes H in the silicon wafer₂The vibration of (1/4) is transmitted rotationally. Beam currents at < 10-20 muA using a 12.5keV electron gun^-5The torr pressure range records the windowless UV spectrum of the electron beam excited emission from the crystal. The UV spectrum was recorded with a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The wavelength resolution was about 2nm (FWHM) with entrance and exit slit widths of 300 μm. The increment was 0.5nm and the residence time was 1 second.

III results and discussion

Rt-plasma emission and barmer α line width. With low fields (1V/cm), at low temperatures (e.g. ≈ 10)³K) Atomic hydrogen formed from titanium filament and LiNH evaporated by heating₂An argon-hydrogen (95/5%) -lithium rt plasma was formed. Lithium and H emissions were observed, which confirmed LiNH as a source of atomic Li and H₂And Li of its decomposition product. Argon as evidenced by significantly reduced H emission in the absence of argonThe argon of the hydrogen mixture increases the amount of atomic H. As shown in fig. 5 and 6, H-balmer emission corresponding to particles with an energy level > 12eV was observed, which also requires the presence of raman emission.

There is no plasma formed from argon/hydrogen alone. No titanium filament, evaporated LiNH, was found ₂And a possible chemical reaction of a 0.6 torr argon-hydrogen mixture at a cell temperature of 700 ℃ to account for the balmer emission. In fact, no known chemical reaction releases energy sufficient to stimulate the balmer and raman emissions from hydrogen. In addition to known chemical reactions, electron impact excitation, resonant photon transfer, and ionization and reduction of excitation energy via "non-ideal" states in dense plasmas are also rejected as sources of ionization or excitation to form hydrogen plasmas [21]. The formation of energetic reactions of atomic hydrogen coincides with a source of free energy from the catalytic action of atomic hydrogen by Li.

The energetic hydrogen atom energy was calculated from the width of the 656.3nm balmer α line emitted by the RF rt-plasma. Full half width Δ λ of each Gaussian_GFrom Doppler (. DELTA.. lamda.)_D) And instrument (Δ λ)_I) Half width:

Δλ_Iin our experiments. + -. 0.006 nm. The temperature was calculated from the Doppler half-width using the following equation

Wherein λ₀Is the line wavelength, T is the temperature of K (1eV ═ 11,605K), and μ is the molecular weight (1 for atomic hydrogen). In each example, the mean Doppler half-width, which does not vary significantly with pressure, varies by ± 5% with an energy error corresponding to ± 10%.

The widths of the 656.3nm Barmer α lines recorded for argon-hydrogen (95/5%) -lithium rt-plasma initially and after 70 hours of operation are shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, respectively. The barmer α line profile of the plasma at the two time points included two distinct Gaussian peaks, an inner narrower peak corresponding to slow components less than 0.5eV and an outer significantly broadened peak corresponding to fast components > 40 eV. The fast component initially accounts for 90% of the number of n ═ 3 excited H particles and increases to 97% over 70 hours. Only the hydrogen line widens. As previously shown, the energy source of fast H cannot be attributed to any applied electric field, but is predicted by the catalytic mechanism of hydrogen towards lower states [32-37 ].

Pure H at a pressure of 1 Torr₂The lithium rt-plasma was also formed in the case of gas, with about 6eV with only 27% of the particle number, except for broadening of the time point line and decreasing of the particle number at the initial and 70 hours as shown in fig. 6A and 6B, respectively. This result was expected because of the excess of H₂Can react with Li toForm LiNH catalyzed by the following reaction₂The damaged LiH of (1).

LiH+LiNH₂→Li₂NH+H₂ (42)

Thus, the reactions that generate atomic Li and H are reduced. In addition, the argon of the argon-hydrogen mixture can increase the amount of atomic H by preventing recombination thereof, and Ar generated by plasma⁺And Li may participate as a catalyst.

We have assumed that Dopple broadening due to thermal motion is the dominant source to the extent that other sources can be ignored. This assumption is confirmed when each source is considered. Typically, the experimental profiles are two Doppler profiles, an instrument profile, a nature (lifetime) profile, a Stark profile, a van der waals profile, a resonance profile, and a convolution of the fine structure. The contribution from each source was determined to be below the limits of the assay [13-21, 38-39 ].

The formation of fast H can be explained by the resonance energy transfer from the hydrogen atom to the Li atom of three times the potential energy of atomic hydrogen forming a short-lived intermediate H (1/4) with a central field corresponding to four times the central field of protons and the radius of the hydrogen atom. Decreases with radius to a ₀The intermediate naturally decays by energy transfer, either through collision or through space, producing fast H (n ═ 1) and previously reported emission of q · 13.6eV photons [27-29 eV)]. Collision energy transfer involving coupling through space is common. For example, form H₂The exothermic chemical reaction of H + H does not occur with photon emission. Rather, the reaction requires a collision with a third party M to remove the bond energy-H + H + M → H₂+M*[44]. The third party disperses the energy from the exothermic reaction and the end result is H₂Increase in molecular and system temperatures. In the case of the catalytic reaction with formation of the states given by the formulae (2a) and (2c), the temperature of H becomes very high.

B. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements. The DSC (100-. A broad endothermic peak was observed at 350 ℃ to 420 ℃ corresponding to 47 kJ/mole. HydrogenationSodium decomposes in this temperature range with a corresponding enthalpy of 57kJ/mole [71 ]]. A large exotherm was observed in the region 640 ℃ to 825 ℃ corresponding to-177 kJ/mole. MgH₂The DSC (100 ℃ C. and 750 ℃ C.) of (A) is shown in FIG. 8. Two narrow endothermic peaks were observed. It was observed that the concentration at 351.75 ℃ corresponds to 68.61 kJ/mol MgH₂The first peak of (a). Corresponding to 74.4 kJ/mol MgH at 440 ℃ to 560 ℃ ₂MgH was observed₂Decomposition of (71)]. In FIG. 8, it is observed that the concentration at 647.66 ℃ corresponds to 6.65 kJ/mol of MgH₂The second peak of (a). The known melting point of Mg (m) is 650 ℃, corresponding to a melting enthalpy of 8.48 kJ/mol Mg (m) [ 72%]. Thus, the expected behavior was observed for the decomposition of the control non-catalytic hydride. In contrast, -177 kJ/mole NaH or at least-354 kJ/mole H is observed under conditions where the NaH catalyst is formed and some portion of the H undergoes the catalytic reaction given by the formula (23-25)₂The new exothermic effect of (a). The observed enthalpy is greater than the enthalpy of the maximum exothermic reaction possible for H, the combustion enthalpy of hydrogen-241.8 kJ/mole H₂。

C. Water flow calorimetry power measurement. In each test, the energy input and energy output were calculated by integrating the respective powers. For the input power, the voltage and current measured at the end of each time interval are multiplied by the time interval (typically 10 seconds) to obtain the energy increment in joules. After the period of equilibrium to obtain the total energy, all energy increments for the entire experiment are summed. For the output power, the thermistor offset was calculated after each test, assuming the final readings of inlet and outlet temperatures were the same. This offset is calculated to be 0.036 ℃. The thermal energy in the coolant stream in each time increment was calculated by multiplying the volumetric flow rate of water by the density of water at 19 ℃ (0.998 kg/liter), the specific heat of water (4.181kJ/kg- ° C), the corrected temperature difference, and the time interval using equation (39). Total energy from pool E _TIs necessarily equal to the energy input E_inAnd any excess energy E_ex：

E_T＝E_in+E_ex (43)

From the energy balance, any excess energy is determined.

The results of the calibration experiments are shown in fig. 9 and 10. In the plot of fig. 10, there are points in time where the coolant power slope change is almost discontinuous. At this point in time, which is about one hour, corresponds to helium addition that enhances heat transfer from the cell to the chamber walls. Numerical integration of the input and output power curves yields an output energy of 292.2kJ and an input energy of 303.1kJ, corresponding to a flow coupling of 96.4% of the resistant input to the output coolant.

Has a catalyst containing 1g of Li and 0.5g of LiNH₂10g LiBr and 15g Pd/Al₂O₃The cell temperature over time and the coolant power over time for the hydrino reaction of the cell of reagents (a) are shown in figures 11 and 12, respectively. Numerical integration of the input and output power curves with the calibration correction used yields an output energy of 227.2kJ and an input energy of 208.1 kJ. Therefore, from equation (43), the excess energy is 19.1 kJ. In the plot of fig. 12, there are points in time where the temperature slope change is almost discontinuous. The slope change occurred after a little more than 1 hour and this change corresponded to a rapid increase in the cell temperature for the start of the reaction. Based on the system response to the power pulse, an excess energy of 19.1kJ occurs in less than 2 minutes, which results in a reaction power of more than 160W.

Quantitative XRD of the product composition after reaction showed LiBr and Pd/Al₂O₃And is unchanged. Thus, assuming a 100% yield, the maximum theoretical energy released by the known chemistry is 4.3kJ from the formation of lithium nitride and hydride according to equation (22); however, the observed energy balance is 4.4 times this maximum. The only exothermic reactions that might explain the energy balance are given by equations (17-19). 0.5g of LiNH₂Has a hydrogen content of 22 mmol H₂. Thus, the observed energy balance is-870 kJ/mole H₂Exceeding the enthalpy of combustion (assuming the maximum possible H₂Energetic reaction of hydrogen on inventory) -241.8 kJ/mole H₂3.5 times of the total weight of the powder.

The pool temperature over time and coolant power over time for the R-Ni control power experiment with a pool containing a reagent comprising R-Ni starting material 15g R-Ni/Al alloy powder and 3.28g of Na are shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, respectively. The temperature and coolant power time profiles are very close to those of the calibration. Numerical integration of the input and output power curves with the calibration correction used yields an output energy of 384kJ and an input energy of 385 kJ. An energy balance is obtained.

The cell temperature over time and coolant power over time for the hydrino reaction with a cell containing a reagent comprising catalyst material 15g of R-Ni doped with NaOH and 3.28g of Na are shown in fig. 15 and 16, respectively. Numerical integration of the input and output power curves with the calibration correction used yields an output energy of 185.1kJ and an input energy of 149.1 kJ. Therefore, from equation (43), the excess energy is 36 kJ. In the plot of fig. 15, there is a point where the temperature slope change is almost discontinuous. The slope change occurred just before 1 hour and this change corresponded to a rapid increase in the cell temperature at the beginning of the reaction. Based on the system response to the power pulse, an excess energy of 36kJ occurs in less than 1.5 minutes, which results in a reaction power above 0.5W.

The compositions of R-Ni with reactants spiked with NaOH and the product after reaction with alkali metal were determined by quantitative XDR as Ni with trace bayerite and Ni with trace alkali metal hydroxide, respectively. Formation of sodium-Ni alloys or Al of sodium with R-Ni₂O₃Reaction of (3-74)]Is significantly endothermic (respectively. DELTA.H. +138 kJ/mol Na [75 ]]And Δ H ═ 72.18 kJ/mole Na [65 ]]). Using heat of formation, the reaction of bayerite to form NaOH with sodium (Δ H ═ 15.6kJ/mole Al (OH) based on XRD analysis of the corresponding NaOH product initially showing trace bayerite and from reaction with Na₃[65，76]) The contribution to the energy balance is negligible. And document [74 ]]Consistent, H from decomposition of bayerite₂The O content was 47.7. mu. mol H₂O/g R-Ni, corresponding to a chemical reaction due to Al (OH)₃Decomposition of (2Al (OH)₃→Al₂O₃+3H₂O Δ H ═ 92.45 kJ/mol Al) in the form of NaOHBecomes (delta H ═ 184.0kJ/mole H₂O[65]) Negligible contribution of (a). The overall reaction is the reaction of bayerite with sodium to form NaOH (ah ═ 15.6kJ/mole Al (OH)₃)。

The only exothermic reaction that might explain the energy balance is given by equations (23-25). The hydrogen content of R-Ni determined using quantitative GC and by using the ideal gas law for the measured P, V and T was 150. mu. mol H ₂/g R-Ni. Thus, the observed energy balance is-1.6X 10⁴kJ/mol H₂Exceeding the enthalpy of combustion (assuming the maximum possible H₂Energetic reaction of hydrogen on inventory) -241.8 kJ/mole H₂66 times higher. The conventional theoretical energy yield for the reaction of equation (44) is 259e V/H₂Or 25 MJ/mole H₂(equation (7)).

H₂→H₂(1/3) (44)

Among the most energetic known oxidation reactions, the reaction involving solid fuels is the reaction Be +1/2O₂→ BeO, which has a heat of combustion of 24kJ/g, while there are only a few known fuel/oxidizer systems [65 ] that produce over 10kJ/g]. By contrast, the H content of the recyclable catalyst NaH, even if not possible, produces an energy that is 300 times greater than that produced per weight of the best known solid fuel.

With increasing incorporation of NaOH and conversion to R-Ni 2400, the catalytic material produced high power and energy without the addition of Na. The cell temperature over time and coolant power over time for the hydrino reaction with a cell containing 15g of catalyst material R-Ni 2400 doped with NaOH are shown in fig. 17 and 18, respectively. Numerical integration of the input and output power curves with the calibration correction used yields an output energy of 195.7kJ and an input energy of 184.0kJ, corresponding to an excess energy of 11.7kJ and a power higher than 0.25W.

Compositions of R-Ni with reactants spiked with NaOH and product after reaction with alkali metals were R-Ni and R-Ni with 3.7 wt% bayerite, respectively, as determined by quantitative XDR. Measured H from bayerite decomposition of initial R-Ni₂The O content was 32.8. mu. mol H₂O/g R-Ni with resulting doping of 3 wt% Al (OH)₃Measured H of decomposition of bayerite of Ni/Al alloy₂34.0. mu. mol H of O content₂Almost O/g. The most exothermic reaction possible is Al (OH)₃To Al₂O₃The reaction of (1). The equilibrium reaction is composed of [65, 75, 77 ]]The following are given:

2Al(OH)₃+2Ni₅Al→2Al₂O₃+Ni₁₀H₆Δ H-263.9 kJ/mol Al (OH)₃ (45)

For 3.7 wt% Al (OH)₃The maximum theoretical energy from the reaction given by equation (45) is Δ H ═ 1.88 kJ. This was achieved by 15g of a dopant of 3 wt% Al (OH)₃The thermal measurements of the Ni/Al alloy of (a) were confirmed, which showed an average energy of-1.1 kJ with-1.7 kJ (300 kJ/mol Al (oh))₃Using a catalyst having Δ H_f(NiAl crystal) — 96 kJ/mol of formula (45)) has almost the same theoretical energy. Thus, the observed energy from R — Ni doped with NaOH is 4.4 times the theoretical energy; therefore, it mainly contributes to the catalytic reaction given by the formulas (23 to 25).

TOF-SIMS spectra. Positive ToF-SIMS spectra obtained from LiBr and LiH Br crystals are shown in figures 19 and 20, respectively. The positive ion spectrum of LiH-Br crystal and that of LiBr control are mainly Li ⁺Ions. Li was also observed₂ ⁺、Na⁺、Ga⁺And Li (LiBr)⁺。

Negative ions ToF-SIMS of LiBr and LiH Br crystals are shown in FIGS. 21 and 22, respectively. LiH-Br spectra are mainly H^-And Br^-Peak having H^-＞Br^-The strength of (2). Bromide alone accounts for the major portion of the negative ion ToF-SIMS of the LiBr control. For both, O was also observed^-、OH^-、Cl^-And LiBr^-. In addition to the added hydride, the other unique peak of the LiH & Br sample is LiHBr^-And Li₂H₂Br^-With new lithium bromidesThe formation of hydrides is consistent.

Positive ToF-SIMS spectra obtained from LiI and LiH si crystals are shown in figures 23 and 24, respectively. The positive ion spectrum of LiH I crystal and the positive ion spectrum of LiI contrast are mainly Li⁺Ions. Li was also observed₂ ⁺、Na⁺、Ga⁺And a series of positive ions Li [ LiI ]]_n ⁺. The unique peak of the LiH I sample is LiHI⁺、Li₂H₂I⁺、Li₄H₂I⁺And Li₆H₂I⁺。

Negative ion ToF-SIMS of LiI and LiH I crystals are shown in FIGS. 25 and 26, respectively. LiH I spectrum is mainly H^-And I^-Peak having H^-＞I^-The strength of (2). Iodide Single exclusion LiI controls the major portion of the negative ion ToF-SIMS. For both, O was also observed^-、OH^-、Cl^-And a series of anions I [ LiI ]]_n ^-. In addition to the added hydride, the other unique peak of the LiH I sample is LiHI^-、Li₂H₂I^-And NaHI^-Consistent with the formation of new lithium iodide hydrides.

After generating an excess of heat of 15kJ, negative ToF-SIMS spectra (m/e 20-30) of NaH-coated Pt/Ti are shown in fig. 27. Fractional hydrogen-hydride-compound series NaH was observed _x ^-Wherein mass deficit from high resolution (10,000) mass determination definitively distinguishes this attribute from C observed in controls₂H_x ^-And (4) series. XPS spectra showed that NaH coated Pt/Ti included two fractions of H in the hydrogen state^-(1/3) and H^-(1/4) (part IIIF).

NaH with a mass defect series is also observed in the spectra from the R-Ni run of the Na/R-Ni water flow calorimetry generating 36kJ excess heat_x ^-. A positive TOF-SIMS spectrum obtained from R-Ni reacted at 50 ℃ for more than 48 hours is shown in FIG. 28. The predominant ion on the surface is Na⁺Consistent with NaOH incorporation at the surface. Ions of other main elements of R-Ni 2400 such as Al⁺、Ni⁺、Cr⁺And Fe⁺Are also observed.

The anion ToF-SIMS spectrum of R-Ni from reaction at 50 ℃ for more than 48 hours is shown in FIG. 29. The spectrum shows very large peaks and hydroxide fragment OH^-And O^-. Two other major peaks coincide with NaH₃ ^-And NaH₃NaOH^-To a high resolution mass of 10,000 and is attributed to sodium hydrido and this ion in combination with NaOH. It was observed to be attributable to NaOH, NaO, OH^-And O^-Combined sodium hydrido hydride NaH_x ^-Other unique ions.

E.H^-(1/3)、H^-(1/4)、H₂(1/3) and H₂(1/4) NMR identification. Relative to external TMS of LiH Br and LiH I¹The HMAS NMR spectra are shown in fig. 30A and 30B, respectively. LiH X samples showed large apparent high field resonances of-2.51 ppm and-2.09 ppm of X ═ Br and X ═ I, respectively. Containing LiH, an equimolar mixture of LiH and LiBr or LiI, LiNH ₂，Li₂NH, and LiNH₂Or Li₂None of the controls of equimolar mixtures of NH and LiBr or LiI showed a peak migrating to the high field, and these results were compared to the H previously identified as KH Cl and KH I, since the peak to the high field was very broad at about-2.2 ppm LiH X^-The comparison of the results of (1/4) is useful.

KH × Cl samples from independent syntheses (fig. 31A) and control versus TMS were given before¹HMAS NMR Spectrum [13-15, 24-26]. The experimental absolute resonance shift of TMS with respect to the gyromagnetic frequency of protons was-31.5 ppm [78-79 ]]. Experimental KH shift of +1.1ppm relative to TMS corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-30.4 ppm and-30 ppm of H given by equation (4) where p is 0^-The predicted displacement of (1/1) is very consistent. The new peak at-4.46 ppm relative to TMS corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-35.96 ppm indicates that p is 4 in equation (4). H^-(1/4) is hydride ion predicted by using K as catalyst [1, 15, 30 ]]. In addition, the exceptionally narrow peak width indicates a small hydride ion as a free rotating bodyAnd (4) adding the active ingredients. In contrast, KH × I (fig. 31B) showed a very broad peak of-2.31 ppm. Predicted product hydride ion H of KH I-forming reaction with K catalyst^-(1/4) by XPS [13-15, 26, 30 ] ]The binding energy at its predicted 11.2eV is observed. Thus, the diamagnetic shift due to the larger halide is +2.15 ppm. The LiH X corrected high field NMR peaks are each-4.46 ppm, which coincides with the expected displacement of free ions given by equation (4).

Elemental analysis of wt% LiH by Br was consistent with LiHBr stoichiometry for Li (8%), H (1.1%), I (90.9%) and stainless steel and R — Ni compositions below detectable levels. Elemental analysis of wt% of LiH x I is consistent with LiHI stoichiometry for Li (5.2%), H (0.8%), I (94%) and stainless steel and R-Ni compositions below measurable levels. Therefore, only those hydrides of Li are a possible attribute. UH as determined previously did not have NMR peaks shifted to high field [ 13-14%]. F centers cannot be a source because there is no detectable ESR signal in LiH Br or LiH I at room temperature or 77K. In LiNH₂、Li₂NH and obtained on these compounds in a LiBr or LiI matrix¹HMAS NMR also showed that none of these compounds had NMR peaks moving to high field. To further exclude LiNH₂And Li₂NH is a source of-2.5 ppm peak, LiH x Br samples with-2.5 ppm peak are heated to > 600 ℃ under dynamic vacuum to decompose LiNH₂And Li₂And (4) NH. The heat treated samples were analyzed by FTIR spectroscopy to confirm, e.g., by 3314, 3259, 2079 (wide), 1567 and 1541cm ^-1And amide peaks at 3172 (broad), 1953 and 1578cm^-1The absence of the imide peak at (A) indicates that the amide and imide are excluded, while the-2.5 ppm peak remains in the reanalysis by NMR. The FTIR spectrum shown in figure 45B shows the exclusion of these species while the corresponding NMR showed a-2.5 ppm peak. Due to past present NMR and FTIR analysis¹H NMR spectrum of-2.5 ppm peak and UH, LiNH₂、Li₂NH or any other known substance,¹the-2.5 ppm peak in the HNMR spectrum was attributed to H^-(1/4) ions that fit the theoretical predictions and are direct of lower energy state hydride ionsEvidence.

Except due to H^-(1/4) peaks at-2.5 ppm and-2.09 ppm, of LiH Br and LiH I shown in FIGS. 30A and 30B, respectively¹A peak at 1.3ppm was observed in the HMAS NMR spectrum. None of the controls showed this peak, which excluded any starting compound or its possible known product. However, the peaks may be due to corresponding to H^-H of (1/4)₂(1/4) a molecule.

H₂Has already been formed from the gas phase¹And (4) HNMR characterization. The experimental absolute resonance shift for gas phase TMS relative to the gyromagnetic frequency of protons was-28.5 ppm [80 ]]. H was observed at 0.48ppm compared to gas phase TMS set at 0.00ppm₂[81]. Thus, the corresponding absolute H ₂The gas phase resonance shift of-28.0 ppm (-28.5+0.48) ppm is very consistent with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of-28.01 ppm given by equation (12).

Absolute H₂Gas phase shift can be used to determine H in a lithium compound matrix₂Displacement of the substrate. A correction for substrate shift can then be applied to the 1.3ppm peak to determine the gas phase absolute shift for comparison with equation (12). The shifts of all peaks are relative to liquid phase TMS with experimental absolute resonance shifts of-31.5 ppm relative to the gyromagnetic frequency of protons [ 78-79%]. 4.06ppm of H in the lithium compound matrix relative to liquid phase TMS₂The experimental shifts of (D) are shown in Lu et al [82 ]]And corresponds to an absolute resonance shift of-27.44 ppm (-31.5ppm +4.06 ppm). Absolute H of-28.0 ppm corresponding to 3.5ppm (-28.0ppm-31.5ppm) relative to liquid phase TMS was used₂Gas phase resonance shift, lithium-compound matrix effect is +0.56ppm (4.06ppm-3.5ppm), requiring a correction of the measured shift of +0.56 ppm. Then H at 1.26ppm peak relative to TMS₂The peak height field of (a) corresponds to a matrix-corrected absolute resonance shift of-30.8 ppm (-31.5ppm +1.26ppm-0.56 ppm). Using equation (12), the data indicates that p ═ 4 and matches H₂(1/4)：

Lu et al [82]A peak was also observed at this position, which was found at LiH + LiNH ₂(1.1/1) in situ heating period with respect to H₂Increase in strength. They cannot attribute peaks that are not known to be labeled in their fig. 6 and 7. And H₂The assignment of the well-matched peaks to the theoretical shifts of (1/4) is confirmed by FTIR (part IIIG) and electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy (part IIIH).

H in LiH X^-(1/4) the presence of ions was found to be dependent on the polarizability of the halide ions. Of LiH F and LiH Cl¹The HMAS NMR spectra are shown in fig. 32A and 32B, respectively. Peaks at 4.3ppm and 1.2ppm coincide in two different quantum states [1, 6 ]]Theoretical prediction of molecular hydrogen in (1). 4.3ppm Peak-to-Lu et al [82]To H₂Is attributed to Lu et al [82]Peak labeled unknown 1.2ppm coincided with H₂(1/4). By predicted rotational transitions in FTIR spectra (part IIIG)Observation and observation of the predicted rotation interval by electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy (portion IIIH) confirmed H₂(1/4) attribution. H^-(1/4) the ion peak is absent in LiH F containing unpolarized fluorine and in LiH Cl containing unpolarized chlorine; however, it is the main peak in both LiH Br and LiH Cl as shown in fig. 30A and 30B, respectively. These results indicate that polarized halides are required for LiX to react with H^-(1/4) the ions react to form the corresponding lithium halo-hydrides. Since molecular species are non-specifically trapped in the crystal lattice, either with respect to molecular species alone or with H ^-(1/4) molecular species of ionic composition, the H content of LiH X being selective for H by the polarizability of the halide and for H^-The corresponding reactivity of (1/4) is based. As shown in FIGS. 31A and 31B, the potassium catalyst also formed H₂(1/4) but with H in the KCl and KI matrix^-(1/4)。

Of NaH-Br relative to external TMS¹The HMAS NMR spectrum is shown in fig. 32. NaH Br showed a large apparent high field resonance of-3.58 ppm. None of the controls containing either NaH or an equimolar mixture of NaH and NaBr showed a peak migrating to high field. The peak at-3.58 ppm high field of NaH Br was broadened but was not significant in KH I; thus, the matrix may not have previously identified H in KH |, I^-(1/4) as large an effect as in the example of (1/4). Thus, the measured displacement is directly compared to the theory expected with a peak migrating to a lower field due to the matrix effect. The absolute resonance shift for the TMS experiment was-31.5 ppm [78-79 ] relative to the gyromagnetic frequency]. The new peak at-3.58 ppm relative to TMS, corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of-35.08 ppm, indicates that p is 4 in equation (4). H^-(1/4) is the favorable hydride ion predicted by using NaH as a catalyst (equations (3-4) and (23-27)). Similar to the example of LiH X, the 4.3ppm peak shown in figure 33 is assigned to H ₂While the 1.13ppm peak is assigned to H₂(1/4). The latter is often observed as a favorable catalytic molecule product [29]。

NaH Cl relative to external TMS¹HMAS NMR showed hydrogen addition to H₂、H₂(1/4) and H^-(1The effect of/4) relative intensity is shown in FIGS. 34A-B. The addition of hydrogen enhances H^-(1/4) Peak and reduction of H₂(1/4) and H₂And (4) enhancing. (A) The NaH Cl synthesized with the addition of hydrogen appears to be due to H^-(1/4) peak of-4 ppm transition to high field, ascribed to H₂(1/4) Peak 1.1ppm and ascribed to H₂4ppm of (2). (B) NaH Cl synthesized without hydrogen addition was shown to be due to H^-(1/4) peak of-4 ppm transition to high field, ascribed to H₂(1/4) Main Peak sum of 1.0ppm ascribed to H₂Small 4.1ppm peak.

Addition of hydrogen to H in NaH Cl₂、H₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4) relative¹The effect of HMAS NMR intensity is shown in FIGS. 34A-B. Main peak from H accompanied by external hydrogen addition₂Is converted into H₂(1/4) indicates that H is insufficient when hydrogen is present₂Can occupy by H₂(1/4) sites in the filled lattice. However, the addition of hydrogen enhances H^-(1/4) the relative intensity of the peak, most likely by increasing the concentration of the hydrino reactant.

Can react on solid acid KHSO from NaCl and serving as the only hydrogen source₄NMR of the synthesized NaH Cl was performed to test in H according to formula (27)^-(1/4) the rapid reaction due to lack of free H ₂Or H formed by the reaction of the formula (23-25) when H is partially suppressed at a high concentration of dissociating agent for hydride^-(1/3) whether it can be observed. Relative to external TMS of NaH + Cl formed using solid acid¹The HMAS NMR spectrum is shown in fig. 35. Peaks at-3.97 ppm and 1.15ppm coincided with the-4 ppm and 1.1ppm peaks of FIGS. 34A-B, respectively, due to the use of a peak from a band having H₂Or H of NaH Cl synthesized from H of hydride dissociating agent^-(1/4) and H₂(1/4). A close fit is expected because KHSO₄Only 6.5 mol% of the mixture with NaCl made the matrix effect substantially constant from sample to sample. Uniquely, another set of peaks of-3.15 ppm and 1.7ppm were observed for the solid acid product. Using the matrix shifts of equations (4) and (12) and NaH × Cl given previously, these peaks coincide and are assigned to H, respectively^-(1/3) and H₂(1/3). Two peaksThe curve fitting of (a) resulted in peaks at about-3 ppm and-4 ppm, with theoretical values of experimental error. Thus, both fractional hydrogen states are present, and H₂Peaks were missing at 4.3ppm due to the synthesis of NaH + Cl using solid acid as the only source of H, confirming the reaction given by equation (23-30). KHSO from NaCl and solid acid₄H in reacted NaH Cl ^-(1/4) and H₂The presence of (1/4) was confirmed by XPS and electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy.

Helium is another catalyst that can be promoted toward carbon atoms because the second ionization energy is 54.4eV (2.27.2 eV)The transition reaction of (2). The catalyst reaction is given by

He₂++e^-→He⁺+54.4eV (48)

And the overall reaction is

As in the case of the NaH catalyst reaction, followed by He⁺Catalytic productsTo the direction ofCan be made by first passing the first transition from as given in equation (27)Receiving 27Further catalysis of atomic hydrogen of 2eV takes place. A characteristic broad emission starting at 46.5nm and continuing to shorter wavelengths is expected for this transition reaction with the decay of the energetic H-containing catalyst. Emission has been observed by EUV spectra recorded by microwave discharge of helium with 2% hydrogen [27-29 ]]. The spectral data and NMR data provide a pairIs formed and then directed toStrong support for the catalyst mechanism of the transition (c). Additional evidence is for H in NaH Cl as given in section IIIF^-(1/3) and H^-(1/4) observation of both.

F.H^-(1/4) and H^-(1/3) XPS identification. At E_bMeasured spectra were obtained for each of LiBr and LiH × (fig. 36A-B) for the region from 0eV to 1200 eV. The elemental peaks allow determination of all elements present in the LiH Br crystals and the control LiBr. Elements not present in the measurement scan can be attributed to peaks in the low binding energy region (FIG. 37) (except for the Li 1s peak at 55eV (1 eV shift lower compared to LiBr), the O2s peak at 23eV, the Br 3d at 69eV and 70eV, respectively _5/2And Br 3d_3/2Peak, Br 4s peak at 15eV, and Br 4d peak at 5 eV). Accordingly, any other peak in this region must be due to a new species. As shown in fig. 37, the XPS spectrum of LiH × Br is different from the XPS spectrum of LiBr, having peaks that do not correspond to any other base element but coincide with H^-(1/4)E_bAdditional peaks at 9.5eV and 12.3eV for 11.2eV hydride ions (equations (4) and (16)). The literature was searched for elements with peaks in the valence band region that could be attributed to these peaks. There are no known alternative attributes to consider the existing elemental peaks. Thus, the 9.5eV and 12.3eV peaks, which cannot be attributed to known elements and do not correspond to any other base element peaks, are attributed to H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4). These characteristics are reported before very good agreement [13-15, 26, 30 ]]KH of (A) and (B)^-(1/4).

In the region E_bMeasured spectra were obtained for each of NaBr and NaH × (fig. 38A-B) from 0eV to 1200 eV. The elemental peaks allow determination of all elements present in NaH x Br crystals and control NaBr. Elements not present in the measurement scan can be attributed to peaks in the low binding energy region (FIG. 39) (except for Na 2p and Na 2s (1 eV migration lower than NaBr) at 30eV and 63eV, the O2 s peak at 23eV, and Br 3d at 69eV and 70eV, respectively _5/2And Br 3d_3/2Peak, Br 4s peak at 15.2eV, and Br 4d peak at 5 eV). Therefore, any other peak in this region must be due to a new species. As shown in fig. 39, the XPS spectrum of NaH × Br differs from that of NaBr, having peaks that do not correspond to any other base element but coincide with H^-(1/4)E_bAdditional peaks at 9.5eV and 12.3eV for 11.2eV hydride ions (equations (4) and (16)). The literature was searched for elements with peaks in the valence band region that could be attributed to these peaks. There are no known alternative attributes to consider the existing elemental peaks. Thus, the 9.5eV and 12.3eV peaks, which cannot be attributed to known elements and do not correspond to any other base element peaks, are attributed to H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4)。

Region E_bMeasured spectra from 0eV to 1200eV were obtained for each of Pt/Ti and NaH coated Pt/Ti after generating 15kJ of excess heat (fig. 40A-B). The base element peak allows determination of all elements present in NaH-coated Pt/Ti and control Pt/Ti. Elements not present in the survey scan can be attributed to peaks in the low binding energy region (FIGS. 41A-B) (except for Pt 4f at 70.7eV and 74eV, respectively)_7/2And Pt 4f_5/2Peak and O2 s at 23 eV). On NaH coated Pt/Ti, Na 2p and Na 2s peaks were observed at 31eV and 64eV, while a valence band was observed only for Pt/Ti. Therefore, any other peak in this region must be due to a new species. As shown in fig. 42A-B, the NaH-coated Pt/Ti XPS spectra were different from the Pt/Ti XPS spectra, with peaks that did not correspond to any other base element but coincided with H ^-(1/3)E_b6.6eV and H^-(1/4)E_bAdditional peaks at 6eV, 10.8eV and 12.8eV for the 11.2eV hydride ion (equations (4) and (16)). The literature was searched for elements with peaks in the valence band region that could be attributed to these peaks. There are no known alternative attributes to consider the existing elemental peaks. Thus, the 10.8eV, which cannot be attributed to a known element and does not correspond to any other fundamental element peak, and the 12.8eV peak are attributed to H in two different chemical environments^-(1/4). 6eV peak coincidence and is attributed to H^-(1/3). Thus, in the absence of halide peaks in this region, both fractional hydrogen states (1/3 and 1/4) are observed as predicted by equation (27). The absence of the valence band due to the high binding energy is also consistent with NaH-coated Pt/Ti hydrido assignments.

The results for NaH coated Pt/Ti shown in figure 42B were repeated with NaH coated Si. As shown in fig. 43 and 44, XPS spectra of NaH-coated Si showed no attribution to known elements and did not correspond to other base element peaks but coincided with H^-(1/3) and H^-(1/4) peaks at 6eV, 10.8eV, and 12.8 eV. Thus, as predicted by equation (27), two fractions of the hydrogen state, 1/3, are as H at 6eV ^-(1/3) and 1/4 such as H at 10.8eV and 12.8eV^-(1/4), both present.

G.H₂FTIR identification of (1/4). FTIR spectrometers with high resolution have been analyzed to have a correlation with H^-(1/4) high field migration of-2.5 ppm¹HNMR peaks and contributions due to the corresponding molecule H₂(1/4) LiH. multidot. Br sample of NMR peak at 1.3 ppm. As shown in FIG. 45B, at 1989cm^-1A single narrow peak was observed. The compound LiNH based on the starting materials and the expected reaction₂、Li₂NH and Li₃N is possible, but none of these compounds is shown at 1989cm^-1Peaks in the region. No additional peaks were observed other than those that could be simply attributed to LiBr (fig. 45A). An exhaustive list of species characterized in this region is contemplated, including foreign species such as azides, metal carbonyls and metaborate ions. The former are excluded based on their known spectra with very broad bands. Metaborate ions are excluded by ToF-SIMs analysis which shows an undetectable total boron content at ppb levels, orders of magnitude below its FTIR detection limit, and the absence of two peaks corresponding to the boron isotope¹⁰B (20% N.A.) and¹¹B(80％N.A.)。

1989cm taking into account possible matrix effects^-1Peak coincidence pair H of (0.24eV) ₂1947cm of (1/4)^-1The theoretical prediction of (1). From the formula (14-15), 4 is the rotational energy of ordinary hydrogen²Multiple unprecedented rotational energies establish H₂(1/4) a nuclear spacing of H₂1/4 for inter-core spacing. Gap H in silicon and GaAs₂Almost free-rotating bodies, exhibiting a single oscillating transition [83-87 ]]。H₂Is FTIR-active and Raman-active due to induced dipoles from interaction with the crystal lattice [83]. The crystal lattice may also influence the selection rule to allow for H₂(1/4) other forbidden transitions. Considering the influence of the matrix, the expected 1943cm^-1Coincidence of the peak of (a) with the relatively narrow peak width, indicating H₂(1/4) was able to rotate substantially freely within the crystal and it was confirmed that it corresponded to the small size of 1/4 on the scale of ordinary hydrogen. Ordinary hydrogen exhibits an ortho-para ratio of 3: 1 at non-cryogenic temperatures; however, H is formed under the conditions of the synthesis₂The single peak of (1/4) was attributed to the para form only, resulting in a 64 fold increase in stability due to the relative internuclear separation of 1/4. Considering 1989cm^-1The frequency of the peaks coincided and lacked any known choice, with hydrogen being the only known species exhibiting a single vibrational transition in a solid matrix, 1989cm^-1Is assigned to para-position H ₂(1/4) a rotational transition from J-0 to J-1.

H. H excited by electron beam₂(1/4) rotating the UV spectrum. Beam currents of 10-20 muA at < 10 by using a 12.5keV electron gun^-5Windowless UV spectroscopy of electron beam excitation of crystals in the Torr pressure range investigated the trapping of alkali halide MgX₂(X ═ F, Cl, Br, I) and CuX₂(X＝H in the lattice of F, Cl, Br)₂(1/4). In the alkali metal halide, only the alkali metal chloride was found to show the peak predicted by the formula (14), and the intensity approximately agrees with the predicted magnitude, increasing along the column of the group I element. In all examples, peaks can be excluded by heating with loss of the raman α peak, and no other peaks were observed in the UV. Only hydrogen was recorded on the online mass spectrum. In the series of compounds MgX₂(X ═ F, Cl, Br, I) and CuX₂In (X ═ F, Cl, Br), the predicted band is only for MgI₂Is measurable, in this example it can be attributed to Mg²⁺As a catalyst. NMR on these crystals showed only at MgX₂1.13ppm of H with relative strength F, Cl, Br, < I₂(1/4) peak, which only coincided with passing MgI₂The electron beam of (2) triggers detection of the emitted band.

Electron beam excited H with trapping₂The 100-350nm spectrum of the CsCl crystal of (1/4) is shown in FIG. 46. A series of evenly spaced lines were observed in the 220-300nm region as shown in figure 46. This series of fits is given by H of equation (14) ₂(1/4) spacing and intensity profile of the P branches. P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4), P (5) and P (6) were observed at 226.0nm, 237.0nm, 249.5nm, 262.5nm, 277.0nm and 292.5nm, respectively. The slope of the energy linear curve fit for the peaks shown in FIG. 46 is 0.25eV, with the sum r of the intersection and the residual of 5.73eV²< 0.0000. Slope coincidence has Δ J ═ 1; j is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (where J is the number of spin quanta of the final state) with a spin energy interval of 0.241eV (equation (14); p is 4). H₂(1/4) is a free-rotating body, but not a free-vibrating body, which is identical to the former [83-87 ]]The discussion is similar for the case of interstitial hydrogen in silicon. The observed intersection of 5.73eV is the gap H in silicon₂Percent of (3-87)]About twice the percentage of (A) from predicted H₂The 8.25eV vibration energy (formula (13)) of (1/4) v 1 → v 0 is transferred. In the latter case, free H₂The vibrational energy of (a) is 4161cm^-1However, the vibrational peaks in silicon are at positions corresponding to ortho and para H, respectively₂3618 and 3627cm^-1Observed in (3)]. In the former case, the displacement is reduced by about 30%, possibly due to an increase in effective mass from the coupling of the molecular vibrational modes to the crystal lattice.

Establishment of H using equations (14) and (15) and the measured rotational energy interval of 0.25eV₂(1/4) spacing between nuclei is Normal H₂1/4 for inter-core spacing. Corresponding weak bands were observed from NaH Br, while stronger bands were observed from NaH Cl. In the latter case, the intensity of the emission may be determined by combining H with H₂(1/4) is significantly increased by entrapment in the silicon matrix. Electron beam excited H with trapping₂The 100-550nm spectrum of the NaH Cl coated wafer of (1/4) is shown in fig. 47. It was observed that the agreement was with H given by equation (14)₂(1/4) a series of interval and intensity profiles for the P branch. P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4), P (5) and P (6) were observed at 222.5nm, 233.4nm, 245.2nm, 258.2nm, 272.2nm and 287.4nm, respectively. The slope of the energy linear curve fit for the peaks shown in FIG. 47 is 0.25eV, with the sum r of the intersection and the residual of 5.82eV²< 0.0000. Linearity is a representation of rotation, and the results again fit H₂(1/4). This technique confirms the results of solid NMR and FTIR given in sections IIIE and IIIG, respectively. Previously reported [13-14]Having H when by NMR^-KH Cl of (1/4) was easily generated in an electron beam of 12.5keV, and a gap H was observed₂(1/4) similar stimulated emission, e.g. from electron beam-excited alkali metal halides, NaH Cl coated Si, and argon-hydrogen plasma emission [ 13-14% ]. It was also observed that the elimination of H attributed to the KCl starting material by heating to high temperatures₂(1/4) a belt. KH Cl was then synthesized from heat treated KCl, and then except for the demonstration of various catalysts HCl, NaH, K and Ar⁺Can generate H₂H of (1/4)^-(1/4), H trapped in the KH Cl lattice was also observed₂(1/4)。

Reference for experiments

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R.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, W.good, P.Jansson, M.Nansteel, J.He, A.Voigt, "Spectroscopic and NMR Identification of novel Hydride Ions in the Fractional Quantum Energy state Formed by the exothermic Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen and Certain Catalysts," European Physical Journal-Applied Physics, Vol.28, (2004), pp.83-104.

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R.Mills, J.Dong, Y.Lu, "Observation of Extreme ultraviolet Hydrogen Emission from incorporated Heated Hydrogen Gas with certain Catalysts" and int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.25, (2000), p.919-.

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R.L.Mills, J.He, M.Nansteel, B.Dhandapani, "Catalysis of atomic hydrogen to New Hydrides as a New Power Source," International Journal of Global Energy Issues (IJGEI), a proprietary edition of Energy systems, Vol.28, No. 2/3(2007), p.304-324.

R.L.Mills, X.Chen, P.ray, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Plasma Power Source Based on a Catalytic Reaction by Water Bath Calorimetry of Atomic Hydrogen catalyzed by Water Bath Calorimetry", Thermochimica Acta, Vol. 406/1-2, (2003), pp.35-53.

R.Mills, B.Dhandapani, N.Greenig, J.He, "Synthesis and characterization of Potassium iodide Hydride", int.J.of Hydrogen Energy, Vol.25, No. 12, month 12, (2000), p.1185, page 1203.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, M.Nansteel, X.Chen, J.He, "New Power Source from Fractional Quantum Energy levels of atomic Hydrogen for Internal Combustion" (New Energy sources better than Internal Combustion), J.Mol.struct., vol.643, stages 1-3, (2002), pages 43-54.

30.R.L.Mills，P.Ray，″A Comprehensive Study of Spectra of theBound-Free Hyperfine Levels of Novel Hydride Ion H^-(1/2), Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Air (bound-free hyperfine levels of novel hydride ions H^-(1/2), comprehensive study of spectra of hydrogen, nitrogen and air), ", int.j. hydrogen Energy, Vol.28, No. 8, (2003), pp.825-871.

R.Mills, "Spectroscopic Identification of a Novel Catalytic Reaction of atomic Hydrogen and the Hydride Ion Product" int.J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol.26, No. 10, (2001), p.1041-1058.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, R.M.Mayo, J.He, "comparison of the excess Barmer α Line Broadening of Glow Discharge and microwave Hydrogen Plasmas containing Certain Catalysts with micron dimension Catalysts", J.of Applied Physics, Vol.92, No. 12, (2002), pp.7008 and 7022.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "compatibility of ExcesBalmer α Line amplification of Induction and catalysis Coupled RF, Microwave, and Glow Discharge plasma with alumina Catalysts (Comparison of excessive Barmer α Line Broadening of Inductively and Capacitively Coupled RF, Microwave and Glow Discharge Hydrogen Plasmas containing Certain Catalysts)," IEEE Transactions on plasma science, Vol.31, No. (2003), pp.338-.

R.L.Mills, P.ray, "fundamental Changes in the chemistry of a microwave Plasma Dual to Combining Argon and Hydrogen (significant change in the properties of microwave Plasma Due to Argon and Hydrogen combination)," New Journal of Physics, www.njp.org, Vol.4, (2002), pp.1-22.17.

Mill, p.l. mill, p.ray, b.dhandpani, "advanced palm α linear amplification of Water-Vapor capacitive-Coupled RF Discharge plasma Excessive barmer α line broadening," int.j.hydrogen Energy, in printing.

R.Mills, P.ray, B.Dhandapani, "Evidence of an Energy transfer reaction Between Atomic Hydrogen and Argon II or Helium II as the source of Energy transfer reaction Between Atomic Hydrogen and Argon II or Helium II as a source of overheated H Atoms in RF Plasma," Journal of Plasma Physics, (2006), Vol.72, No. 4, pp.469-484.24.

J.Phillips, C-K Chen, K.Akhtar, B.Dhandapani, R.Mills, "evidence of Catalytic generation of Hot Hydrogen in RF Generated Hydrogen/argon plasma" by evolution of Catalytic Production of Hot Hydrogen in RF Generated plasma, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol.32 (14); (2007), 3010-3025.

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Claims

1. A power source and hydride reactor comprising:

a reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form new hydrogen species and compositions of matter containing new forms of hydrogen;

a reaction vessel constructed and arranged to contain a pressure in a range of less than, equal to, or greater than atmospheric pressure;

a vacuum pump;

an atomic hydrogen source from a source in communication with the reaction vessel;

a source of hydrogen catalyst in communication with the reaction vessel comprising a solid fuel reaction mixture containing at least one reactant of one or more elements forming the catalyst and at least one other element, thereby forming the catalyst from the source; and

a heater to heat the vessel to initiate formation of the catalyst in the reaction vessel if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature, whereby catalysis of atomic hydrogen releases energy in an amount greater than 300kJ per mole of hydrogen during catalysis of the hydrogen atoms.

2. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 comprising an energy cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form new hydrogen species and compositions of matter containing new forms of hydrogen, a source of hydrogen catalyst, and a source of atomic hydrogen, whereby the source of hydrogen catalyst comprises at least one reactant having hydrogen and at least one other element, and

The at least one reactant undergoes a reaction such that the energy released is greater than the difference between the standard enthalpy of formation of the compound with the stoichiometry or elemental composition of the product and the energy of formation of the at least one reactant.

3. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 whereby the source of hydrogen catalyst comprises at least one reactant having hydrogen and at least one other element, and

the at least one reactant undergoes a reaction such that the energy released is greater than the theoretical standard enthalpy required to regenerate the at least one reactant from the product, wherein the energy to replace any reacted hydrogen is the standard value.

4. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 for generating power comprising reactants of hydrogen and at least one other element that undergo a reaction to release energy greater than the difference between the standard enthalpy of formation of a compound having the stoichiometry or elemental composition of the product and the energy of formation of the reactant.

5. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 for generating power comprising reactants of hydrogen and at least one other element that undergo a reaction to release energy greater than the theoretical standard enthalpy required to regenerate the reactants from products, wherein the energy to replace any reacting hydrogen is the standard value for combustion of the hydrogen.

6. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the catalyst is capable of operating at 27.2eV ± 0.5eV andthe integer unit of one accepts energy from atomic hydrogen.

7. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the catalyst contains an atom or ion M, wherein ionization of each of the t electrons from the atom or ion M to successive energy levels is such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is M-27.2 eV andwherein m is an integer.

8. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 7 wherein the catalyst atoms M are at least one of the group of atoms Li, K, and Cs.

9. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 8 wherein the source of catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule of catalyst atoms.

10. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 8 wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least a first reactant comprising one of the group of Li, K, Cs, and H as a source of atomic catalyst and atomic hydrogen;

the reaction mixture further includes at least one other reactant, wherein the atomic hydrogen and atomic catalyst are formed by the reaction of at least one first reactant and at least one other reactant.

11. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 10 wherein the source of catalyst comprises MH, where M is the catalyst atom, whereby an atomic catalyst is formed from the source by reaction with a species containing at least one other element.

12. The catalyst of claim 1 comprising a diatomic molecule MH, wherein the cleavage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of each of the t electrons from the atom M to successive energy levels such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is M x27.2ev andwherein m is an integer.

13. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 12 wherein the catalyst source comprises a reaction that produces a diatomic molecule comprising hydrogen and another element.

14. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 13 wherein the catalyst comprises hydrogen and an element other than hydrogen.

15. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 14 wherein the source of catalyst and reactant atomic hydrogen comprises a diatomic molecule of hydrogen and another element.

16. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 15 wherein the catalyst comprises at least one of molecular aih, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, and SnH.

17. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 comprising at least one of: a combination of one or more elements of the catalyst, another element, and the same substance as the composition of the catalyst, but in a different physical state than the catalyst composition.

18. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the source of catalyst comprises hydrogen and another element other than hydrogen.

19. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst or a source of a catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen (H), wherein at least one of the catalyst and atomic hydrogen is released by a chemical reaction of at least one species of the reaction mixture or by a chemical reaction between two or more reaction mixture species.

20. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 19 wherein the substance is at least one of an element, complex, alloy, or compound selected from a molecule or an inorganic compound.

21. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 20 wherein each species is at least one of a reagent or a product in the reactor.

22. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 20 wherein the species is capable of forming a complex, alloy, or compound with at least one of hydrogen and the catalyst.

23. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 22 wherein the element or alloy comprises at least one of M (catalyst atoms), H, Al, B, Si, C, N, Sn, Te, P, S, Ni, Ta, Pt, and Pd.

24. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 23 wherein the catalyst atoms M are at least one of the group of Li, K, Cs, and Na, and the catalyst is atomic Li, K, and Cs and molecular NaH.

25. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 24 wherein one or more of the reaction mixture species are capable of forming one or more reaction product species such that the energy to release H or free catalyst is reduced relative to the absence of formation of the reaction product species.

26. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 25 wherein the reaction to generate at least one of atomic H and catalyst is reversible.

27. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 26 wherein the complex, alloy or compound comprises a lithium alloy or a lithium compound.

28. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 27 wherein the reaction mixture comprises LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiBH₄、Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂、NH₃、H₂、LiNO₃At least one of an alloy or a compound of the group Li/Ni, Li/Ta, Li/Pd, Li/Te, Li/C, Li/Si and Li/Sn.

29. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 28 wherein the reaction mixture comprises one or more compounds that react with a source of Li to form a Li catalyst,

the reaction mixture comprises LiNH-derived₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、Li、LiH、NH₃、H₂At least one substance of the group of (a),

and a dissociating agent.

30. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 29 wherein the reaction mixture comprises LiH, LiNH₂And Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

31. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 30 wherein the reaction mixture comprises Li, Li₃N, and Al₂O₃Hydrogenated Pd and optionally H on powder₂And (4) qi.

32. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 26 wherein the source of catalyst comprises a source of NaH catalyst, wherein the source of NaH is a Na alloy and a source of hydrogen.

33. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 32 wherein the alloy source of catalyst comprises at least one of sodium metal and one or more other nitrogen-based compounds, alkali or alkaline earth metals, transition metals, Al, Sn, Bi, Ag, In, Pb, Hg, Si, Zr, B, Pt, Pd, or other metals, and the H source comprises H ₂Or a hydride.

34. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 33 wherein the source of hydrogen catalyst comprises an inorganic compound comprising Na.

35. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 34 wherein the reaction mixture comprises one or more compounds that react with a source of NaH to form a NaH catalyst;

at least one of the source of NaH catalyst and the reaction mixture comprises Na, NaH, an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metalHydroxides, aluminium hydroxide, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, R-Ni doped with NaOH, Na₂O and Na₂CO₃And from NaNH₂、Na₂NH、Na₃N、Na、NaH、NH₃、H₂And a dissociating agent.

36. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 34 wherein the reaction mixture comprises one or more compounds that react with a source of NaH to form a NaH catalyst;

the reaction mixture comprises NaNH₂、Na₂NH、Na₃N、Na、NaH、NH₃、H₂And a dissociating agent.

37. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 36 wherein the reaction mixture comprises one or more compounds that react with a source of NaH to form a NaH catalyst;

the reaction mixture comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of NaH, Na, metal hydride, lanthanide metal hydride, lanthanum hydride, H ₂And a dissociating agent.

38. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 35 wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least one of NaH molecules and a source of NaH molecules, whereby the NaH molecules act as the catalyst to form a catalyst consisting ofA given H state, wherein p is an integer greater than 1;

the source of NaH molecules comprises at least one of:

(a) na metal, atomic Na, hydrogen source, atomic hydrogen, and NaH (solid);

(b) R-Ni containing NaOH and a reactant containing a reducing agent to form NaH, and

a hydrogen source.

39. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 38 wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137.

40. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 35 wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least one of:

a reactant containing a reducing agent to form NaH from NaOH;

the hydrogen source comprises NaH and H₂A gas and at least one of a dissociating agent and a hydride.

41. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 35 whereby one of atomic sodium and molecular NaH is provided by a reaction between Na in metallic, ionic or molecular form and at least one other compound or element;

The source of Na or NaH is metal Na, NaNH₂At least one of NaOH, NaX (X is halide) and NaH (solid);

the other element is H, a displacer or a reductant.

42. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 35 wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least one of:

(1) a sodium source;

(2) a carrier material;

(3) a source of hydrogen;

(4) a displacing agent, and

(5) a reducing agent.

43. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 42 wherein the sodium source comprises Na, NaH, NaNH₂NaOH, NaOH coated R-Ni, NaX (X is halide) and NaX coated R-Ni.

44. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 43 wherein the reducing agent comprises at least one of: metals, B, metal alloys, and sources of metals, alone or in combination with reducing agents, metal hydrides, and alkali or alkaline earth metals and oxidizing agents.

45. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the metal is an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a lanthanide, a transition metal, or aluminum.

46. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 45 wherein the transition metal is Ti.

47. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the metal alloy is AlHg, NaPb, NaAl, or LiAl.

48. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the source of the sum metal, alone or in combination with a reducing agent, is an alkaline earth metal halide, a transition metal halide, a lanthanide halide, or an aluminum halide.

49. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the metal hydride is LiBH₄、NaBH₄、LiAlH₄Or NaAlH₄。

50. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the oxidant is AlX₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_nWherein X is a halide.

51. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 50 wherein X is Br or I.

52. The energy source and hydride reactor of claim 44 wherein the hydrogen source comprises H₂Gases and dissociating agents and hydrides.

53. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 52 wherein the displacement agent comprises at least one of an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, an alkali metal hydride, and an alkaline earth metal hydride.

54. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 53 wherein the carrier comprises at least one of: R-Ni, Al, Sn, Al₂O₃Aluminate, sodium aluminate, alumina nanoparticles, porous Al₂O₃Pt, Pu or Pd/Al₂O₃Carbon, Pt or Pd/C, inorganic compounds, lanthanide oxides, Si, silica, silicates, zeolites, Y zeolite powder, lanthanides, transition metals, metal alloys, rare earth metals, SiO ₂-Al₂O₃Or SiO₂Supported Ni, and other supported metals.

55. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the Al₂O₃Is gamma, beta or alpha alumina.

56. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the inorganic compound is Na₂CO₃。

57. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the lanthanide oxide is M₂O₃。

58. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 57 wherein M ═ La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd, and Er.

59. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the metal alloy is an alloy of alkali and alkaline earth metals with Na.

60. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the other supported metal is at least one of aluminum supported platinum, palladium, or ruthenium.

61. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 54 wherein the dissociating agent comprises at least one of Raney nickel (R-Ni), a noble metal, and a noble metal on a support, wherein the noble metal is selected from the group consisting of Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, and Rh, and the support is selected from the group consisting of Ti, Nb, Al₂O₃、SiO₂And combinations thereof;

pt or Pd on carbon, hydrogen spillover catalyst, nickel fiber mat, Pd sheet, Ti wool, plated Pt or Pd on Ti or Ni wool or mat, TiH, Pt black and Pd black, refractory metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and refractory metals.

62. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 61 wherein the dissociating material is maintained at an elevated temperature.

63. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 61 wherein the refractory metal is molybdenum or tungsten.

64. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 61 wherein the transition metal is nickel or titanium.

65. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 61 wherein the internal transition metal is niobium or zirconium.

66. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 42 wherein the source of NaH is R-Ni containing NaOH and a reactant to form NaH, and the reactant is a reductant containing at least one of alkali, alkaline earth, and Al intermetallic R-Ni.

67. A power source and hydride reactor comprising:

a vacuum pump;

a source of hydrogen catalyst M in communication with the reaction vessel, whereby ionization of each of the t electrons from the catalyst to successive energy levels results in a sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons of m.27.2 eV and One, wherein m is an integer;

a solid fuel reaction mixture that forms a catalyst from a source of catalyst if the catalyst is not already present; and

a heater to heat the vessel to initiate at least one of the catalyst formation reaction and the hydrino reaction in the reaction vessel if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature, whereby the catalyzed atomic H releases energy in an amount greater than 300kJ per mole of hydrogen during catalysis of the hydrogen atom.

68. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 67 wherein the catalyst atoms M are at least one of the group of atoms Li, K, and Cs.

69. A power source and hydride reactor comprising:

a vacuum pump;

a source of at least one of the group of atomic Li, K and Cs catalysts in communication with the reaction vessel;

a solid fuel reaction mixture that forms an atomic catalyst from a source of the atomic catalyst if the catalyst is not already present; and

A heater to heat the vessel to initiate formation of at least one of atomic Li, K and Cs catalysts in the reaction vessel if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature, whereby the catalyst reaction with H releases energy in an amount greater than 300kJ per mole of hydrogen during catalysis of the hydrogen atoms.

70. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 69 wherein the reaction mixture comprises LiH, LiNH₂And Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

71. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 69 wherein the reaction mixture comprises Li, Li₃N and Al₂O₃Hydrogenated Pd and optionally H on powder₂And (4) qi.

72. A power source and hydride reactor comprising:

a vacuum pump;

a hydrogen catalyst source in communication with the reaction vessel, whichComprising MH, whereby the breaking of the M-H bond plus the ionization of each of the t electrons from the atom M into successive energy levels such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is m.27.2 eV and One, wherein m is an integer;

a solid fuel reaction mixture that forms a molecular MH from a source of molecular MH if said molecular MH is not already present; and

a heater to heat the vessel to initiate formation of molecular MH in the reaction vessel, if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature, whereby the molecular MH acts as a source of hydrogen catalyst and H reactant with an energy release during catalysis of the hydrogen atoms in an amount greater than 300 kJ/mole of hydrogen.

73. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 72 further comprising a source of atomic hydrogen from a source in communication with the reaction vessel.

74. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 72 wherein MH comprises at least one from the group of AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, and SnH.

75. A power source and hydride reactor comprising:

a vacuum pump;

a source of molecular NaH catalyst in communication with the reaction vessel;

A solid fuel reaction mixture that forms molecular NaH from a source of molecular NaH if it is not already present; and

a heater to heat the vessel to initiate formation of molecular NaH in the reaction vessel if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature, whereby the molecular NaH acts as a source of hydrogen catalyst and H reactant with an energy release during catalysis of the hydrogen atoms in an amount greater than 300 kJ/mole of hydrogen.

76. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 further comprising a source of atomic hydrogen from a source in communication with the reaction vessel.

77. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 wherein the reaction mixture comprises NaH and Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

78. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 wherein the reaction mixture comprises Na as the reducing agent and R-Ni containing 0.5 wt% NaOH.

79. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 wherein the reaction mixture comprises R-Ni containing 0.5 wt% NaOH with intermetallic Al as the reducing agent.

80. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 wherein the reaction mixture comprises NaH, La, and Al ₂O₃Pd on powder.

81. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 75 wherein the reaction mixture comprises NaH, NaNH₂And Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

82. A power plant, comprising:

at least one reaction vessel constructed and arranged to contain a pressure in a range below, equal to, or above atmospheric pressure;

a vacuum pump in communication with the reaction vessel;

a solid fuel reaction mixture comprising:

a first source of hydrogen atoms in communication with the reaction vessel;

a catalyst source in communication with the reaction vessel;

a heater for starting a catalytic reaction;

means for regenerating said reaction mixture, and

a power converter.

83. The power plant of claim 82, wherein the converter comprises a steam generator in communication with the reaction vessel, a steam turbine in communication with the steam generator, and an electrical generator in communication with the steam turbine.

84. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the combination of the new hydrogen species and the species containing new forms of hydrogen comprises:

(a) at least one neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species having a binding energy of:

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobserved due to its binding energy being less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, or negatively charged; and

(b) at least one other element.

85. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 84 wherein the compound is characterized by the hydrogen species having increased binding energy being selected from the group consisting of H_n、Anda group of (a) wherein n is a positive integer, with the proviso that n is greater than 1 when H has a positive charge.

86. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 85 wherein the compound is characterized by the hydrogen species having an increased binding energy selected from the group consisting of: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy greater than that of a common hydride ion at p ═ 2 to 23, the binding of the common hydride ion being 0.8eV, wherein the binding energy is represented by the following formula

Where p is an integer greater than one, s-1/2, pi is the circumference ratio,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m _pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius, and e is the base charge; (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than 13.6 eV; (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than 15.3 eV; and (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a binding energy greater than 16.3 eV.

87. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 86 wherein the compound is characterized by the hydrogen species with increased binding energy being a hydride ion with a binding energy of 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3 and 0.69 eV.

88. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 87 wherein the compound is characterized by the hydrogen species having an increased binding energy being a hydride ion having a binding energy of the formula:

where p is an integer greater than one, s-1/2, pi is the circumference ratio,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius, and e is the base charge.

89. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 88 wherein the compound is characterized by the hydrogen species having an increased binding energy selected from the group consisting of:

(a) A hydrogen atom havingWherein p is an integer,

(b) binding energy increasing hydride ion (H)^-) Which is provided with

Wherein p is an integer greater than one,1/2, where pi is the circumference ratio,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs the electron mass, μ_eIs formed byGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius, and e is the base charge;

(c) hydrogen species with increased binding energy

(d) Triple hydrogen molecular ion of hydrogen species with increased binding energyIt is provided withWherein p is an integer;

(e) hydrogen molecules with increased binding energy havingThe binding energy of (c); and

(f) hydrogen molecular ions with increased binding energy havingThe binding energy of (1).

90. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the catalyst comprises a chemical or physical process that provides a net enthalpy of m.27.2 ± 0.5eV wherein m is an integer or m/2.27.2 ± 0.5eV wherein m is an integer greater than one.

91. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the catalyst system is provided by ionization of t electrons from the participating species to successive energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is m-27.2 + 0.5eV where m is an integer or m/2-27.2 + 0.5eV where m is an integer greater than one and t is an integer.

92. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 91 wherein the participating species are atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic or molecular compounds.

93. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 1 wherein the catalyst is provided by transfer of t electrons between the participating ions;

the transfer of t electrons from one ion to another provides a net enthalpy of reaction, whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating ion minus the ionization energy of the electron accepting ion is equal to m.27.2 + -0.5 eV where m is an integer or m/2.27.2 + -0.5 eV where m is an integer greater than one and t is an integer.

94. A power source and hydride reactor of claims 90, 91, 92, and 93 wherein m is an integer less than 400.

95. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 94 wherein the catalyst is selected from the group of: li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, 2K⁺、He⁺、Na⁺、Rb⁺、Sr⁺、Fe³⁺、Mo²⁺、Mo⁴⁺And In³⁺、Ar⁺、Xe⁺、Ar²⁺And H⁺And Ne⁺And H⁺。

96. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 95 wherein the catalyst for atomic hydrogen is capable of providing a net enthalpy of m.27.2 ± 0.5eV wherein m is an integer or m/2.27.2 ± 0.5eV wherein m is an integer greater than one and is capable of being formed with a enthalpy that is greater than one Wherein p is a hydrogen atom of an integer binding energy, wherein the net enthalpy is provided by cleavage of a molecular bond of the catalyst and ionization of each of t electrons from an atom of the cleaved molecule to a continuous energy level, the cleavage and the ionization being such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is m.27.2 + -0.5 eV where m is an integer or m/2.27.2 + -0.5 eV where m is an integer greater than one.

97. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 96 wherein the catalyst comprises AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C₂、N₂、O₂、CO₂、NO₂And NO₃At least one of (1).

98. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 97 wherein the catalyst comprises a molecule in combination with an ionic or atomic catalyst.

99. The energy source and hydride reactor of claim 98 wherein the catalyst combination comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K, and Fe⁺、He⁺、Na⁺、Rb⁺、Sr⁺、Fe³⁺、Mo²⁺、Mo⁴⁺、In³⁺、He⁺、Ar⁺、Xe⁺、Ar²⁺And H⁺And Ne⁺And H⁺At least one atom or ion combination selected from the group consisting of AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C ₂、N₂、O₂、CO₂、NO₂And NO₃At least one molecule of the group (b).

100. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 99 wherein the catalyst comprises two hydrogen atoms that absorb at least one of 27.21eV and 54.4eV and ionize to 2H⁺To catalyze the transition of atomic hydrogen from the (p) energy level to at least one of the (p +1) and (p +2) energy levels

Wherein the overall reaction is

And

wherein the overall reaction is

At least one of them is given.

101. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 100 wherein the catalyst comprises hydrinos in a catalytic disproportionation reaction wherein the lower energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, act as catalysts because the metastable excitation, resonance excitation, and ionization energy of the hydrinos are each m-27.2 eV.

102. A method of generating power, comprising:

providing a reaction vessel constructed and arranged to contain a pressure in a range of sub-atmospheric, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure;

maintaining the pressure in a range below, equal to, or above atmospheric pressure;

providing hydrogen atoms in the reaction vessel from a first source of hydrogen atoms in communication with the reaction vessel;

providing a source of atomic hydrogen catalyst in communication with the reaction vessel, the source of atomic hydrogen catalyst comprising a solid fuel reaction mixture containing at least one reactant of one or more elements forming the catalyst and at least one other element, thereby forming the catalyst from the source; and

Heating the solid fuel reaction mixture to produce an atomic catalyst from a source of the atomic catalyst if the catalyst is not already present or the reaction forming the catalyst is not spontaneous at ambient temperature;

heating the solid fuel reaction mixture to initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen in the reaction vessel, whereby the catalysis of atomic hydrogen releases energy in an amount greater than 300kJ per mole of hydrogen, if the reaction is not spontaneous at ambient temperature.

103. The method of claim 102, wherein the catalyst is atomic Li.

104. The method of claim 103, further comprising contacting LiH, LiNH₂And Al₂O₃The Pd on the powder reacts to form atomic Li catalyst and atomic hydrogen in the reaction vessel.

105. The method of claim 104, further comprising adding H₂To regenerate LiH and LiNH₂。

106. The method of claim 102, further comprising mixing Li, Li₃N and Al₂O₃Hydrogenated Pd and optionally H on powder₂The gas reacts to form atomic Li catalyst and atomic hydrogen in the reaction vessel.

107. The method of claim 106, further comprising removing H₂To regenerate Li and Li₃N, followed by hydrogenation of the dissociating agent or reintroduction of H ₂。

108. A method of generating power, comprising:

providing a source of molecular hydrogen catalyst in communication with the reaction vessel, the source of molecular hydrogen catalyst comprising a solid fuel reaction mixture containing at least one reactant of one or more elements forming the catalyst and at least one other element, thereby forming the catalyst from the source; and

heating the solid fuel reaction mixture to produce a molecular catalyst from a source of the molecular catalyst if the catalyst is not already present or the reaction forming the catalyst is not spontaneous at ambient temperature;

109. The method of claim 108, further comprising providing hydrogen atoms in the reaction vessel from a first source of hydrogen atoms in communication with the reaction vessel.

110. The process of claim 108, wherein said catalyst is molecular NaH.

111. The process as set forth in claim 110 wherein the source of molecular NaH comprises Na metal and a source of hydrogen.

112. The method as set forth in claim 110 wherein the reaction mixture comprises NaH and Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

113. The method of claim 112, further comprising adding H₂To regenerate NaH.

114. The process as set forth in claim 110 wherein said reaction mixture comprises Na and R-Ni containing 0.5% by weight NaOH, wherein Na acts as a reducing agent.

115. The process of claim 110, wherein said reaction mixture comprises R-Ni containing 0.5 wt% NaOH with intermetallic Al as a reducing agent.

116. The process as set forth in claims 114 and 115 wherein the reaction mixture is regenerated by adding NaOH and NaH.

117. The process as set forth in claim 116 wherein NaH acts as both a source of H and a reducing agent.

118. The process as set forth in claim 110 wherein said reaction mixture comprises NaH, a lanthanide metal and Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

119. The process of claim 118 wherein said reaction mixture is prepared by adding H₂The method includes the steps of separating NaH and a lanthanide hydride via sieving, heating the lanthanide hydride to form a lanthanide metal, and mixing the lanthanide metal and NaH for regeneration.

120. The process of claim 118 wherein said reaction mixture is regenerated by the steps of: separating Na and lanthanide hydride via melting Na and removing liquid, heating lanthanide hydride to form lanthanide metal, hydrogenating Na to NaH, and mixing lanthanide metal and NaH.

121. The method as set forth in claim 110 wherein said reaction mixture comprises NaH, NaNH₂And Al₂O₃Pd on powder.

122. The method of claim 121, further comprising adding H₂To regenerate NaH and NaNH₂。

123. The method of claim 110, further comprising reacting NaOH with a reducing agent in said reaction vessel to form said molecular NaH.

124. The method of claim 110, further comprising reacting at least one of:

(1) a sodium source;

(2) a carrier material;

(3) a source of hydrogen;

(4) a displacing agent, and

(5) reducing the agent to form molecular NaH.

125. The method of claim 124, wherein said sodium source comprises Na, NaH, NaNH₂NaOH, NaOH coated R-Ni, NaX (X is halide) and NaX coated R-Ni.

126. The method of claim 124, wherein said reducing agent comprises at least one of: metals, B, metal alloys, and sources of metals, alone or in combination with reducing agents, metal hydrides, and alkali or alkaline earth metals and oxidizing agents.

127. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 126 wherein the metal is an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a lanthanide, a transition metal, or aluminum.

128. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 127 wherein the transition metal is Ti.

129. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 126 wherein the metal alloy is AlHg, NaPb, NaAl, or LiAl.

130. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 126 wherein the source of the sum metal, alone or in combination with a reducing agent, is an alkaline earth metal halide, a transition metal halide, a lanthanide halide, or an aluminum halide.

131. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 126 wherein the metal hydride is LiBH₄、NaBH₄、LiAlH₄Or NaAlH₄。

132. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 126 wherein the oxidant is AlX₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_nWherein X is a halide.

133. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 132 wherein X is Br or I.

134. The method of claim 124, wherein said hydrogen source comprises H₂Gases and dissociating agents and hydrides.

135. The method of claim 124, wherein the displacement agent comprises an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal.

136. The method of claim 124, further comprising providing a source of NaH on a large surface area support that facilitates production of molecular NaH from said source, and reacting said source of NaH to form molecular NaH.

137. The method of claims 124 and 136, wherein the carrier comprises at least one of: R-Ni, Al, Sn, Al₂O₃Aluminate, sodium aluminate, alumina nanoparticles, porous Al₂O₃Pt, Pu or Pd/Al₂O₃Carbon, Pt or Pd/C, inorganic compounds, lanthanide oxides, Si, silica, silicates, zeolites, Y zeolite powder, lanthanides, transition metals, metal alloys, rare earth metals, SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or SiO₂Supported Ni, and other supported metals.

138. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 137 wherein the Al is₂O₃Is gamma, beta or alpha alumina.

139. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 137 wherein the inorganic compound is Na₂CO₃。

140. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 137 wherein the lanthanide oxide is M₂O₃。

141. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 140 wherein M ═ La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd, and Er.

142. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 137 wherein the metal alloy is an alloy of alkali and alkaline earth metals with Na.

143. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 137 wherein the other supported metal is aluminum supported platinum, palladium or ruthenium.

144. The method of claim 109, wherein the source of hydrogen atoms comprises molecular hydrogen and the hydrogen atoms are formed from the molecular hydrogen using a dissociating agent.

145. The process as set forth in claims 124 and 144 wherein said dissociating agent comprises at least one of raney nickel (R-Ni), a noble metal and a noble metal on a support, wherein said noble metal is selected from the group consisting of Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir and Rh and said support is selected from the group consisting of Ti, Nb, Al₂O₃、SiO₂And combinations thereof;

pt or Pd on carbon, hydrogen spillover catalyst, nickel fiber mat, Pd sheet, Ti wool, Pt or Pd plated on Ti or Ni wool or mat, TiH, Pt black, and Pd black, refractory metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and refractory metals.

146. The method of claim 145 wherein the dissociating material is maintained at an elevated temperature.

147. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 145 wherein the refractory metal is molybdenum or tungsten.

148. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 145 wherein the transition metal is nickel or titanium.

149. A power source and hydride reactor of claim 145 wherein the internal transition metal is niobium or zirconium.

150. The method as set forth in claim 110,it further comprises the formation of Na from the molecular NaH in the reaction vessel²⁺。

151. The method of claims 102 and 108, further comprising removing the reaction product from the vessel and regenerating the source of catalyst from at least a portion of the reaction product.

152. The method of claims 102 and 108, further comprising converting the released energy into electrical energy.

153. The method of claims 102 and 108, whereby the hydrogen catalyst source comprises at least one reactant having hydrogen and at least one other element, and

the at least one reactant undergoes a reaction such that the energy released is greater than the difference between the standard enthalpy of formation of the compound having the stoichiometry or elemental composition of the product and the energy of formation of the at least one reactant.

154. The method of claims 102 and 108, whereby the source of hydrogen catalyst comprises at least one reactant having hydrogen and at least one other element, and

The at least one reactant undergoes a reaction such that the energy released is greater than the theoretical standard enthalpy required to regenerate the at least one reactant from the product, wherein the energy to replace any reacted hydrogen is a standard value.

155. The method of claims 102 and 108, further comprising preparing or regenerating the reaction mixture, wherein preparing or regenerating is accomplished by at least one of: mechanical mixing or separation, melting, filtration, hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, decomposition, vapor deposition, evaporation, vaporization, and sublimation, and ball milling.