HK1181194B

HK1181194B - Electrochemical hydrogen-catalyst power system

Info

Publication number: HK1181194B
Application number: HK13108196.0A
Authority: HK
Inventors: 兰德尔．L．米尔斯
Original assignee: Brilliant Light Power, Inc.
Priority date: 2010-03-18
Filing date: 2011-03-17
Publication date: 2017-02-03

Description

Electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system

Cross Reference to Related Applications

This application claims priority to the following U.S. provisional applications: 61/315,186, filed on 3/18/2010; 61/317,176, filed on 24/3/2010; 61/329,959, filed on 30/4/2010; 61/332,526, filed 5/7/2010; 61/347,130, filed on 21/5/2010; 61/356,348, filed on 18/6/2010; 61/358,667, filed on 25/6/2010; 61/363,090, filed on 7/9/2010; 61/365,051, filed on 16/7/2010; 61/369,289, filed on 30/7/2010; 61/371,592, filed on 8/6/2010; 61/373,495, filed on 8/13/2010; 61/377,613, filed on 8/27/2010; 61/383,929, filed on 9/17/2010; 61/389,006, filed on 1/10/2010; 61/393,719, filed on 10/15/2010; 61/408,384, filed on 29/10/2010; 61/413,243, filed on 11/12/2010; 61/419,590, filed on 12/3/2010; 61/425,105, filed on 12/20/2010; 61/430,814, filed on 7/1/2011; 61/437,377, filed on 28/1/2011; 61/442,015, filed on 11/2/2011; and 61/449,474 filed on 3/4/2011, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

Disclosure of Invention

The present invention relates to a battery or fuel cell system for directly converting energy released from a hydrino reaction into electricity by a catalysed reaction that converts hydrogen to a lower energy state (hydrino) generating an electromotive force (EMF), the system comprising:

reactants that constitute a hydrino reactant under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation;

a cathode compartment comprising a cathode;

an anode compartment comprising an anode; and

a source of hydrogen.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to a battery or fuel cell system for directly converting energy released from a hydrino reaction into electricity by generating an electromotive force (EMF) from a catalyzed reaction that shifts hydrogen to a lower energy state (hydrino), the system comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst or catalyst source; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; reactants for forming a catalyst or catalyst source and atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen source; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a support enabling the catalysis to take place,

wherein the cell or fuel cell system for forming hydrinos may further comprise: a cathode compartment comprising a cathode, an anode compartment comprising an anode, optionally a salt bridge, reactants that constitute a hydrino reactant under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation, and a source of hydrogen.

In one embodiment of the invention, the reaction mixture and reactions used to initiate the hydrino reaction (e.g., the exchange reaction of the present invention) form the basis of a fuel cell that generates electricity by reacting hydrogen to form hydrinos. Due to the redox cell half-reaction, the hydrino-producing reaction mixture is constituted with electron transport via an external circuit and ion mass transport via a separate path forming a complete circuit. The total reaction to produce hydrinos and the corresponding reaction mixtures resulting from the summation of the half-cell reactions may comprise the type of reactions of the present invention used to chemically produce thermodynamic and hydrinos.

In one embodiment of the invention, different reactants or the same reactant in different states or conditions (e.g. at least one of different temperature, pressure and concentration) are provided in different cell compartments, which are connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to form a complete electrical circuit between these compartments. Due to the dependence of the hydrino reaction on the mass flow from one compartment to the other, a potential between the electrodes of the separate compartments and an electrodynamic or thermal gain of the system is created. The mass flow provides at least one of: forming a reaction mixture that can react to produce hydrinos, and forming conditions that allow hydrino reactions to occur at a significant rate. Ideally, the hydrino reaction does not occur or does not occur at a significant rate with no electron flow and ion mass transport.

In another embodiment, the battery produces at least one of an electrokinetic gain and a thermodynamic gain as compared to the electrokinetic and thermodynamic power applied by the electrodes.

In one embodiment, the reactant for forming hydrinos is at least one of a thermal regeneration reactant or an electrolytic regeneration reactant.

One embodiment of the present invention relates to an electrochemical power system for generating an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy, comprising: a cathode; an anode; and reactants comprising a hydrino reactant comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of a), b), c) below under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation: a) catalyst source or catalyst comprising nH, OH^-、H₂O、H₂S or MNH₂At least one of the group of (a), wherein n is an integer and M is an alkali metal; b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) a reactant for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a carrier. At least one of the following conditions may occur in the electrochemical power system: a) forming atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst by reaction of the reaction mixture; b) through which a reactant passes Activation of the catalysis over the course of the reaction; and c) the reaction causing the catalytic reaction comprises a reaction selected from the group consisting of: (i) carrying out an exothermic reaction; (ii) performing coupling reaction; (iii) carrying out free radical reaction; (iv) carrying out oxidation-reduction reaction; (v) carrying out exchange reaction; and (vi) catalytic reaction assisted by an absorbent (getter), support or matrix. In one embodiment, at least one of a) different reactants or b) the same reactant in different states or conditions is provided in different cell compartments connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to form a complete electrical circuit between the compartments. At least one of the internal mass flow and the external electron flow may cause at least one of the following conditions to occur: a) forming a reaction mixture that reacts to produce hydrinos; and b) forming conditions that allow the hydrino reaction to occur at a significant rate. In one embodiment, the reactant for forming hydrinos is at least one of a thermal regeneration reactant or an electrolytic regeneration reactant. At least one of the electrical and thermal energy output may exceed the electrical and thermal energy required to regenerate the reactants from the products.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to an electrochemical power system for generating an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy, comprising: a cathode; an anode; and reactants comprising a hydrino reactant comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of a), b), c) below under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation: a) a catalyst source or catalyst comprising a compound selected from O ₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、Andof oxygen species with H speciesReact to form OH and H₂At least one of O, wherein the H species comprises H₂、H、H⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-HOOH and OOH^-At least one of: (ii) a b) A source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) a reactant for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a carrier. The source of O species may comprise at least one compound or mixture of compounds including: o, O₂Air, oxides, NiO, CoO, alkali metal oxides, Li₂O、Na₂O、K₂O, alkaline earth metal oxides, MgO, CaO, SrO and BaO, oxides from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W, peroxides, alkali metal peroxides, superoxides, alkali or alkaline earth metal superoxides, hydroxides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and group III, IV or V elements, oxyhydroxides, AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (alpha-MnO (OH) manganite and gamma-MnO (OH) water, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaOOH), InO (OH), Ni (MnO) (OH), manganese Ore (OH), manganese (O (NiO) (OH), manganese (manganese Oxide (OH), manganese (manganese oxide ( _1/ ₂Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). The source of H species may comprise at least one compound or mixture of compounds including: h, metal hydrides, LaNi₅H₆Hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, H₂，H₂Source of H₂And hydrogen permeable membrane, Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) And Fe (H)₂)。

In another embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises: a hydrogen anode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide; and O₂And H₂At least one of O cathodes. The hydrogen anode may include at least one of: hydrogen-permeable electrodes, e.g. Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) And Fe (H)₂) At least one of; dispersible H₂A porous electrode for the gas bubbles; hydrides, for example hydrides selected from the group consisting of: R-Ni, LaNi₅H₆，La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆，ZrCr₂H_3.8，LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75，ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2(ii) a And other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂(VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type (wherein "AB_xThe expression "denotes the ratio of the elements of type A (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the elements of type B (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm = cerium-containing rare earth alloy (mischmetal) 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd), AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloys, alloys based on magnesium, Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀，La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1，LaNi_5-xM_x(M = Mn, Al), (M = Al, Si, Cu), (M = Sn), (M = Al, Mn, Cu), and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂AB compound, TiFe, TiCo, TiNi, AB_nCompound (n =5, 2 or 1), AB _3-4Compound AB_x(A=La、Ce、Mn、Mg；B=Ni、Mn、Co、Al)、ZrFe₂、Zr_0.5Cs_0.5Fe₂、Zr_0.8Sc_0.2Fe₂、YNi₅、LaNi₅、LaNi_4.5Co_0.5、(Ce、La、Nd、Pr)Ni₅Cerium-containing rare earth alloy-nickel alloy, Ti_0.98Zr_0.02V_0.43Fe_0.09Cr_0.05Mn_1.5、La₂Co₁Ni₉And TiMn₂. The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide with at least one other salt, for example at least one selected from one or more other hydroxides, halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates and phosphates. The molten salt may comprise at least one salt mixture selected from: CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄、NaOH-RbOH、RbCl-RbOH、RbNO₃-RbOH、LiOH-LiX、NaOH-NaX、KOH-KX、RbOH-RbX、CsOH-CsX、Mg(OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I), and LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg (OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂And one or more of the following: AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I). The molten salt may comprise a cation shared by anions of the salt mixture electrolyteThe ions are either anions shared by the cations and the hydroxide is stable to other salts in the mixture.

In another embodiment of the invention, an electrochemical power system comprises [ M' (H)₂) [ MOH-M 'halide ion/M' ]]And [ M' (H)₂)/M(OH)₂-M 'halide/M' ″]Wherein M is an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal; m' is a metal characterized as follows: the stability of the hydroxides and oxides thereof is less than that of the hydroxides and oxides of alkali metals or alkaline earth metals and/or has low reactivity with water, M' is a hydrogen permeable metal; m' "is a conductor. In one embodiment, M' is a metal, for example selected from the following metals: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, In and Pb. Alternatively, M and M' may be, for example, metals independently selected from the following metals: li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. Other exemplary systems include [ M' (H) ₂)/MOHM″X/M′″]Wherein M, M ', M' and M 'are metal cations or metals, X is an anion selected, for example, from the group consisting of hydroxide, halide, nitrate, sulfate, carbonate and phosphate, and M' is H₂Is permeable. In one embodiment, the hydrogen anode comprises a metal, for example, at least one selected from the group consisting of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W, which can react with the electrolyte during discharge. In another embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises: a source of hydrogen; can form OH and OH^-And H₂A hydrogen anode over at least one of O catalyst and providing H; o is₂And H₂A source of at least one of O; capable of reducing H₂O or O₂A cathode of at least one of the above; an alkaline electrolyte; optionally capable of collecting and recycling H₂O vapor, N₂And O₂And for collecting and recycling H₂The system of (1).

The present invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising: an anode comprising at least one of: a metal, for example, at least one selected from the group consisting of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W; and metal hydrides, such as at least one selected from the group consisting of: R-Ni, LaNi ₅H₆，La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆，ZrCr₂H_3.8，LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75，ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2(ii) a And other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, such as alloys selected from the following: AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂(VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type (wherein "AB_xThe expression "denotes the ratio of the elements of type A (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the elements of type B (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm = cerium-containing rare earth alloy: 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd), AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloys, alloys based on magnesium, Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀，La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1，LaNi_5-xM_x(M = Mn, Al), (M = Al, Si, Cu), (M = Sn), (M = Al, Mn, Cu), and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂AB compound, TiFe, TiCo, TiNi, AB_nCompound (n =5, 2 or 1), AB_3-4Compound AB_x(A=La、Ce、Mn、Mg；B=Ni、Mn、Co、Al)、ZrFe₂、Zr_0.5Cs_0.5Fe₂、Zr_0.8Sc_0.2Fe₂、YNi₅、LaNi₅、LaNi_4.5Co_0.5、(Ce、La、Nd、Pr)Ni₅Cerium-containing rare earth alloy-nickel alloy, Ti_0.98Zr_0.02V_0.43Fe_0.09Cr_0.05Mn_1.5、La₂Co₁Ni₉And TiMn₂(ii) a A separator (separator); an aqueous alkaline electrolyte solution; o is₂And H₂At least one of the O-reduction cathodes; and air and O₂At least one of (1). The electrochemical system may further include an electrolysis system that intermittently charges and discharges the battery such that there is a gain in net energy balance. Alternatively, the electrochemical power system may comprise or further comprise a hydrogenation system that regenerates the power system by rehydrogenating the hydride anode.

Another embodiment comprises an electrochemical power system that generates an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy, comprising: a molten alkali metal anode; beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE); and a molten salt cathode comprising a hydroxide. The catalyst or catalyst source may be selected from OH, OH ^-、H₂O、NaH、Li、K、Rb⁺And Cs. The molten salt cathode may comprise an alkali metal hydroxide. The system may further comprise a hydrogen reaction vessel and a metal-hydroxide separator, wherein the alkali metal cathode and the alkali metal hydroxide cathode are regenerated by hydrogenating the product oxide and separating the resulting alkali metal and metal hydroxide.

Another embodiment of an electrochemical power system comprises: an anode comprising a source of hydrogen, e.g., selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂A gas and a hydrogen source further comprising a hydride of a molten hydroxide; beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE); and a cathode comprising a molten element and at least one of a molten halide salt or mixture. Suitable cathodes include molten element cathodes comprising one of In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, S, I, Se, Bi, and As. As anotherAlternatively, the cathode may be a molten salt cathode comprising NaX (X being a halide) and one or more of the group consisting of: NaX, AgX, AlX₃、AsX₃、AuX、AuX₃、BaX₂、BeX₂、BiX₃、CaX₂、CdX₃、CeX₃、CoX₂、CrX₂、CsX、CuX、CuX₂、EuX₃、FeX₂、FeX₃、GaX₃、GdX₃、GeX₄、HfX₄、HgX、HgX₂、InX、InX₂、InX₃、IrX、IrX₂、KX、KAgX₂、KAlX₄、K₃AlX₆、LaX₃、LiX、MgX₂、MnX₂、MoX₄、MoX₅、MoX₆、NaAlX₄、Na₃AlX₆、NbX₅、NdX₃、NiX₂、OsX₃、OsX₄、PbX₂、PdX₂、PrX₃、PtX₂、PtX₄、PuX₃、RbX、ReX₃、RhX、RhX₃、RuX₃、SbX₃、SbX₅、ScX₃、SiX₄、SnX₂、SnX₄、SrX₂、ThX₄、TiX₂、TiX₃、TlX、UX₃、UX₄、VX₄、WX₆、YX₃、ZnX₂And ZrX₄。

Another embodiment of an electrochemical power system for generating electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprises: an anode comprising Li; an electrolyte comprising an organic solvent, and an inorganic Li electrolyte and LiPF₆At least one of; an olefin separator; a cathode comprising at least one of: oxyhydroxide, AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH), manganematrate and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), and manganese oxide _1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH)。

In addition toIn one embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises: an anode comprising Li, a lithium alloy, Li₃At least one of Mg and a species in the Li-N-H system; a molten salt electrolyte; a hydrogen cathode comprising at least one of: h₂Gas and porous cathode, H₂And a hydrogen permeable membrane, and one of a metal hydride, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, and a hydride of a rare earth metal.

The invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising at least one of the following batteries a) to h):

a) (i) an anode comprising a hydrogen permeable metal and hydrogen (e.g., selected from Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂)、Nb(H₂) One of (b)) or metal hydrides (e.g. selected from LaNi₅H₆、TiMn₂H_xAnd La₂Ni₉CoH₆(x is an integer); (ii) a molten electrolyte, for example one selected from: MOH or M (OH)₂Or with M 'X or M' X₂MOH or M (OH)₂Wherein M and M' are metals (e.g., metals independently selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba), and X is an anion (e.g., an anion selected from hydroxide, halide, sulfate, and carbonate); and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal that may be the same as the anode, and further comprising air or O₂；

b) (i) an anode comprising at least one metal, for example a metal selected from R-Ni, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, In and Pb; (ii) an electrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution having a concentration of about 10M to saturation; (iii) an olefin separator; and (iv) a carbon cathode, and further comprising air or O ₂；

c) (i) an anode comprising molten NaOH and a hydrogen permeable membrane (e.g., Ni and hydrogen); (ii) an electrolyte comprising a Beta Alumina Solid Electrolyte (BASE); and (iii) a cathode, whichComprising molten eutectic salts, e.g. NaCl-MgCl₂、NaCl-CaCl₂Or MX-M' X₂' (M is an alkali metal, M ' is an alkaline earth metal, and X ' are halide ions);

d) (i) an anode comprising molten Na; (ii) an electrolyte comprising a Beta Alumina Solid Electrolyte (BASE); and (iii) a cathode comprising molten NaOH;

e) (i) an anode comprising a hydride (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆) (ii) a (ii) An electrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution having a concentration of about 10M to saturation; (iii) an olefin separator; and (iv) a carbon cathode, and further comprising air or O₂；

f) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) an olefin separator; (iii) organic electrolytes, e.g. comprising LP30 and LiPF₆An organic electrolyte of (1); and (iv) a cathode comprising an oxyhydroxide compound, such as coo (oh);

g) (i) an anode comprising a lithium alloy, such as Li₃Mg; (ii) a molten salt electrolyte such as LiCl-KCl or MX-M 'X' (M and M 'are alkali metals, X and X' are halide ions); and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride, e.g., selected from CeH₂、LaH₂、ZrH₂And TiH₂And further comprising carbon black;

and

h) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) a molten salt electrolyte, such as LiCl-KCl or MX-M 'X' (M and M 'are alkali metals, X and X' are halide ions); and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride, e.g., selected from CeH ₂、LaH₂、ZrH₂And TiH₂And further comprises carbon black.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to catalyst systems, such as catalyst systems for electrochemical cells, that contain a hydrogen catalyst capable of converting atomic H in the n =1 state to a lower energy state, a source of atomic hydrogen, and other substances capable of initiating and propagating reactions to form lower energy hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to a reaction mixture comprising at least one atomic hydrogen source and at least one catalyst or catalyst source to support catalysis of hydrogen to form fractional hydrogen. The reactants and reactions disclosed herein for solid and liquid fuels are also reactants and reactions for heterogeneous fuels comprising a mixture of phases. The reaction mixture comprises at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a hydrogen catalyst or source of hydrogen catalyst, and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, wherein at least one of atomic hydrogen and hydrogen catalyst is formed by reaction of a reaction mixture. In other embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a support, which in certain embodiments may be electrically conductive reducing and oxidizing agents, wherein at least one of the reactants activates catalysis by undergoing a reaction. The reactants can be regenerated by heating for any products other than hydrino.

The invention also relates to a power source comprising:

a reaction cell for catalyzing atomic hydrogen;

a reaction vessel;

a vacuum pump;

a source of atomic hydrogen in communication with the reaction vessel;

a source of hydrogen catalyst comprising a bulk material in communication with the reaction vessel,

at least one of a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of hydrogen catalyst comprising a reaction mixture comprising at least one reactant comprising an element that forms at least one of atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst and at least one other element, whereby at least one of atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst is formed from the source,

at least one other reactant that causes catalysis; and

a heater for the said container, wherein the said heater is arranged in the said container,

thus, catalysis of atomic hydrogen releases energy in an amount greater than about 300 kj/mole of hydrogen.

The hydrino-forming reaction can be activated or initiated and propagated by one or more chemical reactions. These reactions may be selected, for example, from: (i) a hydride ion exchange reaction; (ii) a halide-hydride ion exchange reaction; (iii) exothermic reactions (which in some embodiments provide activation energy for the hydrino reaction); (iv) a coupling reaction (which in certain embodiments provides at least one of a source of catalyst or a source of atomic hydrogen to support the hydrino reaction); (v) free radical reactions (which in certain embodiments act as acceptors for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction); (vi) redox reactions (which in certain embodiments act as acceptors for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction); (vi) other exchange reactions (e.g., anion exchanges, including halide, sulfide, hydride, arsenide, oxide, phosphide, and nitride exchanges), which, in one embodiment, promote ionization of the catalyst upon receiving energy from atomic hydrogen, thereby forming hydrinos; and (vii) an absorbent, support or matrix to assist the hydrino reaction, which may provide at least one of: (a) the chemical environment of the hydrino reaction, (b) the effect of transferring electrons to promote the function of the H catalyst, (c) undergoing reversible phase or other physical changes or changes in their electronic state, and (d) incorporating a lower energy hydrogen product to increase at least one of the extent or rate of the hydrino reaction. In certain embodiments, the conductive support enables an activation reaction to proceed.

In another embodiment, the hydrino-forming reaction comprises at least one of hydride ion exchange and halide ion exchange between at least two species (e.g., two metals). The at least one metal may be a hydrino forming catalyst or source of catalyst, such as an alkali metal or alkali metal hydride. Hydride ion exchange can occur between at least two hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one hydride, between at least two metal hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one metal hydride, and other such combinations where the exchange occurs between or involves more than two species. In one embodiment, the hydrogen anionIon exchange to form mixed metal hydrides, e.g. (M)₁)_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₁And M₂Is a metal.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to reactants wherein the catalyst in the activation reaction and/or propagation reaction comprises a catalyst or a source of catalyst and a reaction of a source of hydrogen with a material or compound to form an intercalation compound (intercalation compound), wherein the reactants are regenerated by removing the intercalation species. In one embodiment, carbon may act as an oxidant, and carbon may be regenerated from alkali metal intercalated carbon by, for example, heating, using a substitution agent, electrolysis, or by using a solvent.

In other embodiments, the present invention relates to a power system comprising:

(i) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst or catalyst source; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; reactants for forming a catalyst or catalyst source and atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen source; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a support enabling the catalysis to take place,

(ii) at least one thermal system comprising a plurality of reaction vessels for reversing the exchange reaction to thermally regenerate the fuel from the reaction products,

wherein a regeneration reaction comprising a reaction to form an initial chemical fuel mixture from a mixture reaction product is conducted in at least one of a plurality of reaction vessels associated with at least one other reaction vessel undergoing a kinetic reaction,

flowing heat from the at least one power generation vessel to the at least one vessel undergoing regeneration to provide energy for thermal regeneration,

the vessel is embedded in a thermal transfer medium to effect heat flow,

the at least one vessel further comprises a vacuum pump and a hydrogen source, and may further comprise two chambers that maintain a temperature difference between the hotter and colder chambers such that material preferentially accumulates in the colder chambers,

Wherein a hydride reaction is conducted in the cooler chamber to form at least one initial reactant and returned to the hotter chamber,

(iii) a heat sink for receiving heat from the power generating reaction vessel through the thermal barrier,

and

(iv) a power conversion system, which may include a thermal energy engine, such as a Rankine (Rankine) or Brayton (Brayton) cycle engine, a steam engine, a stirling engine, wherein the power conversion system may include a thermoelectric converter or a thermionic converter. In some embodiments, the heat sink may transfer power to the power conversion system to generate electricity.

In some embodiments, the power conversion system receives a heat flow from a heat sink, and in some embodiments, the heat sink includes a steam generator, and the steam flows to a thermal energy engine (e.g., a turbine) to generate electricity.

In other embodiments, the present invention relates to a power generation system comprising:

(ii) A thermal system for reverse exchange reactions to thermally regenerate the fuel from reaction products, comprising at least one reaction vessel, wherein a regeneration reaction comprising a reaction that forms an initial chemical fuel mixture from the mixture reaction products is conducted in the at least one reaction vessel with a kinetic reaction, heat from the kinetic reaction flows to the regeneration reactant to provide energy for thermal regeneration, the at least one vessel is thermally insulated on one section and in contact with a heat transfer medium on another section to form a thermal gradient between each hotter and colder section of the vessel such that a substance preferentially accumulates in the colder section, the at least one vessel further comprising a vacuum pump and a source of hydrogen, wherein a hydride reaction is conducted in the colder section to form at least one initial reactant and return it to the hotter section,

(iii) a heat sink that accepts heat from the power-generating reaction that is transferred through the thermally conductive medium and optionally through at least one thermal barrier,

and

(iv) a power conversion system, which may comprise a thermal energy engine, such as a rankine or brayton cycle engine, a steam engine, a stirling engine, wherein the power conversion system may comprise a thermoelectric converter or a thermionic converter, wherein the conversion system receives a heat flow from a heat sink.

In one embodiment, the heat sink comprises a steam generator and the steam flows to a thermal energy engine (e.g., a turbine) to generate electricity.

Drawings

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of an energy reactor and power plant of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an energy reactor and power plant for recycling or regenerating fuel in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a power reactor of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a system for recycling or regenerating fuel according to the present invention;

FIG. 5 is a schematic of the multi-tube reaction system of the present invention further showing details of the single potential energy reactor and power plant for recycling or regenerating fuel;

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a conduit of a multi-tube reaction system of the present invention comprising a reaction chamber and a metal condensation and rehydriding chamber separated by a valve or gate valve for evaporating metal vapor, rehydriding metal, and resupplying regenerated alkali metal hydride;

FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a thermally coupled multi-cell bundle of the present invention wherein the cells in the power generation phase of the cycle heat the cells in the regeneration phase and immerse the bundle in water, thereby causing boiling and steam generation to occur on the outer surface of the outer annulus under a thermal gradient across the gap;

FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a plurality of thermally coupled multi-cell bundles of the present invention, wherein the bundles may be arranged in a boiler box;

FIG. 9 is a schematic of a boiler of the present invention housing a reactor bundle and directing steam into a dome manifold;

FIG. 10 is a schematic illustration of a power generation system of the present invention wherein steam is generated in the boiler of FIG. 9 and directed through a dome manifold to a steam line, a steam turbine receives steam from boiling water, generates electricity with a generator, condenses and draws the steam back to the boiler;

FIG. 11 is a schematic of a multi-tube reaction system of the present invention comprising a bundle of reactor cells in thermal contact and separated from a heat exchanger by a gas gap;

FIG. 12 is a schematic of a multitube reaction system of the invention comprising alternating thermal insulation layers, reactor cells, heat transfer media, and heat exchangers or collectors;

FIG. 13 is a schematic of a single unit of a multi-tube reaction system of the present invention comprising alternating thermal insulation layers, reactor cells, heat transfer media, and heat exchangers or collectors;

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of a boiler system of the present invention comprising the multi-tube reaction system of FIG. 12 and a coolant (saturated water) flow rate regulation system;

FIG. 15 is a schematic illustration of a power generation system of the present invention wherein steam is generated in the boiler of FIG. 14 and output from the steam-water separator to the main steam line, and a steam turbine receives steam from the boiling water, generates electricity with a generator, condenses and draws the steam back to the boiler;

FIG. 16 is a schematic of a steam generation flow diagram of the present invention;

FIG. 17 is a schematic view of a discharge power and plasma cell and reactor of the present invention;

FIG. 18 is a schematic view of a cell and fuel cell of the present invention;

FIG. 19 is an automotive configuration utilizing a CIHT cell stack in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram of a CIHT cell of the present invention;

FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of a three half-cell CIHT cell of the present invention;

FIG. 22 shows a schematic diagram of the present invention including H₂O and H₂Schematic of CIHT cell of collection and recycling system.

Detailed Description

The present invention relates to a catalyst system for releasing energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, wherein an electron shell is located closer to a core. The released power is utilized to generate power and, in addition, novel hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. This energy state is expected by classical physical laws and requires a catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen for the corresponding energy release transition.

Classical physics gives closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydrogen anions, hydrogen molecule ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts the corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Deriving an electronic structure as a boundary value problem using Maxwell's equations, wherein the electrons comprise the source current of a time-varying electromagnetic field during the transition with the constraint thatElectrons of boundary n =1 state cannot radiate energy. The predicted reaction of the solution of H atoms involves a resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-accepting catalyst, thereby forming hydrogen in a lower energy state than previously thought possible. Specifically, classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen can react with a net enthalpy that makes atomic hydrogen the potential energy (E) of atomic hydrogen_h=27.2eV, wherein E_hIs a hartley) of certain atoms, excimers, ions and diatomic hydrides. Specific substances (e.g. He) identifiable based on their known electronic energy levels⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺K, Li, HCl, NaH, OH, SH, she, H₂O, nH (n = integer)) needs to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer followed by continuous emission or transfer to q 13.6eV of H for q 13.6eV to form an extremely hot excited state H and hydrogen atoms with energies corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number lower than that of the unreacted atomic hydrogen. That is, in the formula of the main energy level of hydrogen atoms:

n=1,2,3,...(2)

Wherein a is_HIs the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom (52.947pm), e is the electron charge value, and_ofractional quantum number for vacuum dielectric constant:

(wherein p.ltoreq.137 is an integer) (3)

The well-known parameter n = integer in the reed equation replacing the hydrogen excited state and represents a lower energy state hydrogen atom called "fractional hydrogen". Then, similar to the excited state with maxwell's equation analysis solution, the hydrino atoms also contain electrons, protons, and photons. However, the latter electric field enhances the binding corresponding to the energy release, rather than weakening the central field with energy absorption as in the excited state, and the resulting photon-electron interaction of the fractional hydrogen is stable rather than radiative.

N =1 state of hydrogen and of hydrogenThe states are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states (e.g., from n =1 to n =1/2) are possible via non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a particular case of the steady state given by formulas (1) and (3), wherein the corresponding radii of hydrogen or fractional hydrogen atoms are given by: (4)

wherein p =1,2, 3. For energy conservation, the following units of energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst:

m·27.2eV,m=1,2,3,4,....(5)

and convert the radius intoThe catalyst reaction includes two energy release steps: the non-radiative energy is transferred to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius is reduced to a correspondingly stable final state. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction in the range of + -10%, preferably + -5%, of m.27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalyzing a hydrino atom to a lower energy state, the enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (formula (5)) is corrected relationally by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom.

Thus, the general reaction is given by:

Cat^(q+r)++re^--→Cat^q++m·27.2eV(8)

and the overall reaction is

q, r, m and p are integers.Has a hydrogen atom radius (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equal to (m + p) times the central field of protons, andwith radius HThe corresponding stable state of (a). When electrons experience a distance from the radius of the hydrogen atomUpon radial acceleration of the radius of (a), energy is emitted as characteristic light or released as third body kinetic energy. The emission may be marginal at [ (p + m)²-p²-2m]13.6eV orAnd extends to longer wavelength forms of continuous radiation of extreme ultraviolet rays. In addition to radiation, co-vibrational energy transfer can occur to form fast H. These fast H (n =1) atoms then pass throughAnd background H₂Excited by collisions and the emission of the corresponding H (n =3) fast atoms then causes a broadened barlast alpha emission. Alternatively, fast H is the direct product of H or fractional hydrogen acting as a catalyst, where the acceptance of resonance energy transfer is related to potential energy rather than ionization energy. Conservation of energy causes the production of protons, which have half the kinetic energy of the potential energy in the former case, and essentially stationary catalyst ions in the latter case. The H recombination radiation of fast protons causes a broadened barterminal alpha emission, which is not proportional to the total amount of hot hydrogen consistent with excessive power headroom.

In the present invention, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalyzed reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, hydrino reaction forming hydrino, and hydrino forming reaction all refer to reactions of formulae (6-9) of the catalyst, for example, defined by equation (5), in which the hydrogen state formed by atomic H has energy levels given by formulae (1) and (3). When referring to a reaction mixture that catalyzes H to the H state or the hydrino state having energy levels given by formulas (1) and (3), corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactant for forming hydrino, reactant that produces or forms lower energy state hydrogen or hydrino, and the like, may also be used interchangeably.

The lower energy hydrogen transitions of the catalysis of the present invention require the following catalysts: the catalyst can be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction with an integer m times the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen of 27.2eV, which accepts energy from atomic H to cause a transition. An endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g., for Li → Li)²⁺M =3), and may also comprise a synergistic reaction of bond cleavage and ionization of one or more electrons from one or more initial bond partners (e.g., for NaH → Na) ²⁺+H，m=2)。He⁺Because it ionizes at 54.417eV (2 · 27.2eV), the catalyst criteria-chemical or physical processes with enthalpy changes equal to integer multiples of 27.2 eV-are met. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also serve as a catalyst for an enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can be given by formulae (1) and (3)Wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more other H atoms accepting m.27.2 eV in a resonant and non-radiative manner with a concomitant reverse change in potential energy. The general equation for the transition from H (1/p) to H (1/(p + m)) induced by the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by the following formula:

H(1/p')+H(1/p)→H+H(1/(p+m))+[2pm+m²-p′²+1]13.6eV (10) hydrogen atoms can act as catalysts, where m-1, m-2 and m-3 correspond to one, two and three atoms, respectively, acting as another catalyst. The rate of diatomic catalyst 2H can be higher when the extremely fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H, where two atoms receive 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom in the colliding pair in a resonant and non-radiative manner. By the same mechanism, two heats H₂The collision of (3) provided 3H to act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. Consistent with the prediction, EUV continuum at 22.8nm and 10.1nm, significance (c) was observed >100eV) broadening of the Barlow end alpha line, highly excited H-states, product gas H₂(1/4) and large energy release.

H (1/4) is the preferred hydrino state based on its multi-polarity and selection rules for its formation. Thus, in the case of H (1/3) formation, the transition to H (1/4) can occur rapidly catalyzed by H of formula (10). Similarly, H (1/4) is a preferred state of catalyst energy of greater than or equal to 81.6eV (corresponding to m =3 in equation (5)). In this case, the energy transfer to the catalyst comprises 81.6eV forming H × 1/4 intermediate of formula (7) and an integer multiple of 27.2eV from the decay of this intermediate. For example, a catalyst with enthalpy of 108.8eV may form H (1/4) by accepting 81.6eV and 27.2eV from H (1/4) decay energy 122.4 eV. The remaining decay energy of 95.2eV is released into the environment to form H in a preferred state (1/4), which subsequently reacts to form H₂(1/4)。

Thus, a suitable catalyst can provide a positive net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst resonantly accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atom and releases energy into the environment to affect the transition of electrons to fractional quantum energy levels. Due to the fact thatThis non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and further emits energy until it reaches a lower energy non-radiative state with the main energy levels given by formulas (1) and (3). Thus, energy from the hydrogen atoms is released and the size of the hydrogen atoms is correspondingly reduced, r _n＝na_HWherein n is given by formula (3). For example, the catalytic release of H (n =1) to H (n =1/4) is 204eV with hydrogen radius from a_HIs reduced to

The catalyst product H (1/p) may also react with electrons to form a hydridoanion H^-(1/p), or two H (1/p) can be reacted to form the corresponding hydrido molecule H₂(1/p). In particular, the catalyst product H (1/p) can also react with electrons to form a binding energy E_BOf (a) a novel hydride H^-(1/p)：

Wherein p is>1, s =1/2,is reduced to Planck constant, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs electron mass, mu_eIs composed ofGiven reduced electron mass (where m_pIs proton mass), a_oIs Bohr radius, ionic radius isAs can be seen from the formula (11), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride is 0.75418eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99. + -. 0.15cm^-1(0.75418 eV). The binding energy of the hydrino anion can be determined by XPS.

The NMR peak at high magnetic field shifts is direct evidence of the presence of lower energy hydrogen with a reduced radius than the normal hydride and increased diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The displacement being from the common hydride H^-And the offset sum of the components due to the lower energy state gives:

wherein for H^-P =0, and for H^-(1/p), p is>1, and α is a fine structure constant. The expected peaks were observed by solid and liquid proton NMR.

H (1/p) may beReact with protons and two H (1/p) can react to form H separately₂(1/p)⁺And H₂(1/p). The hydrogen molecular ions and molecular charges and current density functions, bond lengths and energies are solved from laplace operators in ellipsoid coordinates with non-radiative constraints.

Total energy E of hydrogen molecular ions having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate ellipsoid molecular orbits_TIs composed of

Where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced atomic mass.

The total energy of hydrogen molecules having a central field of + pe at each focal point of the prolate ellipsoid/spherical molecular orbital is

Hydrogen molecule H₂Bond dissociation energy of (1/p) E_DIs the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms with E_TDifference of difference

E_D=E(2H(1/p))-E_T(16)

Wherein

E(2H(1/p))=-p²27.20eV(17)

E_DAre given by formulae (16-17) and (15):

E_D=-p²27.20eV-E_T

=-p²27.20eV-(-p²31.351eV-p³0.326469eV)

＝p²4.151eV+p³0.326469eV(18)

NMR of the catalytic product gas provides the theoretical predicted H₂(1/4) deterministic testing of chemical migration. In general, due to the fractional radius in the ellipsoid coordinates (where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus), H is predicted₂(1/p) of¹HNMR resonance will be from H₂Is/are as follows¹The HNMR resonance shifts to high magnetic fields. H₂(1/p) predictive migrationFrom H₂The sum of the migration being dependent on H₂The sum of terms in which p of (1/p) is an integer greater than 1 gives:

wherein for H₂And p is 0. Absolute H obtained by experiment₂The gas phase resonance shift of-28.0 ppm is highly consistent with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of-28.01 ppm (equation (20)). By solid and liquid NMR (including cryogenically collected gas from plasma showing predicted continuous irradiation and fast H), a favorable product H was observed ₂Predicted NMR peaks of (1/4).

Hydrogen form of molecule H₂(1/p) vibration energy E of the transition from v =0 to v =1_vibIs composed of

E_vib＝p²0.515902eV(21)

Wherein p is an integer.

Hydrogen form of molecule H₂(1/p) rotational energy E of transition from J to J +1_rotIs composed of

Where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. H was observed in gases and on electron beam excited molecules trapped in a solid matrix₂(1/4) a rotating emission (Ro-vibration emission).

P of rotational energy²The correlation comes from the p-inverse correlation of the inter-nuclear distance and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I.

H₂(1/p) the predicted internuclear distance 2c' is

Catalyst and process for preparing same

He⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺Li, K, NaH, nH (n = integer) and H₂O is predicted to be a catalyst because it meets the catalyst criteria-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2 eV. Specifically, the catalytic system is provided by: t electrons from an atom are each ionized to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m-27.2 eV (where m is an integer). One such catalytic system includes lithium atoms. The first and second ionization energies of lithium are 5.39172eV and 75.64018eV, respectively. Li to Li²⁺The double ionization (t =2) reaction of (a) has a net enthalpy of reaction of 81.0319eV (equal to 3 · 27.2 eV).

Li²⁺+2e^--→Li(m)+81.0319eV(25)

And the overall reaction is

Wherein m =3 in formula (5). The energy released during catalysis is much greater than the energy consumed by the catalyst. The energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen are combusted to form water

Known enthalpy of water formation process is Δ H_f= -286 kj/mole or 1.48eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, undergo a catalytic step toEach (n =1) ordinary hydrogen atom of (a) releases a net of 40.8 eV. In addition, other catalytic transitions can occur:and the like. Once catalysis has begun, the hydrinos are further autocatalytic in a process known as disproportionation, where H or H (1/p) acts as a catalyst for another H or H (1/p ') (p can be equal to p').

Certain molecules may also be used to affect the transition of H to form hydrinos. Generally, a compound containing hydrogen (such as MH, where M is an element other than hydrogen) serves as a hydrogen source and a catalyst source. The catalytic reaction is provided by: the M-H bond is broken and t electrons from atom M are each ionized to a continuous energy level from the atom such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about M-27.2 eV, where M is an integer. One such catalytic system includes sodium hydride. The bond energy of NaH is 1.9245eV, and the first and second ionization energies of Na are 5.13908eV and 47.2864eV, respectively. Because the bond energy of NaH adds Na to Na ²⁺Double ionization (t =2) of 54.35eV (2 · 27.2eV), so based on these energies, NaH molecules can act as catalyst and source of H. The concerted catalyst reaction is given by

Na²⁺+2e^-+H→NaH+54.35eV(29)

And the overall reaction is

In the case of m =2, the product of catalyst NaH is H (1/3), which reacts rapidly to form H (1/4), followed by the formation of the hydric molecule H as the preferred state₂(1/4). Specifically, in the case of high hydrogen atom concentration, a further transition given by formula (10) from H (1/3) (p =3) to H (1/4) (p + m =4) with H as catalyst (p' = 1; m =1) can be rapidly carried out:

since the multipolarity of the p =4 quantum state is greater than that of the quadrupole that gives H (1/4) a longer theoretical lifetime for further catalysis, the corresponding hydrino molecule H₂(1/4) and the hydridoanion H^-(1/4)Is a preferred end product consistent with the observations.

Since the second ionization energy of helium is 54.417eV (equal to 2.27.2 eV), helium ions can act as a catalyst. In this case, 54.417eV is non-radiatively transferred from atomic hydrogen to He⁺，He⁺Ionization occurs resonantly. The electrons decay to the n =1/3 state with further release of 54.417eV as shown in equation (33). The catalytic reaction is

He²⁺+e^-→He⁺+54.417eV(34)

And the overall reaction is

Wherein the content of the first and second substances,has a radius of hydrogen atoms and a central field equal to 3 times that of protons, and Corresponding to a steady state at 1/3 with radius H. Because the electrons undergo radial acceleration of a radius of 1/3 from the radius of the hydrogen atom to this distance, energy is released as characteristic light emission or as third body kinetic energy. For this transition reaction upon decay of the high energy hydrino intermediate, a characteristic continuous emission starting at 22.8nm (54.4eV) and extending to longer wavelengths is observed as expected. Emission has been observed through EUV spectra recorded when helium is discharged with hydrogen pulses. Alternatively, in line with the observation that the significant barred alpha line corresponding to high kinetic energy H widens, resonant kinetic energy transfer forming fast H can occur.

Hydrogen and the fractional hydrogen may act as catalysts. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can be transitioned to lower energy states given by formulas (1) and (3), where the transition of one atom is accompanied by the acceptance of m.27.2 eV in a resonant and non-radiative manner with the accompanying potential energyThe second atom of (a) is catalytic. The general equation for the transition from H (1/p) to H (1/(m + p)) induced by the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by formula (10). Thus, a hydrogen atom may serve as a catalyst, where m = 1, m =2 and m =3 correspond to one, two and three atoms, respectively, serving as another catalyst. The rate in the case of diatomic or triatomic catalysts is only appreciable when the H density is high. However, high H density is not uncommon. High hydrogen atom concentrations that allow 2H or 3H to act as energy acceptors for the third or fourth can be achieved in several cases, for example: density due to temperature and gravity forces is at the surface of the sun and stars, at metal surfaces bearing multiple monolayers, and in highly dissociated plasmas (especially the pinched hydrogen plasma). In addition, when two H atoms are thermally H and H ₂When collision occurs, the three-body H interaction is easily achieved. This event can often occur in plasmas with large amounts of very fast H. This is evidenced by the unusual intensity of atomic H emission. In these cases, energy can be transferred from a hydrogen atom to two other hydrogen atoms that are close enough (typically a few angstroms) by multipole coupling. The reaction between the three hydrogen atoms (whereby two atoms receive 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom in a resonant and non-radiative manner, such that 2H acts as a catalyst) is then given by:

and the overall reaction is

Due to formula (37)The intermediate is equivalent to that of formula (33)Intermediates, so predicting continuous emission with He⁺The continuous emission is the same when used as a catalyst. Energy transfer to both H causes charging of the excited state of the catalyst, as shown in equations (36-39) and through resonant kinetic energy transfer (as in He)⁺As a catalyst) directly produces fast H. For a hydrogen plasma with 2H acting as a catalyst, 22.8nm continuous radiation, H excited state pumping and fast H were also observed.

The predicted products of the reaction of helium ions and 2H catalyst given by formulas (32-35) and (36-39), respectively, were all H (1/3). From H (1/3) (p =3) to H (1/4) (p +) given by formula (10) at high hydrogen atom concentration m =4) can be made fast (with H as catalyst (p' = 1; m =1)), as shown in equation (31). It is predicted that the secondary continuous band generator is followed by the secondary He⁺Catalytic products(formula (32-35)) toFast transition of state in which atomic hydrogen is taken up from27.2 eV. This 30.4nm continuum was also observed. Similarly, when Ar is⁺When acting as a catalyst, its predicted 91.2nm and 45.6nm continuous spectra were observed. A predicted fast H is also observed. In addition, product H will be predicted₂(1/4) from He⁺The catalyst reaction and the 2H catalyst reaction were separated and identified by NMR under its predicted chemical shift given by formula (20).

In relation to direct transition toIn another H atom catalyst reaction of state, two hot H₂The molecules collide and dissociate, allowing the three H atoms to act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. The reaction between the four hydrogen atoms (whereby the three atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept 81.6eV from the fourth hydrogen atom, so that the 3H acts as a catalyst) is then given by:

and the overall reaction is

According to the prediction, of formula (40)The intermediate creates an extreme ultraviolet continuum with a short wavelength cut-off at 122.4eV (10.1nm) and extends to longer wavelengths. This continuous band has been confirmed experimentally. Generally, by accepting m.27.2 eV, from H to Has a short wavelength cutoff threshold and an energy given byContinuous band of (a):

and the continuous spectral bands extend to wavelengths longer than the respective cut-off thresholds. Hydrogen emission systems with 10.1nm, 22.8nm and 91.2nm continuous spectra were experimentally observed.

Data of

Data from a number of research techniques strongly and consistently indicate that hydrogen can exist in energy states lower than previously thought possible, and support the existence of these states known as hydrinos ("small hydrogens") and corresponding hydride and molecular hydrinos. Some of such previously relevant studies that support the possibility of a novel reaction of atomic hydrogen that produces hydrogen in fractional quantum states with lower energy than the traditional "base" state (n ═ 1), include Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy, characteristic emissions from catalysts and hydrogen anion production, lower energy hydrogen emissions, chemically formed plasma, broadening of the bard α line, population inversion of the H-line, elevated electron temperature, abnormal plasma persistence duration, power generation, and analysis of novel compounds and molecular fractional hydrogen.

The potential for new energy sources is demonstrated by the presence of hydrinos demonstrated by a number of complementary methods. Hydrogen atoms may act as a catalyst, with m =1, m =2 and m =3 corresponding to one, two and three atoms, respectively, acting as another catalyst. The rate of diatomic catalyst 2H can be higher when the very fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H (where two atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom in the colliding pair). By the same mechanism, two heats H ₂The collision of (3) provided 3H to act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. As predicted, an EUV continuum at 91.2nm, 22.8nm and 10.1nm, notably (C) was observed>50eV) broadening of the Barl end alpha line, highly excited catalyst states and product gas H₂(1/4)。

Collecting and dissolving gas from a pulsed plasma cell exhibiting continuous radiation in CDCl₃In (1). On these gases and gases collected from various plasma sources (including helium-hydrogen, water-vapor assisted hydrogen, and the so-called rt-plasma of incandescent heated mixtures including strontium, argon, and hydrogen), hydrino molecules H were observed by solution NMR at a predicted chemical shift of 1.25ppm₂(1/4). These resultsIn good agreement with previous results on synthesis reactions that form hydrino compounds containing hydrinos. H in solid NaH F₂(1/4) of¹HMASNMR observed value of 1.13ppm corresponds to a solution value of 1.2ppm and the value of gas from the plasma cell with catalyst. The corresponding fractional hydride H from the solid compound was observed at-3.86 ppm of predicted migration in solution NMR^-(1/4), and its ionization energy was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy at the predicted energy of 11 eV. Also proves that H ₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4) is the product of a hydrino catalytic system that releases multiples of the maximum possible energy based on known chemistry; in addition, reactant systems have been developed and shown to be thermally regenerative, which is competitive as a new power source.

Specifically, in recent power generation and product characterization studies, atomic lithium and molecular NaH act as catalysts because they meet the catalyst criteria-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2eV (e.g., m =3 for Li; m =2 for NaH). The corresponding hydridoanions H based on novel alkali metal halogen hydridohydrides (MX X; M = Li or Na, X = halide) were tested using chemically generated catalytic reactants^-(1/4) and molecular hydrido H₂(1/4) a closed form equation of the energy level.

First, the Li catalyst was tested. Li and LiNH₂Used as a source of atomic lithium and hydrogen atoms. Using aqueous batch calorimetry, from 1gLi, 0.5gLiNH₂10gLiBr and 15gPd/Al₂O₃The measured power was about 160W and the energy balance was ah = -19.1 kJ. The observed energy balance is 4.4 times the maximum theoretical value based on known chemistry. Next, when the kinetic reaction mixture is used in chemical synthesis, raney nickel (R-Ni) acts as a dissociating agent, with LiBr acting as an absorbent for the catalytic product H (1/4) to form LiH X and react H ₂(1/4) is trapped in the crystal. ToF-SIM showed LiH X peaks.¹HMASNMRIH Br and LiH I showed a relationship with H in LiX matrix^-(1/4) large, significantly high magnetic field at about-2.5 ppm matchedAnd (4) resonating. NMR Peak at 1.13ppm with gap H₂(1/4) matching, and 1989cm in FTIR Spectrum^-1Observed as normal H₂4 of (2)²Multiple H₂(1/4) the frequency of rotation. The XPS spectra recorded for LiH Br crystals show peaks at about 9.5eV and 12.3eV which, in the absence of any other major element peak, cannot be assigned to any known element, but which are comparable to H in both chemical environments^-(1/4) binding energy matching. Another feature of the energy process is the following observation: at low temperatures (e.g. ≈ 10) when atomic Li is present together with atomic hydrogen³K) And a very low field strength of about 1-2V/cm to form a plasma called a resonance transfer plasma or rt plasma. Observed to correspond to extremely fast H: (>40eV) of the hbarl end α line.

NaH uniquely achieves high kinetics because the catalyst reaction relies on the release of intrinsic H, which simultaneously undergoes a transition to form H (1/3), which further reacts to form H (1/4). High temperature Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was performed on ionic NaH under a helium atmosphere at a very slow temperature ramp rate (0.1 ℃/min) to increase the amount of molecular NaH formed. A new exothermic effect of-177 kj/mole NaH was observed in the temperature range of 640 deg.C to 825 deg.C. To obtain high power, the surface area is about 100m with NaOH ²R-Ni in/g was surface coated and reacted with Na metal to form NaH. Using water-flow batch calorimetry, the power measured from 15gR-Ni when reacted with Na metal was about 0.5kW, and the energy balance was Δ H = -36kJ, in contrast to Δ H ≈ 0kJ measured from the R-Ni raw material R-NiAl alloy. The observed energy balance of the NaH reaction was-1.6X 10⁴Kilojoule/mole H₂In excess of the enthalpy of combustion-241.8 kJ/mol H₂66 times higher. As the NaOH doping increases to 0.5 wt%, the Al of the R-Ni intermetallic compounds serves to displace the Na metal as a reducing agent to produce NaH catalyst. When heated to 60 ℃, 15g of the composite catalyst material released 11.7kJ of excess energy and produced 0.25kW of power without the need for additives. The energy is scaled linearly and the power is increased nonlinearly, with the reaction of 1kg of R-Ni doped with 0.5 wt.% NaOH liberating 753.1kJ of energy to produce more than 50kW of power. Solution NMR of the product gas dissolved in DMF-d7 showed H at 1.2ppm₂(1/4)。

ToF-SIM shows sodium hydride NaH_xPeak(s). Of NaH Br and NaH Cl¹HMASNMR spectra showed a correlation with H at-3.6 ppm and-4 ppm, respectively^-(1/4) large, significantly high magnetic field resonances matched and shown to be at 1.1ppm with H ₂(1/4) matched NMR peaks. KHSO from NaCl and solid acid as the sole hydrogen source₄The reacted NaH Cl of (a) comprises two hydridic states. H was observed at-3.97 ppm^-(1/4) NMR Peak, and H is also present at-3.15 ppm^-(1/3) peak. Corresponding H was observed at 1.15ppm and 1.7ppm, respectively₂(1/4) Peak and H₂(1/3) peak. Method for producing NaH F dissolved in DMF-d7¹HNMR showed isolated H at 1.2ppm and-3.86 ppm, respectively₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4) wherein the solid state NMR assigned results are confirmed because there is no influence of any solid matrix or possibility of alternative assigned results. XPS spectra recorded for NaH Br showed a match of H to LiH Br and KH I at about 9.5eV and 12.3eV^-(1/4) peak; however, sodium hydridocarbonate shows an additional H at 6eV^-(1/3) two hydrino states of the XPS peak and no halide peaks. From H excited using a 12.5keV electron beam₂(1/4), it was also observed that the energy was normal H₂4 of (2)²Predicted rotational transitions of multiples.

Hydrino-based power sources also seek additional, low cost, regenerative chemistry, once existing performance characteristics have been met or exceeded. Solid fuel systems or heterogeneous catalyst systems were developed in which the reactants of each system could be regenerated from the product using commercially available chemical plant systems (using net energy gain from the chemical cycle for molten eutectic salt electrolysis and thermal regeneration). The catalyst system comprises: (i) a catalyst or a catalyst source from the group of LiH, KH and NaH and a hydrogen source; (ii) from NiBr ₂、MnI₂、AgCl、EuBr₂、SF₆、S、CF₄、NF₃、LiNO₃Ag-bearing M₂S₂O₈And P₂O₅An oxidizing agent of the group (b); (iii) from Mg powder or MgH₂Al powder or aluminum nanopowder (AlNP), Sr and Ca; and (iv) from AC, TiC and YC₂The vector of group (1). By using a surface area of 900m²A/g support such as Activated Carbon (AC) converts the common metallic forms of Li and K to atomic forms and the ionic form of NaH to molecular forms, thereby dispersing the Li and K atoms and NaH molecules, respectively. The non-radiative energy transfer reaction step from atomic hydrogen to an integer multiple of 27.2eV of the catalyst produces ionized catalyst and free electrons, which quickly stop the reaction due to charge accumulation. The support also acts as a conductive electron acceptor for electrons released from the hydrino-forming catalyst reaction. Each reaction mixture also contains an oxidizing agent to act as a scavenger and final electron acceptor reactant for electrons from the conductive carrier, and a weak reducing agent to assist the function of the oxidizing agent. In some cases, the synergistic electron-acceptor (oxidation) reaction is also very exothermic, heating the reactants and increasing the rate of power or fractional hydrogen compound generation. Measuring the energy balance of the heterogeneous catalyst system by absolute flow calorimetry, and ¹HNMR, ToF-SIM and XPS were used to characterize the hydrino products. Heat was also recorded in the reaction at 10-fold scale up. The power and energy gains measured from these heterogeneous catalyst systems were respectively at most 10W/cm³ _{(volume of reaction)}And factors six times greater than the maximum theoretical value. The reaction was scaled linearly to 580kJ, which produced about 30kW of power. The sample extracted from the reaction product in DMF-d7 was subjected to solution¹HNMR showing predicted H at 1.2ppm and-3.8 ppm, respectively₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4). ToF-SIM shows a peak of sodium hydridothydride (e.g., NaH)_xPeak of NaH catalyst) and H was observed by XPS^-(1/4) predicted binding energy of 11 eV.

The discovery of the reaction mechanism for hydrino formation has been applied to the development of thermo-reversible chemistry as another commercially viable power source. Each fuel system comprisesCatalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen source (KH or NaH), high surface area conductive support (TiC, TiCN, Ti)₃SiC₂、WC、YC₂Pd/C, Carbon Black (CB) and LiCl reduced to Li) and optionally a reducing agent (Mg, Ca or Li). In addition, both systems comprise an alkaline earth or alkali metal halide oxidant, or the carbon support comprises an oxidant. The reaction that propagates the formation of hydrinos is a redox reaction, which includes hydride-halide ion exchange, hydride ion exchange, or physical dispersion. The forward reaction is spontaneous under the reaction conditions, but by using the product chemistry it was shown that the dynamic equilibrium can be shifted from the dominant product to the reverse direction by dynamically removing the volatile reverse reaction product alkali metal. The separated reverse reaction products may be further reacted to form initial reactants to combine to form an initial reaction mixture. The thermal cycle from reactant to product, in turn, is thermally reversed to reactant is energy balanced, and the heat loss and energy for displacing the hydrogen converted to hydrinos is small compared to the large energy released when hydrinos are formed. Common parameters measured by absolute water flow calorimetry are 7Wcm relative to the regeneration chemistry ^-3An energy gain of 2 to 5 times and 300 to 400 kJ/mol of oxidant. With 50 mJ/mol H consumed₂Corresponding predicted molecular hydrino and hydrino anion products H₂(1/4) and H^-(1/4) the solutions were measured at 1.2ppm each¹HNMR peak and XPS peak at 11 eV. The product regeneration process at a temperature range of 550 c to 750 c indicates that the cell operating temperature is sufficient to maintain the cell regeneration temperature at the corresponding stage in the power regeneration cycle (where the forward reaction time is comparable to the reverse reaction time). The results show that continuous generation of power released by formation of hydrinos is commercially feasible using a simplified and efficient system that simultaneously maintains the regeneration process as part of the thermal energy balance. The system is closed except that only the hydrogen consumed in forming the hydrinos needs to be replaced. Hydrogen forming hydric hydrogen can eventually be obtained from the electrolysis of water, releasing 200 times the energy of combustion.

In recent spectroscopic studies, helium ion and two ions were usedAn atomic catalytic system of H atoms. The second ionization energy of helium is 54.4 eV; thus, He⁺To He²⁺The net enthalpy of reaction of the ionization reaction of (1) is 54.4eV, which is equal to 2 · 27.2 eV. Furthermore, atomic hydrogen has a potential of 27.2eV, so that hydrogen composed of H ₂The two H atoms formed by collisions with the third hot H can also act as catalysts for this third H, causing He to react with it⁺The same transitions as the catalyst. The energy transfer is predicted to be He⁺The ion level charges energy and raises the electron excitation temperature of H in the helium-hydrogen plasma and the hydrogen plasma, respectively. After energy transfer to the catalyst, it is predicted that the H atomic radius decreases with radial acceleration of the electrons to a steady state of 1/3 with radius of uncatalyzed hydrogen atomic radius, with further release of 54.4eV of energy. This energy can be emitted as a characteristic EUV continuum with a cut-off threshold at 22.8nm and extending to longer wavelengths or as third body kinetic energy (where resonant kinetic energy transfer occurs to form fast H). These fast H (n =1) atoms are then excited by collisions with background species, followed by the emission of the corresponding H (n =3) fast atoms, which excitation is predicted to result in broadened tail-of-bal emission. The product H (1/3) reacts rapidly to form H (1/4) followed by the formation of molecular hydrino H as the preferred state₂(1/4). Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectra and high resolution visible spectra were recorded for microwave plasma, glow discharge and pulsed discharge of helium with hydrogen and hydrogen alone. With the addition of hydrogen, He occurs ⁺The ion lines are charged and the excitation temperature of the hydrogen plasma under certain conditions is high. Further, for separately supplying the catalyst He⁺And 2H, both with EUV continuum and significant (1)>50eV) a broadening of the Barl's end α line. For hydrogen plasma collected from helium-hydrogen plasma and water vapor assistance and dissolved in CDCl₃Solution NMR of the gas in (1.25 ppm) was observed as H₂(1/4). All four predictions for the formation of hydrinos for atomic hydrogen transitions were experimentally validated.

Other EUV studies have shown 22.8nm connectivity in pure hydrogen discharges by using different electrode materials that maintain a high voltage, optically thin plasma during short pulse dischargesA continuous band and another continuous band from the decay of the intermediate corresponding to the hydrino state H (1/4). Since the potential of atomic hydrogen is 27.2eV, a molecular structure derived from H₂The two H atoms formed by collisions with the third hot H can act as their catalyst by accepting 2 · 27.2eV from the third H. By the same mechanism, two heats H₂The collision of (3) provided 3H to act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. After energy transfer to the catalyst, intermediates are formed having a radius of H atoms with a central field that is 3 and 4 times the central field of the proton (due to the photon contribution of each intermediate), respectively. It is predicted that this radius decreases with radial acceleration of the electron to a stable state of 1/3(m 2) or 1/4(m 3) with a radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with further release of 54.4eV and 122.4eV energies, respectively. This energy emitted as a characteristic EUV continuum with cutoff thresholds at 22.8nm and 10.1nm, respectively, was observed from the pulsed hydrogen discharge. Hydrogen emission spectra of 10.1nm, 22.8nm and 91.2nm were observed.

These data (e.g., NMR migration, ToF-SIM mass, XPS binding energy, FTIR and emission spectra) are used to characterize and identify the hydrino products that constitute the catalyst system of one aspect of the invention. The continuum directly and indirectly matched the significant astronomical observations. Autocatalytic and disproportionation of hydrogen can be a reaction that occurs commonly in celestial and interplanetary media containing atomic hydrogen. Stars are the source of atomic and fractional hydrogen as the aetiomorphic wind for interplanetary reactions, with extremely dense star atomic hydrogen and singly ionized helium He⁺Acting as a catalyst in the stars. Matching the hydrogen continuum from the hydrino-forming transitions with the emission from white dwarf provides a possible mechanism to link the temperature and density conditions of the different discrete layers of coronagar/colorsphere sources and provides a 10.1nm continuum matching the strong 11.0-16.0 nm band observed for a source of diffuse ubiquitous EUV cosmic background, in addition resolving the identity of the radiation source behind the following observations: diffusive H.alpha.emission is prevalent throughout the galaxy and is requiredA widely distributed flux source on the short wavelength side. In addition, product hydriding provides resolution of the identity of dark matter.

I. Hydrino

Hydrogen atoms having a binding energy given by the formula are the products of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present invention:

wherein p is an integer greater than 1, preferably 2 to 137. The binding energy (also called ionization energy) of an atom, ion or molecule is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. The hydrogen atoms having the binding energy given by formula (46) are hereinafter referred to as "fractional hydrogen atoms" or "fractional hydrogens". Radius of(wherein a)_HIs a radius of a common hydrogen atom, and p is an integer) is expressed asRadius a_HThe hydrogen atom of (b) is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "ordinary hydrogen atom". Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Hydrinos are formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst and the net enthalpy of reaction is:

m·27.2eV(47)

wherein m is an integer. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within + -10% (preferably + -5%) of m.27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications.

The catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atoms, which are correspondingly reduced in size (r)_n＝na_H). For example, catalytic release of H (n =1) to H (n =1/2) was 40.8eV with hydrogen radius from a _HIs reduced toThe catalytic system is provided by: t electrons from an atom are each ionized to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m-27.2 eV, where m is an integer.

Another example of such a catalytic system given by formulas (6-9) above includes cesium. The first and second ionization energies of cesium were 3.89390eV and 23.15745eV, respectively. Cs to Cs²⁺The double ionization (t =2) reaction of (a) then has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.05135eV, which is equivalent to m =1 in equation (47).

Cs²⁺+2e^--→Cs(m)+27.05135eV(49)

And the overall reaction is

Another catalytic system includes potassium metal. The first, second and third ionization energies of potassium are 4.34066eV, 31.63eV, 45.806eV, respectively. K to K³⁺Three ionization (t =3)The reaction then has a net enthalpy of reaction of 81.7767eV, which is equivalent to m =3 in formula (47).

K³⁺+3e^--→K(m)+81.7426eV(52)

And the overall reaction is

As a power source, the energy emitted during catalysis is much greater than the energy consumed by the catalyst. The energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen are combusted to form water

Known enthalpy of water formation process is Δ H_fAt-286 kj/mole or 1.48eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, each (n =1) ordinary hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis releases 40.8eV net. In addition, other catalytic transitions can occur: And the like. Once catalysis begins, the hydrinos further undergo autocatalysis in a process known as disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. However, due to better matching of enthalpy to m.27.2 eV, the reaction rate of hydrino catalysis should be higher than that of inorganic ionic catalysts.

A hydrogen catalyst capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of about m.27.2 eV (where m is an integer) to produce hydrinos (whereby t electrons are ionized from atoms or ions) is given in table 1. The atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized to provide the net enthalpy of reaction given in column ten of m.27.2 eV, where m is given in column ten. The electrons participating in ionization are given together with an ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). Ionization potential of n-th electron of atom or ion is represented by IP_nRepresented and given by the CRC. That is, for example, Li +5.39172eV → Li⁺+e^-，Li⁺+75.6402eV→Li²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁=5.39172eV and second ionization potential IP₂75.6402eV is given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for the double ionization of Li is 81.0319eV, given in the tenth column; and m in formula (5) is 3, given in the eleventh column.

TABLE 1 Hydrogen catalyst.

The hydrino anions of the invention can be combined with hydrinos (i.e., have a binding energy of about A hydrogen atom of (A), whereinAnd p is an integer greater than 1). Hydrido anions consisting of H^-(n =1/p) or H^-(1/p) represents:

the hydrido anion is different from a common hydrido anion containing a common hydrogen nucleus and two electrons with a binding energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter is hereinafter referred to as "common hydride" or "ordinary hydride". The hydrion anion comprises a hydrogen nucleus (including protium, deuterium, or tritium) and two indistinguishable electrons, with binding energies as shown in formulas (57-58).

The binding energy of the hydrino anion can be represented by the formula:

where p is an integer greater than one, s =1/2, pi is pi,is reduced to Planck constant, mu_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs electron mass, mu_eIs composed ofGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oBohr radius, and e is the elementary charge. The radius is given by:

the hydrino anions H as a function of p are shown in Table 2^-(n =1/p), wherein p is an integer.

TABLE 2 fractional hydride H as a function of p (formula (57))^-Representative binding energies of (n = 1/p).

According to the present invention, there is provided a fractional hydride ion (H)^-) And a binding energy represented by the formula (57-58), wherein the binding energy is larger than that of a common hydride anion (about 0.75eV) at p =2 to 23, and p = 24 (H) ^-) Less than the binding energy of the common hydride. For p-2 to p-24 of formula (57-58), the hydride binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3 and 0.69eV, respectively. Also provided herein are exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ions.

Exemplary compounds comprising one or more hydrino anions and one or more other elements are also provided. This compound is referred to as a "hydridotion compound".

Common hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride, 0.754eV ("common hydride");

(b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecules, 15.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecules");

(d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e)22.6eV ("trihydrogen molecular ions"). Herein, with reference to the form of hydrogen, "ordinary" is synonymous with "ordinary".

According to another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy, such as: (a) binding energy of about(for example in In the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) hydrogen atoms, wherein p is 2 to 137An integer number; (b) binding energy of about(for example inAbout 0.9 to 1.1 times of) of a hydrogen anion (H)^-) Wherein p is an integer of 2-24;(for example inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) of the hydrogen molecule ion(d) A binding energy of about wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) binding energy of about(for example inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) a hydrogen fraction, wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) binding energy of about(for example inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) of a hydrogen molecule ion, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer of 2 to 137.

According to another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy, such as: (a) total energy is about

(for example in

In the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) a hydrogen molecule ion, wherein p is an integer,to approximate Planck constant bar, m_eElectron mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, μ is the approximate atomic mass; and (b) always being about

(for example in

In the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) a binary hydrogen molecule, wherein p is an integer and a_oIs the bohr radius.

According to one embodiment of the invention, wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged hydrogen species with increased binding energy, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as protons, common Or in general

Provided herein is a method of making a compound comprising at least one fractional hydride anion. Said compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydridotion compounds". The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a net enthalpy of reaction of aboutWherein m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce a binding energy of aboutWherein p is an integer, preferably an integer of 2 to 137. Another catalytic product is energy. The hydrogen atoms of increased binding energy may react with the electron source to produce hydride ions of increased binding energy. The increased binding energy hydride can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride.

The novel hydrogen compositions of matter may comprise:

(a) at least one neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter "binding energy increasing hydrogen species") having a binding energy

(i) Greater than the binding energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or not observed because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP);

And

(b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

Herein, "other elements" refer to elements other than hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased. Thus, the other element may be a common hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and the hydrogen species with increased binding energy are charged such that the other elements provide an equilibrium charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds are characterized by molecular and coordination bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) at least a neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter "binding energy increasing hydrogen species") having a total energy of

(i) Greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding common hydrogen species is unstable or not observable because the total energy of the common hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions;

and

(b) At least one other element. The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies used to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. The total energy of the hydrogen species of the present invention is greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species. The hydrogen species with increased total energy of the present invention is also referred to as a "binding energy increased hydrogen species," although some embodiments of the hydrogen species with increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy that is less than the first electron binding energy of a corresponding common hydrogen species. For example, the first binding energy of the hydride of formula (57-58) with p =24 is smaller than that of the common hydride, whereas the total energy of the hydride of formula (57-58) with p =24 is much larger than that of the corresponding common hydride.

Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having binding energies

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or not observable because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions;

And

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

The hydrogen species having increased binding energy may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with electrons, hydrino atoms, one or more of the following compounds comprising: at least one of the above-mentioned hydrogen species having increased binding energy, and at least one other atom, molecule or ion than the hydrogen species having increased binding energy.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positively or negatively charged hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy

(i) Greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

and

In one embodiment, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy selected from the group consisting of a), b), c), and d) below: (a) a hydride having a binding energy of formula (57-58) that is greater than that of a normal hydride (about 0.8eV) at p = 2-23 and less than that of a normal hydride ("increased binding energy hydride" or "hydrido anion") at p = 24; (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than that of a general hydrogen atom (about 13.6eV) ("hydrogen atom having increased binding energy" or "fractional hydrogen"); (c) hydrogen molecules having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3eV (an "increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "fractional hydrogen"); (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a binding energy greater than about 16.3eV ("molecular hydrogen ions with increased binding energy" or "binary molecular hydrogen ions").

II. dynamic reactor and system

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, a hydrogen catalyst reactor for producing energy and lower energy hydrogen species is provided. As shown in fig. 1, the hydrogen catalyst reactor 70 comprises a vessel 72 containing an energy reaction mixture 74, a heat exchanger 80, and a power converter (e.g., a steam generator 82 and a turbine 90). In one embodiment, catalysis involves reacting atomic hydrogen from source 76 with catalyst 78 to form a lower energy hydrogen "hydrino" and generate power. The heat exchanger 80 absorbs heat released by the catalytic reaction as the reaction mixture comprising hydrogen and catalyst reacts to form lower energy hydrogen. The heat exchanger exchanges heat with a steam generator 82, and the steam generator 82 absorbs heat from the exchanger 80 and generates steam. The energy reactor 70 also contains a turbine 90, the turbine 90 receiving steam from the steam generator 82 and supplying mechanical power to a generator 97, the generator 97 converting the steam energy into electrical energy that can be received by a load 95 to produce work or for dissipation. In one embodiment, the reactor may be at least partially surrounded by heat pipes that transfer heat to a load. The load may be a stirling engine or a steam engine that generates electricity. Stirling engines or steam engines can be used for stationary or mobile power. Alternatively, hydride power or electrical systems can convert heat to electricity for stationary or mobile power. A suitable steam engine for distributed power and motive applications is the MarkV engine of cyclonepower technologies. Other converters are known to those skilled in the art. For example, the system may include a thermoelectric converter or a thermionic converter. The reactor may be one of a multi-tube reactor assembly.

In one embodiment, the energy reactive mixture 74 includes an energy releasing material 76, such as fuel supplied through the supply passage 62. The reaction mixture may contain a source of hydrogen isotope atoms or molecular hydrogen isotopes and a source of catalyst 78 that resonantly removes about m.27.2 eV to form lower energy atomic hydrogen (where m is an integer, preferably less than 400), wherein the reaction to form the lower energy state hydrogen occurs by contacting hydrogen with the catalyst. The catalyst may be in a molten, liquid, gaseous or solid state. Catalytically releases energy in the form of, for example, heat, and forms at least one of lower energy hydrogen isotope atoms, lower energy hydrogen molecules, hydride anions, and lower energy hydrogen compounds. Therefore, power cells also contain a lower energy hydrogen chemical reactor.

The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas, water dissociation products (including thermal dissociation products of water), water electrolysis products, hydrogen from hydrides or hydrogen from metal-hydrogen solutions. In another embodiment, molecular hydrogen of the energy release material 76 dissociates into atomic hydrogen by means of the molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst of the mixture 74. Such dissociation catalysts or dissociators may also absorb hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium atoms and/or molecules and include, for example, elements, compounds, alloys, or mixtures of noble metals (e.g., palladium and platinum), refractory metals (e.g., molybdenum and tungsten), transition metals (e.g., nickel and titanium), and internal transition metals (e.g., niobium and zirconium). Preferably, the debonding agent has a high surface area, e.g., supported on Al ₂O₃、SiO₂Or a noble metal (such as Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, Re, or Rh) or Ni on a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, a catalyst is provided in the following manner: t electrons from an atom or ion are ionized to successive energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where t and m are each integers. The catalyst may also be provided by means of transfer of t electrons between the participating ions. the transfer of t electrons from one ion to another provides a net enthalpy of reaction, whereby the sum of the t ionization energies of the electron donor ions minus the ionization energies of the t electrons of the electron acceptor ions is equal to about m.27.2 eV, where t and m are each integers. In another embodiment, the catalyst comprises MH, such as NaH, with atomic M in combination with hydrogen, and the sum of the M-H bond energy and the ionization energy of t electrons provides an enthalpy of m.27.2 eV.

In one embodiment, the catalyst source comprises a catalytic material 78 supplied through the catalyst supply channel 61, which typically provides about the sameNet enthalpy of (a). The catalyst accepts atomic, ionic, molecular, and hydrino from the energy of atomic and hydrino. In embodiments, the catalyst may comprise a material selected from the group consisting of AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C ₂、N₂、O₂、CO₂、NO₂And NO₃Equal molecules and Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd、Sn、Te、Cs、Ce、Pr、Sm、Gd、Dy、Pb、Pt、Kr、2K₊、He⁺、Ti²⁺、Na⁺、Rb⁺、Sr⁺、Fe³⁺、Mo²⁺、Mo⁴⁺、In³⁺、He⁺、Ar⁺、Xe⁺、Ar²⁺And H⁺And Ne⁺And H⁺Etc. from or ions of at least one species. .

In one embodiment of the power system, the heat is removed by a heat exchanger having a heat exchange medium. The heat exchanger may be a waterwall and the medium may be water. Heat can be transferred directly for heating of spaces and processes. Alternatively, the heat exchanger medium (e.g., water) undergoes a phase change (e.g., to steam). This conversion may take place in a steam generator. The steam may be used to generate electricity in heat engines (e.g., steam turbines) and generators.

An embodiment of a reactor 5 for recycling or regenerating fuel that generates hydrogen catalyst energy and lower energy hydrogen species of the present invention is shown in fig. 2, which includes a boiler 10 containing a fuel reaction mixture 11 (which may be a mixture of a hydrogen source, a catalyst source, and optionally a vaporizable solvent), a hydrogen source 12, a steam tube and steam generator 13, a power converter (e.g., turbine) 14, a water condenser 16, a make-up water source 17, a fuel recycler 18, and a hydrogen-fractional hydrogen gas separator 19. In step 1, a fuel comprising a catalyst source and a hydrogen source (e.g., a gas, liquid, solid, or fuel comprising a heterogeneous mixture of multiple phases) is reacted to form hydrinos and lower energy hydrogen products. In step 2, the used fuel is reprocessed to be resupplied to the boiler 10 to maintain thermodynamic generation. The heat generated in the boiler 10 forms steam in the tubes and steam generator 13, which steam is transmitted to the turbine 14, which turbine 14 in turn generates electricity by powering an electrical generator. In step 3, water is condensed by a water condenser 16. Any water loss can be replenished by the water source 17 to complete the cycle to maintain the heat to electricity conversion. In step 4, lower energy hydrogen products (e.g., hydrino anionic compounds and hydrogen dichotomous gas) may be removed and unreacted hydrogen may be returned to the fuel recycler 18 or hydrogen source 12, adding it back to the used fuel to make up the recycled fuel. The gaseous product and unreacted hydrogen can be separated by a hydrogen-hydrogen dichotomous gas separator 19. Any product hydrino anionic compounds can be separated and removed using the fuel recycler 18. The treatment can be carried out in the boiler or outside the boiler where the fuel is returned. Thus, the system may further comprise at least one of a gas and mass transporter to move reactants and products to effect removal, regeneration and resupply of used fuel. During fuel reprocessing, a hydrogen supply, which may include recycled, unconsumed hydrogen, is added from source 12 to replenish the hydrogen consumed in forming the hydrinos. The recirculated fuel maintains the production of thermal power, thereby driving the power plant to generate electricity.

The reactor may be operated in a continuous mode in which hydrogen is added and separated and added or replaced to counteract minimal degradation of the reactants. Alternatively, the reacted fuel is continuously regenerated from the product. In one embodiment of the latter embodiment, the reaction mixture contains species capable of producing reactants having an atomic or molecular catalyst and atomic hydrogen that further react to form hydrinos, and, at least the step of reacting the product with hydrogen is performed, the product species formed by regenerating the catalyst and atomic hydrogen can be regenerated. In one embodiment, the reactor comprises a moving bed reactor, which may further comprise a fluidized reactor section, wherein reactants are continuously supplied and byproducts are removed and regenerated for return to the reactor. In one embodiment, lower energy hydrogen products (e.g., hydrino anionic compounds or molecular hydrogen dichotomies) are collected while the reactants are being regenerated. In addition, during reactant regeneration, the hydrino anion may form other compounds or be converted to a binary hydrogen molecule.

The reactor may further comprise a separator to separate the components of the product mixture (e.g., by evaporating the solvent, if present). The separator may comprise, for example, a screen that utilizes differences in physical properties (e.g., size) for mechanical separation. The separator may also be a separator that utilizes differences in density of components of the mixture, such as a cyclone separator. For example, at least two components selected from the group of carbon, metals (e.g., Eu) and inorganic products (e.g., KBr) may be separated in a suitable medium (e.g., forced inert gas) based on density differences, and may also be separated using centrifugal force. The separation of components may also be based on differences in dielectric constant and chargeability. For example, carbon and metal may be separated based on: an electrostatic charge is applied to the former and removed from the mixture using an electric field. Where one or more components of the mixture are magnetic, separation can be achieved using a magnet. The mixture may be agitated over a series of strong magnets, alone or in combination with one or more sieves, to cause separation based on at least one of the following properties: stronger adhesion or attraction of the magnetic particles to the magnet, and the size difference of the two types of particles. In embodiments using a sieve and an applied magnetic field, the applied magnetic field adds additional force on a gravity basis to attract smaller magnetic particles through the sieve, while other particles in the mixture remain on the sieve due to their larger size.

The reactor may further comprise a separator for separating one or more components based on differential phase change or reaction. In one embodiment, the phase change comprises melting using a heater and separating the liquid from the solid using methods known in the art (e.g., gravity filtration, filtration with pressurized gas assist, centrifugation, and using vacuum). The reaction may include decomposition (e.g., hydride decomposition) or a hydride-forming reaction, and separation may be achieved by melting the corresponding metal and then separating it and by mechanically separating the hydride powder, respectively. The latter can be achieved by sieving. In one embodiment, the phase change or reaction may result in the desired reactants or intermediates. In certain embodiments, regeneration, including any desired separation steps, may occur within or outside of the reactor.

Other methods known to those skilled in the art can be used to perform the separations of the present invention by employing routine experimentation. In general, mechanical separation can be divided into four categories: settling, centrifuging, filtering and screening. In one embodiment, the particle separation is achieved by at least one of screening and using a classifier. The size and shape of the particles in the starting materials can be selected to achieve the desired product separation.

The power system may further comprise a catalyst condenser to maintain the vapor pressure of the catalyst by temperature control that controls the surface temperature at a value lower than the temperature of the reaction cell. The surface temperature is maintained at a desired value that provides the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst condenser is a tube grid in the cell. In one embodiment with a heat exchanger, the flow rate of the heat transfer medium can be controlled at a rate that maintains the condenser at the desired lower temperature than the main heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the working medium is water and the flow rate at the condenser is higher than the waterwalls, thereby making the condenser a lower desired temperature. The flows of the working medium can be reunited and diverted for space and process heating or for conversion into steam.

The cells of the present invention comprise the catalysts, reaction mixtures, methods, and systems disclosed herein, wherein the cell functions as a reactor, and at least one component used to activate, initiate, propagate, and/or sustain the reaction and regenerate the reactants. According to the present invention, a battery includes at least one catalyst or catalyst source, at least one atomic hydrogen source, and a container. The electrolytic cell energy reactor (e.g. eutectic salt electrolysis cell, plasma electrolysis reactor, barrier electrode reactor, RF plasma reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, gas discharge energy reactor (preferably pulsed discharge and more preferably pulsed pinch plasma discharge), microwave cell energy reactor and glow discharge cell and microwave and/or RF plasma reactor) of the present invention comprises: a source of hydrogen; reactants in one or any of solid, molten, liquid, gaseous and heterogeneous catalyst sources to cause a hydrino reaction by reaction between the reactants; a vessel containing reactants or at least hydrogen and a catalyst, wherein the reaction to form lower energy hydrogen occurs by contacting hydrogen with the catalyst or by reacting the catalyst (e.g., M or MH (M is an alkali metal) or BaH); and optionally a component for removing a lower energy hydrogen product. In one embodiment, the reaction to form lower energy state hydrogen is facilitated by an oxidation reaction. The oxidation reaction may increase the reaction rate for forming hydrinos by at least one of the following means: accepts electrons from the catalyst and neutralizes the highly charged cations formed by accepting energy from atomic hydrogen. Thus, these cells may be operated in a manner that provides for such oxidation reactions. In one embodiment, an electrolysis cell or plasma cell may provide an oxidation reaction at the anode, wherein hydrogen provided by a method such as sparging reacts with a catalyst to form hydrinos in the presence of the oxidation reaction. In another embodiment, the battery includes a ground conductor (e.g., a filament), which may also be at an elevated temperature. Power can be supplied to the filament. The conductor (e.g., filament) may be electrically floating with respect to the battery. In one embodiment, the thermal conductor (e.g., filament) may distill off (boiloff) electrons and act as a ground for electrons ionized from the catalyst. The distilled electrons can neutralize the ionized catalyst. In one embodiment, the cell further comprises a magnet to deflect ionized electrons from the ionizing catalyst to increase the hydrino reaction rate.

In an embodiment of the aqueous electrolytic cell, the cathode is spaced less from the anode such that oxygen from the anode reacts with hydrogen from the cathode to form OH radicals (table 3) and H₂O (acting as a source or catalyst for the formation of hydrinos). Oxygen and hydrogen, which may contain atoms, may react in the electrolyte, or hydrogen and oxygen may react on at least one electrode surface. The electrode may be catalytic to form OH radicals and H₂At least one of O. OH radical and H₂At least one of O may be obtained by anodizing OH^-Or by reduction at the cathode (such as involving H)⁺And O₂Reaction of (d) to form. Selection of electrolytes such as MOH (M = alkali metal)Selected to optimize OH and H₂Production of hydrinos formed from at least one of the O catalysts. In fuel cell embodiments, oxygen and hydrogen may react to form OH radicals and H₂At least one of O (which forms hydrinos). H⁺Can be at O₂Reducing at the cathode in the presence of an oxygen to form OH radicals and H₂At least one of O (which reacts to form hydrinos), orCan be oxidized in the presence of hydrogen to form OH and H₂At least one of O.

Electrolytes such as MOH (M = alkali metal) are selected to optimize the catalyst (e.g., OH and H) ₂At least one of O) is performed. In one embodiment, the electrolyte concentration is high, for example 0.5M to saturation. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is a saturated hydroxide, such as saturated LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, or CsOH. The anode and cathode comprise materials that are stable in alkali during electrolysis. An exemplary electrolytic cell may comprise a nickel or noble metal anode (e.g., Pt/Ti) and a nickel or carbon cathode, e.g., [ Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/Ni]And [ PtTi/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/Ni]. Pulsing electrolysis also temporarily produced high OH at the cathode^-Concentration wherein the suitable cathode is a hydride-forming metal which favours the formation of OH and H during at least the off-phase of the pulse₂At least one of O catalysts. In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprises or additionally comprises a carbonate, for example an alkali metal carbonate, such as K₂CO₃. During electrolysis, the peroxygen species may form, for example, peroxycarbonic acid or alkali metal percarbonate, which may be OOH as a source or catalyst for the formation of hydrinos^-Or OH, or H can be formed as a catalyst₂O。

H can be reacted with a catalyst ion (e.g., Na)²⁺And K³⁺) And the electrons of the formation process of (a) react and stabilize each. H can pass through H ₂With a dissociating agent. In thatIn one embodiment, a hydrogen dissociating agent (e.g., Pt/Ti) is added to the hydrino reactant, e.g., NaHMgTiC, NaHMgH₂TiC、KHMgTiC、KHMgH₂TiC、NaHMgH₂And KHMgH₂. In addition, H can be generated by using hot filaments (e.g., Pt or W filaments) in the cell. An inert gas (e.g., He) may be added to increase the number of H atoms by extending the recombination half-life of H. Many gas atoms have high electron affinity and can act as scavengers for electrons from catalyst ionization. In one embodiment, one or more atoms are provided to the reaction mixture. In one embodiment, the atoms are provided by a hot filament. Suitable metals and elements and electron affinities () that are vaporized by heating are: li (0.62eV), Na (0.55eV), Al (0.43eV), K (0.50eV), V (0.53eV), Cr (0.67eV), Co (0.66eV), Ni (1.16eV), Cu (1.24eV), Ga (0.43eV), Ge (1.23eV), Se (2.02eV), Rb (0.49eV), Y (0.30eV), Nb (0.89eV), Mo (0.75eV), Tc (0.55eV), Ru (1.05eV), Rh (1.14eV), Pd (0.56eV), Ag (1.30eV), In (0.3eV), Sn (1.11eV), Sb (1.05eV), Te (1.97eV), Cs (0.47eV), La (0.47eV), Ce (0.96eV), Pr (0.96eV), Eu (0.86eV), Eu (1.03eV), W (0.82eV), Ir (1.82 eV), Pt (1.94 eV), and Eu (1.82 eV). Diatomic and higher polyatomic species have similar electron affinities in many cases and are also suitable electron acceptors. A suitable diatomic electron acceptor is Na ₂(0.43eV) and K₂(0.497eV), which is the main form of gaseous Na and K.

Mg does not form a stable anion (electron affinity EA =0 eV). Thus, it can act as an intermediate electron acceptor. Mg can act as a hydrino-forming reactant in a mixture comprising at least two of the following: a catalyst and a source of H, such as KH, NaH or BaH; reducing agents, such as alkaline earth metals; a support, such as TiC; and an oxidizing agent, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal halide. Other atoms that do not form stable anions may also serve as intermediates that accept electrons from the ionizing catalyst. The electrons can be transferred to ions formed by transferring energy from H. Electrons can also be transferred to the oxidant. Suitable metals with an electron affinity of 0eV are Zn, Cd and Hg.

In one embodiment, the reactants comprise: a catalyst or source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen, such as NaH, KH or BaH; optionally reducing agents, e.g. alkaline earth metals or hydrides (e.g. Mg and gH)₂) (ii) a Supports such as carbon, carbides or borides; and optionally an oxidizing agent such as a metal halide or hydride. Suitable carbon, carbide and boride compounds are carbon black, Pd/C, Pt/C, TiC, Ti ₃SiC₂、YC₂、TaC、Mo₂C、SiC、WC、C、B₄C、HfC、Cr₃C₂、ZrC、CrB₂、VC、ZrB₂、MgB₂、NiB₂NbC and TiB₂. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is contacted with an electrode that conducts ionized electrons from the catalyst. The electrode may be a battery body. The electrodes may comprise large surface area electrical conductors, such as Stainless Steel (SS) wool. Conduction to the electrodes can be via an electrically conductive carrier (e.g. metal carbide such as TiC). The electrode may be positively biased and may be further connected to a counter electrode in the cell, such as a center line electrode. The counter electrode may be spaced apart from the reactant and may further provide a return path for current conducted through the first positively biased electrode. The return current may comprise anions. The anions may be formed by reduction at the counter electrode. The anion may comprise an atomic or diatomic alkali metal anion, e.g. Na^-、K^-、Na₂ ^-And K₂ ^-. By maintaining the cell at an elevated temperature (e.g., about 300 deg.C to 1000 deg.C), a metal such as Na or a hydride such as NaH or KH can be formed and maintained₂Or K₂And the like. The anion may further comprise H formed from atomic hydrogen^-. The reduction rate can be increased by using an electrode with a high surface area. In one embodiment, the battery may include a dissociating agent (e.g., a chemical dissociating agent, such as Pt/Ti), a filament, or a gas discharge. The electrodes, dissociating agents, or filaments typically comprise electron emitters for reducing species, such as gas species to ions. The electron emitter can be made more efficient electrically by coating A sub-source. Suitable coated emitters are thoriated W or Sr, or Ba doped metal electrodes or filaments. A low power discharge can be maintained between the electrodes using a current limiting external power supply.

In one embodiment, the temperature of the working medium may be increased using a heat pump. Thus, space and process heating may be supplied using a power pool operating at a temperature above ambient, with the temperature of the working medium being raised with components such as a heat pump. With sufficiently elevated temperatures, a liquid-to-gas phase transition can occur, and the gas can be used to do pressure-volume (PV) work. PV work may include powering an electrical generator to produce electricity. The medium may then be condensed and the condensed working medium may be returned to the reactor cell and reheated for recycling in the power loop.

In one embodiment of the reactor, a heterogeneous catalyst mixture comprising a liquid phase and a solid phase is flowed through the reactor. The flow may be achieved by suction. The mixture may be a slurry. The mixture may be heated in the hot zone to cause catalysis of the hydrogen, thereby forming hydrinos to release heat to maintain the hot zone. The product may flow out of the hot zone and the reaction mixture may be regenerated from the product. In another embodiment, at least one solid in the heterogeneous mixture may flow into the reactor by gravity feed. The solvent may flow into the reactor separately or together with the one or more solids. The reaction mixture may comprise at least one of the group of a dissociation agent, a High Surface Area (HSA) species, R-Ni, NaH, Na, NaOH, and a solvent.

In one embodiment, one or more reactants, preferably a halogen source, a halogen gas, an oxygen source, or a solvent, are injected into a mixture of other reactants. The injection is controlled to optimize the excess energy and power from the hydrino formation reaction. The battery temperature and the infusion rate at the time of infusion can be controlled to achieve optimization. Other process parameters and mixing may be controlled for further optimization using methods known to those skilled in the art of process engineering.

For power conversion, each battery type may be interfaced with any known converter from thermal or plasma to mechanical or electrical power, including, for example, a heat engine, a steam or gas turbine system, a stirling engine, or a thermionic or thermoelectric converter. Other plasma converters include magnetooptic hydrodynamics power converters, plasma dynamics power converters, vibratory gyroscopes, photon cluster microwave power converters, charge drift power (chargedrift power), or photoelectric converters. In one embodiment, the battery comprises at least one barrel of an internal combustion engine.

Hydrogen cell and solid, liquid and heterogeneous fuel reactor

According to embodiments of the present invention, the reactor for producing hydrino and power may be in the form of a reactor cell. The reactor of the present invention is shown in figure 3. The catalytic reaction using the catalyst provides the reactant hydrinos. Catalysis can occur in the gas phase or in the solid or liquid state.

The reactor of fig. 3 contains a reaction vessel 261 having a chamber 260 capable of containing a vacuum or pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. A hydrogen source 262 in communication with the chamber 260 delivers hydrogen to the chamber via a hydrogen supply passage 264. The controller 263 is configured to control the pressure and flow rate of hydrogen entering the vessel via the hydrogen supply passage 264. A pressure sensor 265 monitors the pressure in the vessel. Vacuum pump 266 is used to evacuate the chamber through vacuum tube 267.

In one embodiment, the catalysis occurs in the gas phase. The catalyst can be brought into the gaseous state by maintaining the cell temperature at an elevated temperature, which in turn determines the vapor pressure of the catalyst. The atomic hydrogen and/or molecular hydrogen reactants may also be maintained at a desired pressure, which may be within any pressure range. In one embodiment, the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, preferably from about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. In another embodiment, the pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of the catalyst source (e.g., metal source) and the corresponding hydride (e.g., metal hydride) in the cell maintained at the desired operating temperature.

A suitable catalyst source 268 for producing hydrino atoms may be placed in the catalyst reservoir 269 and the gaseous catalyst may be formed by heating. The reaction vessel 261 has a catalyst supply channel 270 for the passage of gaseous catalyst from the catalyst reservoir 269 to the reaction chamber 260. Alternatively, the catalyst may be placed in a chemically resistant open vessel (e.g., boat) within the reaction vessel.

The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas and molecular hydrogen. Hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst. Such a dissociation catalyst or dissociation agent includes, for example, raney nickel (R-Ni), a noble metal, and a noble metal supported on a carrier. The noble metal can be Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir and Rh, and the carrier can be Ti, Nb, Al₂O₃、SiO₂And combinations thereof. Other debonding agents are carbon-supported Pt or Pd, which may include hydrogen overflow catalysts, nickel fiber mats, Pd sheets, Ti sponge, Pt or Pd electroplated on Ti or Ni sponge or mat, TiH, Pt black and Pd black, refractory metals (e.g., molybdenum and tungsten), transition metals (e.g., nickel and titanium), internal transition metals (e.g., niobium and zirconium), and others known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, hydrogen dissociates on Pt or Pd. Pt or Pd can be coated on the surface of the substrate such as titanium or Al ₂O₃Etc. on a carrier material. In another embodiment, the dissociation agent is a refractory metal, such as tungsten or molybdenum, and the dissociation species may be maintained at an elevated temperature by a temperature control member 271, the temperature control member 271 may take the form of a heating coil as shown in cross-section in fig. 3. The heating coils are powered by a power source 272. Preferably, the dissociated species is maintained at the operating temperature of the battery. The dissociation agent may further be operated at a temperature higher than the temperature of the battery to more effectively perform dissociation, and the high temperature may prevent the catalyst from condensing on the dissociation agent. The hydrogen dissociation agent may also be provided by a hot filament (e.g., 273 powered by power source 274).

In one embodiment, hydrogen dissociation occurs in a manner such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms contact the gaseous catalyst to produce a fractional hydrogen atom. The catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at the desired pressure by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 269 with a catalyst reservoir heater 275 powered by a power source 276. When the catalyst is contained in the boat inside the reactor, the temperature of the catalyst boat is controlled by adjusting the power supply of the boat, thereby maintaining the vapor pressure of the catalyst at a desired value. The battery temperature can be controlled at a desired operating temperature by a heating coil 271 powered by a power source 272. The cell, referred to as a permeate cell, may further comprise an internal reaction chamber 260 and an external hydrogen reservoir 277, such that hydrogen may be supplied to the cell by diffusion of hydrogen through the wall 278 separating the two chambers. The temperature of the wall can be controlled with a heater to control the diffusion rate. The diffusion rate can be further controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure in the hydrogen reservoir.

In order to maintain the catalyst pressure at a desired level, the cell having the permeation portion as a hydrogen source may be sealed. Alternatively, the cell may also contain a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet so that the valve contacting the reactant gas mixture is maintained at the desired temperature. The cell may further comprise an absorber or trap 279 to selectively collect lower energy hydrogen species and/or hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy, and may also comprise a selection valve 280 for releasing the binary fractional hydrogen gas product.

In one embodiment, a reactant 281 (e.g., a solid fuel or a heterogeneous catalyst fuel mixture) is reacted in the vessel 260 under the heating of the heater 271. Additional reactants, preferably having rapid kinetics (e.g., at least one exothermic reactant), may be flowed from the vessel 282 into the cell 260 via the control valve 283 and the connecting tube 284. The reactant added may be a halogen source, a halogen, an oxygen source, or a solvent. Reactant 281 may comprise a substance that reacts with the added reactant. For example, a halogen may be added to form a halide with reactant 281, or an oxygen source may be added to reactant 281 to form an oxide.

The catalyst may be at least one of the following group: atomic lithium, potassium or cesium, NaH molecules or BaH molecules, 2H and fractional hydrogen atoms, wherein catalysis involves disproportionation reactions. The lithium catalyst may be changed into a gaseous state by maintaining the temperature of the battery at about 500 to 1000 ℃. The battery is preferably maintained at about 500 to 750 ℃. The cell pressure may be maintained at less than atmospheric pressure, preferably from about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. Most preferably, at least one of the catalyst and hydrogen pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of the catalyst metal and the corresponding hydride (e.g., lithium and lithium hydride, potassium and potassium hydride, sodium and sodium hydride, and cesium hydride) in the cell at a desired operating temperature. The gas phase catalyst may comprise lithium atoms from a metal or lithium metal source. Preferably, the lithium catalyst is maintained at a pressure determined by the mixture of lithium metal and lithium hydride at an operating temperature of about 500 to 1000 ℃, and most preferably at a cell pressure at an operating temperature of about 500 to 750 ℃. In other embodiments, Li is replaced with K, Cs, Na, and Ba, where the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, molecular NaH, and molecular BaH.

In embodiments of the gas cell reactor comprising a catalyst reservoir or boat, gaseous Na, NaH catalyst or gaseous catalyst such as Li, K and Cs vapors are maintained in the cell in superheated conditions relative to the vapors in the reservoir or boat from which the cell vapors originate. In one embodiment, the superheated vapor reduces catalyst condensation on the hydrogen dissociation agent or dissociation agent of at least one of the metal and metal hydride molecules disclosed below. In embodiments that include Li as a catalyst from the reservoir or boat, the reservoir or boat is maintained at the vaporization temperature of Li. Can be combined with H ₂Maintained at a pressure lower than the pressure at which a significant mole fraction of LiH is formed at the reservoir temperature. The pressure and temperature to achieve this condition can be determined from H at a given isotherm as is known in the art₂Pressure versus LiH mole fraction data. In one embodiment, the cell reaction chamber containing the dissociating agent is operated at a higher temperature so that Li does not condense on the walls or dissociating agent. H₂Can flow from the reservoir to the cell to increase the catalyst transport rate. For example, flow from the catalyst reservoir to the cell and then out of the cell is a method of removing the fractional hydrogen product to prevent the fractional hydrogen product from inhibiting the reaction.In other embodiments, Li is replaced with K, Cs and Na, where the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

Hydrogen is supplied to the reaction from a hydrogen source. For example, hydrogen is supplied by permeation from a hydrogen reservoir. The pressure of the hydrogen reservoir may be from 10 torr to 10,000 torr, preferably from 100 torr to 1000 torr and most preferably about atmospheric pressure. The cell may be operated at a temperature of from about 100 ℃ to 3000 ℃, preferably from about 100 ℃ to 1500 ℃ and most preferably from about 500 ℃ to 800 ℃.

The hydrogen source may come from the decomposition of the added hydride. Supplying H by osmosis ₂The cell design of (a) is one that contains an internal metal hydride disposed in a sealed container, where atomic H permeates out at high temperatures. The vessel may comprise Pd, Ni, Ti or Nb. In one embodiment, the hydride is placed in a sealed tube (e.g., Nb tube) containing the hydride and sealed with a sealer (e.g., Swagelocks) at both ends. In the case of sealing, the hydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride. Alternatively, in this case and in the case of an internal hydride reactant, the hydride may be at least one of the following group: salt-like hydrides (salinehydide), titanium hydrides, vanadium hydrides, niobium hydrides and tantalum hydrides, zirconium hydrides and hafnium hydrides, rare earth metal hydrides, yttrium hydrides and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetallic hydrides, and alloys thereof.

In one embodiment, the hydrides are selected from at least one of the following list with an operating temperature ± 200 ℃ (based on the decomposition temperature of the respective hydride):

a rare earth metal hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃; lanthanum hydride at a working temperature of about 700 ℃; gadolinium hydride at a working temperature of about 750 ℃; neodymium hydride having an operating temperature of about 750 ℃; yttrium hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃; scandium hydride having an operating temperature of about 800 ℃; ytterbium hydride with a working temperature of about 850 to 900 ℃; titanium hydride having an operating temperature of about 450 ℃; cerium hydride having a working temperature of about 950 ℃; praseodymium hydride with an operating temperature of about 700 ℃; zirconium-titanium hydride (50% 50%); an alkali metal/alkali metal hydride mixture (e.g., Rb/RbH or K/KH) having a working temperature of about 450 ℃; and an alkaline earth metal/alkaline earth metal hydride mixture (e.g., Ba/BaH) having a working temperature of about 900 to 1000 DEG C₂)。

The gaseous metal may comprise a diatomic covalent molecule. It is an object of the present invention to provide atomic catalysts, such as Li and K and Cs. Thus, the reactor may further comprise a dissociating agent for at least one of a metal molecule ("MM") and a metal hydride molecule ("MH"). Preferably, the source of catalyst, H₂The source is matched to the dissociation agents for MM, MH and HH (where M is an atomic catalyst) to operate under the desired cell conditions, such as temperature and reactant concentrations. In the use of H₂In the case of a hydride source, in one embodiment, the decomposition temperature is within a temperature range that produces the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst. In the case where the hydrogen source is permeate from the hydrogen reservoir to the reaction chamber, the preferred catalyst sources for continuous operation are Sr and Li metals, since their respective vapor pressures can be in the desired range of 0.01 torr to 100 torr at the temperature at which the permeate occurs. In other embodiments of the osmotic cell, the cell is operated at an elevated temperature that allows for permeation, followed by lowering the cell temperature to a temperature that maintains the vapor pressure of the volatile catalyst at the desired pressure.

In an embodiment of the gas cell, the dissociating agent comprises a component that produces the catalyst and H from the source. Surface catalysts (e.g., Pt supported on Ti, or Pd, iridium, or rhodium, alone or supported on a substrate (e.g., Ti)) can also function as a dissociator of the molecules of the catalyst in combination with hydrogen atoms. The debonding agent preferably has a high surface area, e.g., Pt/Al₂O₃Or Pd/Al₂O₃。

H₂The source may also be H₂A gas. In this embodiment, the pressure may be monitored and controlled. This is accomplished using a catalyst (e.g., K or Cs metal) and a source of catalyst (e.g., LiNH)₂) Are possible because they are volatile at low temperatures that allow the use of high temperature valves. LiNH₂Also reduce LiThe necessary operating temperature of the cell and the corrosion are less, which allows long term operation with feed-throughs (feedthroughs) in the case of plasma and filament cells, where the filament acts as hydrogen dissociator.

Other embodiments of gas cell hydrogen reaction reactors with NaH as a catalyst include filaments with a dissociation agent in the reactor cell and Na in the reservoir. H₂May flow through the reservoir into the primary chamber. Can be controlled by controlling the gas flow rate H₂The pressure and Na vapor pressure control the power. The latter can be controlled by controlling the reservoir temperature. In another embodiment, the hydrino reaction is initiated by heating with an external heater and the atomic H is provided by a dissociating agent.

The reaction mixture may be agitated by methods known in the art, such as mechanical agitation or mixing. The agitation system may include one or more piezoelectric sensors. Each piezoelectric sensor may provide ultrasonic agitation. The reaction cell may be vibrated, and the reaction cell may further comprise an agitation member, such as a stainless steel or tungsten ball, which is vibrated to agitate the reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the mechanical agitation comprises ball milling. The reactants may also be mixed using these methods, preferably by ball milling. Mixing can also be carried out by pneumatic methods, such as spraying.

In one embodiment, the catalyst is formed by mechanical agitation (e.g., at least one of vibration with an agitation element, ultrasonic agitation, and ball milling). Mechanical impact or compression of sound waves (e.g., ultrasound) can cause a reaction or physical change in the reactants such that a catalyst, preferably NaH molecules, is formed. The reaction mixture may or may not contain a solvent. The reactant can be a solid, such as solid NaH, which is mechanically agitated to form NaH molecules. Alternatively, the reaction mixture may comprise a liquid. The mixture may have at least one Na species. The Na species may be a component of the liquid mixture, or this may be in solution. In one embodiment, the sodium metal is dispersed in the solvent (e.g., ether, hydrocarbon, fluorinated hydrocarbon, aromatic solvent, or heterocyclic aromatic solvent) by stirring the metal suspension at high speed. The solvent temperature may be maintained just above the melting point of the metal.

Type of fuel IV

One embodiment of the invention relates to a fuel comprising a reaction mixture of at least a hydrogen source and a catalyst source to support catalyzing hydrogen to form hydrinos in at least one of a gaseous, liquid and solid phase or in a possibly mixed phase. The reactants and reactions given herein for solid and liquid fuels are also reactants and reactions for heterogeneous fuels comprising mixed phases.

In certain embodiments, it is an object of the present invention to provide atomic catalysts (e.g., Li as well as K and Cs) and molecular catalysts NaH and BaH. The metal forms a diatomic covalent molecule. Thus, in solid, liquid and heterogeneous fuel embodiments, the reactants comprise alloys, complexes, complex sources, mixtures, suspensions and solutions that can be reversibly formed with the metal catalyst M and decomposed or reacted to provide catalysts such as Li, NaH and BaH. In another embodiment, at least one of the catalyst source and the atomic hydrogen source further comprises at least one reactant that reacts to form at least one of a catalyst and atomic hydrogen. In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst or a source of NaH catalyst or other catalyst (e.g., Li or K), which may be formed by reaction of one or more reactants or species in the reaction mixture, or may be formed by physical conversion. The conversion may be solvation with a suitable solvent.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a solid to support the catalytic reaction on the surface. The catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., NaH) may be coated on the surface. Coating can be accomplished by mixing the carrier (e.g., activated carbon, TiC, WC, R — Ni) with NaH by methods such as ball milling. The reaction mixture may comprise a heterogeneous catalyst or a source of heterogeneous catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst (e.g., NaH) is coated on a support (e.g., activated carbon, TiC, W) using an incipient wetness method, preferably by using an aprotic solvent (e.g., ether)C or polymer). The support may also comprise inorganic compounds, such as alkali metal halides, preferably NaF and HNaF₂Wherein NaH acts as a catalyst and a fluorinated solvent is used.

In embodiments of the liquid fuel, the reaction mixture comprises at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of hydrogen, and a catalyst solvent. In other embodiments, the present invention of solid and liquid fuels further comprises a combination of both and further comprises a gas phase. The catalysis of reactants (e.g., catalyst and atomic hydrogen and its source) in multiple phases is referred to as a heterogeneous reaction mixture, and the fuel is referred to as a heterogeneous fuel. Thus, the fuel comprises a reaction mixture of at least one hydrogen source (which transitions to the hydrino of the state given by formula (46)) and a catalyst (which causes a transition in the reactants of at least one of the liquid, solid and gas phases). Catalysis with a catalyst that is different from the phase of the reactants is commonly referred to in the art as heterogeneous catalysis, which is one embodiment of the present invention. Heterogeneous catalysts provide a surface for chemical reactions to occur and comprise embodiments of the present invention. The reactants and reactions presented herein for solid and liquid fuels are also reactants and reactions for heterogeneous fuels.

For any of the fuels of the present invention, the catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., NaH) can be mixed with the other components of the reaction mixture (e.g., the support, such as HSA material) by methods such as mechanical mixing or ball milling. In all cases, hydrogen may be added to maintain the reaction to form hydrinos. The hydrogen gas may have any desired pressure, and preferably 0.1 to 200 atm. Alternative hydrogen sources include at least one of the following group: NH (NH)₄X (X is an anion, preferably a halide), NaBH₄、NaAlH₄Boranes and metal hydrides (e.g. alkali metal hydrides, alkaline earth metal hydrides (preferably MgH)₂) And rare earth metal hydrides (preferably LaH)₂And GdH₂))。

A. Carrier

In certain embodiments, the solids of the inventionLiquid and heterogeneous fuels contain a carrier. The carrier comprises properties specific to its function. For example, in the case where the carrier is used as an electron acceptor or electron conduit, the carrier preferably has electrical conductivity. In addition, in the case where the support disperses the reactants, the support preferably has a high surface area. In the former case, the support (e.g., HSA support) may comprise electrically conductive polymers such as activated carbon, graphene, and heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (which may be macromolecules). The carbon may preferably comprise Activated Carbon (AC), but may also comprise other forms, such as mesoporous carbon, glassy carbon, coke, graphitic carbon, carbon with a dissociator metal (such as Pt or Pd, where weight% is 0.1 to 5 wt%), transition metal powders with preferably 1 to 10 carbon layers and more preferably 3 layers, and metal or alloy coated carbon (preferably nanopowders, such as transition metals, preferably at least one of Ni, Co and Mn coated carbon). The metal may form an intercalation with carbon. In the case where the insertion layer metal is Na and the catalyst is NaH, the Na insertion layer sandwich is preferably saturated. The support preferably has a high surface area. A common class of organic conductive polymers that can serve as a support is at least one of the following groups: poly (acetylenes), poly (pyrroles), poly (thiophenes), poly (anilines), poly (fluorenes), poly (3-alkylthiophenes), polytetrathiofulvalenes, polynaphthalenes, poly (p-phenylene sulfides) and poly (p-phenylene acetylenes). These linear backbone polymers are commonly referred to in the art as polyacetylene, polyaniline, and the like, "black" or "melanin. The carrier may be a mixed copolymer, such as one of polyacetylene, polypyrrole and polyaniline. The conductive polymer carrier is preferably at least one of polyacetylene, polyaniline and common derivatives of polypyrrole. Other supports contain elements other than carbon, e.g. conductive polymers such as polysulphide (S-N) _x)。

In another embodiment, the carrier is a semiconductor. The support may be a group IV element such as carbon, silicon, germanium, and alpha-gray tin. In addition to elemental materials such as silicon and germanium, semiconductor carriers also contain compound materials such as gallium arsenide and indium phosphide or alloys such as silicon germanium or aluminum arsenic. In one embodiment, conduction in materials such as silicon and germanium crystals can be enhanced by adding small amounts (e.g., 1-10 parts per million) of dopants (e.g., boron or phosphorus) as the crystals grow. The doped semiconductor can be ground into a powder to act as a carrier.

In certain embodiments, the HSA support is a metal, such As a transition metal, a noble metal, an intermetallic compound, a rare earth, an actinide, a lanthanide (preferably one of La, Pr, Nd, and Sm), Al, Ga, In, Tl, Sn, Pb, a metalloid, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and alloys comprising at least two metals or elements of the foregoing group (e.g., lanthanide alloys, preferably LaNi₅And Y-Ni). The support may be a noble metal (e.g., at least one of Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, and Rh) or a supported noble metal (e.g., Pt or Pd on titanium (Pt/Ti or Pd/Ti)).

In other embodiments, the HSA material comprises at least one of the following materials: cubic boron nitride, hexagonal boron nitride, wurtzite boron nitride powder, heterodiamond, boron nitride nanotubes, silicon nitride, aluminum nitride, titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN), tungsten nitride, carbon-coated metals or alloys, preferably nanopowders (e.g., at least one of powders of Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, and other transition metals, preferably having 1 to 10 carbon layers and more preferably 3 carbon layers), carbon-coated metals or alloys, preferably nanopowders (e.g., transition metal (preferably at least one of Ni, Co, and Mn)), carbide, preferably powder, beryllium oxide (BeO) powder, rare earth metal oxide powder (e.g., La, wurtzite boron nitride powder), heterodiamond, boron nitride nanotubes, silicon nitride, aluminum nitride, titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN), tungsten nitride, carbon-coated₂O₃)、Zr₂O₃、Al₂O₃Sodium aluminate and carbon (e.g. fullerene, graphene or nanotubes, preferably single-walled).

The carbides may comprise one or more bond types: salt-like, e.g. calcium carbide (CaC)₂) (ii) a Covalent compounds, e.g. silicon carbide (SiC) and boron carbide (B)₄C or BC₃) (ii) a And interstitial compounds such as tungsten carbide. The carbide may be an acetylide, such as Au₂C₂、ZnC₂And CdC₂Or methides, e.g. Be₂C. Aluminum carbide (Al)₄C₃) May also be A ₃MC type carbides, where A is typically a rare earth or transition metal, such as Sc, Y, La-Na, Gd-Lu, and M is a metal or semi-metal main group element, such as Al, Ge, In, Tl, Sn and Pb. Has the advantages ofThe carbide of the ion may comprise at least one of the following carbides: carbide(s) and method of making the sameWherein the cation M^IComprising an alkali metal or a coinage metal; carbide M^IIC₂Wherein the cation M^IIComprising an alkaline earth metal; and preferably carbidesWherein the cation M^IIIComprising Al, La, Pr or Tb. The carbides may contain other thanExternal ions, for example ions from the following group: YC₂、TbC₂、YbC₂、UC₂、Ce₂C₃、Pr₂C₃And Tb₂C₃. The carbides may comprise sesquicarbides, such as Mg₂C₃、Sc₃C₄And Li₄C₃. The carbides may comprise ternary carbides, such as those containing lanthanide metals and transition metals, which may further comprise C₂Units, e.g. Ln₃M(C₂)₂(wherein M is Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Os and Ir), Dy₁₂Mn₅C₁₅、Ln_3.67FeC₆、Ln₃Mn(C₂)₂(Ln = Gd and Tb) and ScCrC₂. The carbides may also belong to the class of "intermediate" transition metal carbides, such as iron carbide (Fe)₃C or FeC₂Fe). The carbide may be at least one from the following group: lanthanide carbides (MC)₂And M₂C₃) For example lanthanum carbide (LaC)₂Or La₂C₃) Yttrium carbide, actinide carbides, transition metal carbides (e.g., scandium carbide, titanium carbide (TiC), vanadium carbide, chromium carbide, manganese carbide, and cobalt carbide, niobium carbide, molybdenum carbide, tantalum carbide, zirconium carbide, and hafnium carbide). Other suitable carbides include at least one of the following compounds: ln ₂FeC₄、Sc₃CoC₄、Ln₃MC₄(M=Fe、Co、Ni、Ru、Rh、Os、Ir)、Ln₃Mn₂C₆、Eu_3.16NiC₆、ScCrC₂、Th₂NiC₂、Y₂ReC₂、Ln₁₂M₅C₁₅(M=Mn、Re)、YCoC、Y₂ReC₂And other carbides known in the art.

In one embodiment, the support is an electrically conductive carbide, such as TiC, TiCN, Ti₃SiC₂Or WC and HfC, Mo₂C、TaC、YC₂、ZrC、Al₄C₃SiC and B₄C. Other suitable carbides include YC₂TbC2, YbC2, LuC2, Ce2C3, Pr2C3 and Tb2C 3. Other suitable carbides include at least one from the following group: ti₂AlC、V₂AlC、Cr₂AlC、Nb₂AlC、Ta₂AlC、Ti₂AlN、Ti₃AlC₂、Ti₄AlN₃、Ti₂GaC、V₂GaC、Cr₂GaC、Nb₂GaC、Mo₂GaC、Ta₂GaC、Ti₂GaN、Cr₂GaN、V₂GaN、Sc₂InC、Ti₂InC、Zr₂InC、Nb₂InC、Hf₂InC、Ti₂InN、Zr₂InN、Ti₂TlC、Zr₂TlC、Hf₂TlC、Zr₂TlN、Ti₃SiC₂、Ti₂GeC、Cr₂GeC、Ti₃GeC₂、Ti₂SnC、Zr₂SnC、Nb₂SnC、Hf₂SnC、Hf₂SnN、Ti₂PbC、Zr₂PbC、Hf₂PbC、V₂PC、Nb₂PC、V₂AsC、Nb₂AsC、Ti₂SC、Zr₂SC_0.4And Hf₂And (4) SC. The support may be a metal boride. The support or HSA material can be a boride, preferably a boride of two-dimensional network structure which can be conductive, e.g., MB₂Wherein M is a metal, e.g. at least one of Cr, Ti, Mg, Zr and Gd (CrB)₂、TiB₂、MgB₂、ZrB₂、GdB₂)。

In the carbon-HSA material embodiment, Na is not inserted into the carbon support or reacts with carbon to form an acetylide. In one embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source (preferably NaH) is incorporated into the HSA material (e.g., fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and zeolites). The HSA material may further comprise graphite, graphene, diamond-like carbon (DLC), hydrogenated diamond-like carbon (HDLC), diamond powder, graphitic carbon, glassy carbon and carbon containing other metals (such as at least one of Co, Ni, Mn, Fe, Y, Pd and Pt) or carbon containing dopants (including other elements) (such as for example carbon fluoride, preferably graphite fluoride, diamond fluoride or tetracarbon fluoride (C) ₄F) ). The HSA material may be fluoride passivated (e.g., fluoride coated metal or carbon) or comprise a fluoride (e.g., metal fluoride, preferably alkali or rare earth metal fluoride).

A suitable support with a large surface area is activated carbon. Activated carbon may be activated or reactivated by physical or chemical activation. The former activation may comprise carbonization or oxidation and the latter activation may comprise implantation with a chemical species.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a support, such as a polymeric support. The polymeric support may be selected from poly (tetrafluoroethylene) (e.g., TEFLON)^TM) Polyvinylferrocene, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, polyisoprene, poly (aminophosphazene), polymers containing ether units (e.g. polyethylene glycol or polyethylene oxide and polypropyleneDiols or polypropylene oxides, preferably aromatic ethers, polyether polyols (e.g. poly (tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG, polytetrahydrofuran, "Terathane", "polythf"), polyethylene formaldehydes and polymers from epoxide reactions (e.g. polyethylene oxide and polypropylene oxide). In one embodiment, HSA comprises fluorine. The vector may comprise at least one of the following group: fluorinated organic molecules, fluorinated hydrocarbons, fluorinated alkoxy compounds, and fluorinated ethers. An exemplary fluorinated HSA is TEFLON ^TM、TEFLON_TMPFA, polyvinyl fluoride, PVF, poly (vinylidene fluoride), poly (vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene) and perfluoroalkoxy polymers.

B. Solid fuel

The solid fuel comprises: a hydrino-forming catalyst or catalyst source, e.g., at least one catalyst (e.g., at least one selected from LiH, Li, NaH, Na, KH, K, RbH, Rb, CsH, and BaH), a source of atomic hydrogen; and at least one of an HSA carrier, an adsorbent, a dispersant, and other solid chemical reactants, which perform one or more of the following functions (i) and (ii): (i) the reactants form a catalyst or atomic hydrogen by undergoing, for example, a reaction between one or more components in the reaction mixture or by undergoing a physical or chemical change in at least one component in the reaction mixture; (ii) the reactants initiate, propagate, and sustain catalytic reactions that form hydrinos. The cell pressure may preferably be about 1 torr to 100 atmospheres. The reaction temperature is preferably about 100 ℃ to 900 ℃. The many examples of solid fuels given in this invention (including liquid fuel reaction mixtures comprising solvents, with the exception of solvents) are not intended to be exhaustive. Based on the present invention, other reaction mixtures are taught to those skilled in the art.

The hydrogen source may comprise hydrogen or hydride and a dissociating agent, such as Pt/Ti, hydrogenated Pt/Ti, Pd, Pt or Ru/Al₂O₃Ni, Ti or Nb powder. At least one of the HSA carrier, the adsorbent and the dispersant may comprise at least one of the following group: metal powders such as Ni, Ti, or Nb powders; R-Ni, ZrO₂、Al₂O₃、NaX(X=F、Cl、Br、I)、Na₂O, NaOH and Na₂CO₃. In one embodiment, the metal catalyzes the formation of NaH molecules from sources such as Na species and sources of H. The metals may be transition metals, noble metals, intermetallic metals, rare earth metals, lanthanide and actinide metals, as well as other metals such as aluminum and tin.

C. Activator for hydrino reaction

The hydrino reaction can be activated or initiated and propagated by one or more other chemical reactions. Such reactions can fall into several categories, such as (i) exothermic reactions that provide activation energy for the hydrino reaction; (ii) a coupling reaction providing at least one of a catalyst or a source of atomic hydrogen to support a hydrino reaction; (iii) a free radical reaction, which in embodiments acts as an acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction; (iv) a redox reaction, which in embodiments acts as an acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction; (v) exchange reactions, such as anion exchange (including halide, sulfide, hydride, arsenic, oxyanion, phosphorus, and nitrogen anion exchange), which, in embodiments, promote ionization of the catalyst upon receiving energy from atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos; and (vi) an absorbent, support or matrix assisted hydrino reaction that can provide at least one chemical environment for the hydrino reaction, transfer electrons to facilitate the H catalyst function, undergo a reversible phase change or other physical change or change in its electronic state, and incorporate a lower energy hydrogen product to increase at least one of the degree or rate of hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a support, preferably an electrically conductive support, to enable the activation reaction to proceed.

In one embodiment, catalysts such as Li, K, and NaH are used to form hydrinos at high rates by accelerating the rate limiting step, which is the removal of electrons from the catalyst as it ionizes by accepting non-radiative resonant energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos. By using a support or HSA material (e.g., Activated Carbon (AC), Pt/C, Pd/C,TiC or WC) to disperse the catalyst, such as Li and K atoms and NaH molecules, respectively, can convert the normal metallic form of Li and K to an atomic form and can convert the ionic form of NaH to a molecular form. The support preferably has a high surface area and conductivity in view of surface modification upon reaction with other substances of the reaction mixture. The reaction that causes the transition of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos requires a catalyst, such as Li, K, or NaH, for example, and atomic hydrogen, with NaH serving as the catalyst and source of atomic hydrogen in a synergistic reaction. The reaction step of non-radiatively transferring an energy of an integer multiple of 27.2eV from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst produces an ionized catalyst and free electrons, which rapidly stop the reaction due to charge accumulation. A carrier such as AC may also act as a conductive electron acceptor and a final electron acceptor reactant comprising an oxidant, a radical or a source thereof is added to the reaction mixture to eventually scavenge electrons released from the hydrino-forming catalyst reaction. Additionally, a reducing agent may be added to the reaction mixture to facilitate the oxidation reaction. The synergistic electron acceptor reaction is preferably exothermic, thereby heating the reactants and increasing the rate. Activation energy and propagation of the reaction may be provided by a rapid, exothermic oxidation or radical reaction, such as O2 or CF ₄Reaction with Mg or Al, such as CF_xAnd F and O₂And radicals such as O serve to ultimately accept electrons from the catalyst through a support such as AC. The other oxidizing agents or free radical sources may be selected from the following groups, either alone or in combination: o is₂、O₃、N₂O、NF₃、M₂S₂O₈(M is an alkali metal), S, CS₂And SO₂、MnI₂、EuBr₂AgCl and other substances given in the section "electron acceptor reaction".

The oxidizing agent preferably accepts at least two electrons. The corresponding anion may beS^2-、(tetrathiooxalate anion),Andthese two electrons can be accepted from catalysts that become doubly ionized during catalysis, such as NaH and Li (formulas (28-30) and (24-26), the addition of electron acceptors to the reaction mixture or reactor is applicable to all cell embodiments of the present invention, such as solid fuel and heterogeneous catalyst embodiments, as well as electrolysis cells and plasma cells (such as glow discharge, RF, microwave, and barrier-electrode plasma cells) and plasma electrolysis cells, which operate in continuous or pulsed mode.

In embodiments, mixtures of species, compounds or materials of the reaction mixture (e.g., a source of catalyst, a source of energy reaction (such as a metal), and at least one of a source of oxygen, a source of halogen, and a source of free radicals) and a support may be used in combination. Reactive elements of the compounds or materials of the reaction mixture may also be used in combination. For example, the source of fluorine or chlorine may be N_xF_yAnd N_xCl_yOr the halogens may be intermixed (e.g. in compound N)_xF_yCl_rIn (1). These combinations can be determined by one skilled in the art by routine experimentation.

a. Exothermic reaction

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of catalyst or catalyst (e.g., at least one of NaH, BaH, K, and Li) and a source of hydrogen or hydrogen, and at least one species undergoing a reaction. The reaction can be extremely exothermic and can have rapid kinetics such that it provides for a reaction with a hydrino catalystFor activation energy. The reaction may be an oxidation reaction. Suitable oxidation reactions are reactions of oxygen-containing species (e.g., solvents, preferably ether solvents) with metals (e.g., at least one of Al, Ti, Be, Si, P, rare earth metals, alkali metals, and alkaline earth metals). More preferably, the exothermic reaction forms an alkali or alkaline earth halide, preferably MgF ₂Or halides of Al, Si, P and rare earth metals. Suitable halide reactions are reactions comprising a halide species (e.g., a solvent, preferably a fluorocarbon solvent) with at least one of a metal and a metal hydride (e.g., at least one of Al, a rare earth metal, an alkali metal, and an alkaline earth metal). The metal or metal hydride may be a catalyst or source of catalyst, such as NaH, BaH, K, or Li. The reaction mixture may contain at least NaH and NaAlCl with products NaCl and NaF, respectively₄Or NaAlF₄. The reaction mixture may comprise at least NaH and a fluorosolvent whose product is NaF.

In general, the product of the exothermic reaction that provides activation energy to the hydrino reaction may be a metal oxide or metal halide, preferably fluoride. A suitable product is Al₂O₃、M₂O₃(M = rare earth metal), TiO₂、Ti₂O₃、SiO₂、PF₃Or PF₅、AlF₃、MgF₂、MF₃(M = rare earth metal), NaF, NaHF₂、KF、KHF₂LiF and LiHF₂. In embodiments where Ti undergoes an exothermic reaction, the catalyst is Ti having a second ionization energy of 27.2eV (m =1 in equation (5))²⁺. The reaction mixture may contain NaH, Na, NaNH₂At least two of NaOH, Teflon, carbon fluoride and a source of Ti (e.g., Pt/Ti or Pd/Ti). In embodiments where the Al undergoes an exothermic reaction, the catalyst is AlH as given in table 3. The reaction mixture may comprise at least two of NaH, Al, carbon powder, fluorocarbon (preferably a solvent such as hexafluorobenzene or perfluoroheptane), Na, NaOH, Li, LiH, K, KH, and R-Ni. The products of the exothermic reaction that provide the activation energy are preferably regenerated to form reactants for another cycle that forms hydrinos and releases the corresponding power. Preferably, the metal fluoride is made by electrolysis The product is regenerated into metal and fluorine gas. The electrolyte may comprise a eutectic mixture. The metal can be hydrogenated and the carbon product and any CH are made₄And fluorination of the hydrocarbon product to form the initial metal hydride and fluorocarbon solvent, respectively.

In an embodiment of the exothermic reaction activating the hydrino transition reaction, at least one of the group of rare earth metals (M), Al, Ti and Si is oxidized to the corresponding oxide, respectively, for example M₂O₃、Al₂O₃、Ti₂O₃And SiO₂. The oxidizing agent may be an ether solvent, such as 1, 4-Benzodioxane (BDO), and may further include a fluorocarbon, such as Hexafluorobenzene (HFB) or perfluoroheptane, to accelerate the oxidation reaction. In one exemplary reaction, the mixture comprises NaH, activated carbon, at least one of Si and Ti, and at least one of BDO and HFB. In the case of Si as the reducing agent, H can be generated by carrying out H at high temperature₂Reduction or by reaction with carbon to form Si and CO₂To make the product SiO₂And regenerating to Si. One embodiment of a hydrino-forming reaction mixture comprises: a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., at least one of Na, NaH, K, KH, Li, and LiH); a source or reactant of an exothermic reaction, preferably with rapid kinetics, and activates the catalytic reaction of H to form hydrinos; and a carrier. The exothermic reactant may comprise a source of oxygen and a species that reacts with the oxygen to form an oxide. For integers x and y, the oxygen source is preferably H ₂O、O₂、H₂O₂、MnO₂Oxide, oxide of carbon (preferably CO or CO)₂) Nitrogen oxide N_xO_y(e.g. N)₂O and NO₂) Sulfur oxide S_xO_y(preferably an oxidizing agent, such as M)₂S_xO_y(M is an alkali metal) which may optionally be used together with an oxidation catalyst such as an anion), Cl_xO_y(e.g., Cl)₂O, and ClO₂Preferably from NaClO₂) Concentrated acids and mixtures thereof (e.g. HNO)₂、HNO₃、H₂SO₄、H₂SO₃、HCl and HF, the acid preferably forming a nitronium ionNaOCl、I_xO_y(preferably I)₂O₅)、P_xO_y、S_xO_yAn oxyanion of an inorganic compound (such as one of nitrite, nitrate, chlorate, sulfate, phosphate), a metal oxide (such as cobalt oxide), an oxide or hydroxide of a catalyst (such as NaOH), a perchlorate (in which the cation is the source of the catalyst, such as Na, K and Li), an oxygen-containing functional group of an organic compound (such as an ether, preferably one of dimethoxyethane, dioxane and 1, 4-Benzodioxane (BDO)), and the reactant species may comprise at least one of the group of rare earth metals (M), Al, Ti and Si, and the corresponding oxides are each M, Al, Ti and Si₂O₃、Al₂O₃、Ti₂O₃And SiO₂. The reactant species may comprise a metal or element of an oxide product of at least one of the following groups: al (Al)₂O₃Aluminum oxide, La₂O₃Lanthanum oxide, MgO magnesium oxide, Ti₂O₃Titanium oxide and Dy₂O₃Dysprosium oxide and Er₂O₃Erbium oxide, Eu ₂O₃Europium oxide, LiOH lithium hydroxide, Ho₂O₃Holmium oxide and Li₂Lithium O oxide, Lu₂O₃Oxygenated fraction, Nb₂O₅Niobium oxide, Nd₂O₃Neodymium oxide, SiO₂Silicon oxide, Pr₂O₃Praseodymium oxide and Sc₂O₃Scandium oxide, SrSiO₃Strontium metasilicate Sm₂O₃Samarium oxide and Tb₂O₃Terbium oxide, Tm₂O₃Thulium oxide, Y₂O₃Yttrium oxide and Ta₂O₅Tantalum oxide, B₂O₃Boron oxide and zirconium oxide. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon. The metal or element can be Al, La, Mg, Ti, Dy, Er, Eu, Li, Ho, Lu, Nb, Nd, Si, Pr, Sc, Sr, Sm, Tb, Tm, Y, Ta, B, Zr, S, P, C, and hydrides thereofAt least one of (1).

In another embodiment, the source of oxygen may be at least one of: oxides, e.g. such as M₂O (wherein M is an alkali metal), preferably Li₂O、Na₂O and K₂O; peroxides, e.g. M₂O₂(wherein M is an alkali metal), preferably Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂And K₂O₂(ii) a Super oxides, e.g. MO₂(wherein M is an alkali metal), preferably Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂And K₂O₂. The ionic peroxide may further comprise ionic peroxides of Ca, Sr or Ba.

In another embodiment, the source of oxygen and the source of exothermic reactant or at least one of the exothermic reactants, preferably having a fast kinetic, catalytic reaction that activates H to form hydrinos, comprises one or more of the following groups: MNO ₃、MNO、MNO₂、M₃N、M₂NH、MNH₂、MX、NH₃、MBH₄、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆、MOH、M₂S、MHS、MFeSi、M₂CO₃、MHCO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、M₃PO₄、M₂HPO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂MoO₄、MNbO₃、M₂B₄O₇(M Tetraborate), MBO₂、M₂WO₄、MAlCl₄、MGaCl₄、M₂CrO₄、M₂Cr₂O₇、M₂TiO₃、MZrO₃、MAlO₂、MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MCuCl₄、MPdCl₄、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_nAnd MZnO_n(where M is Li, Na or K, and n =1, 2, 3 or 4), an oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidizing agent, a molecular oxidizing agent (e.g., V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂、I₂O₄、I₂O₅、I₂O₉、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₄、N₂O₅、Cl₂O、ClO₂、Cl₂O₃、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅)、NH₄X (wherein X is nitrate or other suitable anion known to those skilled in the art, e.g. comprising F^-、Cl^-、Br^-、I^-、NO₃ ^-、NO₂ ^-、SO₄ ^2-、HSO₄ ^-、CoO₂ ^-、IO₃ ^-、IO₄ ^-、TiO₃ ^-、CrO₄ ^-、FeO₂ ^-、PO₄ ^3-、HPO₄ ^2-、H₂PO₄ ^-、VO₃ ^-、ClO₄ ^-And Cr₂O₇ ^2-And other anions of the reactants). The reaction mixture may additionally comprise a reducing agent. In one embodiment, N₂O₅Formed from a mixture of reactants (e.g. according to 2P)₂O₅+12HNO₃→4H₃PO₄+6N₂O₅Reacted HNO₃And P₂O₅) The reaction of (1).

In embodiments where oxygen or an oxygen-containing compound participates in an exothermic reaction, O₂May serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165eV, and the first, second and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806eV, 35.11730eV and 54.9355eV, respectively. Reaction O₂→O+O²⁺、O₂→O+O³⁺And 2O → 2O⁺Respectively provide E_hAbout 2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy, and comprises the catalyst reaction that forms hydrinos by accepting these energies from H to initiate the formation of hydrinos.

In addition, the source of the exothermic reaction for activating the hydrino reaction may be a metal alloy formation reaction, preferably a metal alloy formation reaction between Pd and Al initiated by melting Al. The exothermic reaction preferably produces energetic particles to activate the hydrino formation reaction. The reactant may be a pyrogen or a pyrotechnic composition. In another embodiment, the activation energy may be provided by operating the reactants at very high temperatures (e.g., about 1000 ℃ to 5000 ℃, preferably about 1500 ℃ to 2500 ℃). The reaction vessel may comprise a high temperature stainless steel alloy, a refractory metal or alloy, alumina or carbon. The elevated reactant temperature may be achieved by heating the reactor or by an exothermic reaction.

The exothermic reactant may comprise a halogen, preferably fluorine or chlorine, and a species that reacts with the fluorine or chlorine to form a fluoride or chloride, respectively. A suitable halogen source is B_xX_y(preferably BF)₃、B₂F₄、BCl₃Or BBr₃) And S_xX_y(preferably SCl)₂Or S_xF_y(X is halogen; X and y are integers)). Suitable fluorine sources are fluorocarbons, e.g. CF₄Hexafluorobenzene and hexadecafluoroheptane; fluorinated xenon, e.g. XeF₂、XeF₄And XeF₆；B_xF_yPreferably BF₃、B₂F₄；SF_xSuch as fluorosilanes; nitrogen fluoride N_xF_yPreferably NF₃、NF₃O; SbFx; BiFx, preferably BiF₅；S_xF_y(x and y are integers), e.g. SF₄、SF₆Or S₂F₁₀(ii) a Phosphorus fluoride; m₂SiF₆(wherein M is an alkali metal), e.g. Na₂SiF₆And K₂SiF₆；MSiF₆(where M is an alkaline earth metal), e.g. MgSiF₆、GaSiF₃；PF₅；MPF₆(wherein M is an alkali metal); MHF₂(wherein M is an alkali metal), e.g. NaHF₂And KHF₂；K₂TaF₇；KBF₄；K₂MnF₆And K₂ZrF₆(ii) a Other similar compounds are contemplated, such as compounds with another alkali or alkaline earth metal substitute (e.g., one of Li, Na, or K as the alkali metal). A suitable chlorine source is Cl₂Gas, SbCl₅And chlorocarbides (e.g. CCl)₄Chloroform), B)_xCl_y(preferably BCl)₃、B₂Cl₄、BCl₃)、N_xCl_y(preferably NCl)₃)、S_xCl_y(preferably SCl)₂(x and y are integers)). The reactive species may comprise at least one of the following group: alkali or alkaline earth metals or hydrides, rare earth metals (M), Al, Si, Ti and P, which form the corresponding fluorides or chlorides. The alkali metal of the reactant preferably corresponds to the alkali metal of the catalyst, and the alkaline earth metal hydride is MgH ₂The rare earth element is La, and the Al is nano powder. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon, mesoporous carbon and carbon used in Li-ion batteries. The reactants may be in any molar ratio. Preferably, the reactant species is in stoichiometric ratio (in terms of fluorine or chlorine elements) to fluorine or chlorine, the catalyst is in excess (preferably in about the same molar ratio as the elements reacting with fluorine or chlorine), and the support is in excess.

The exothermic reactants may comprise: a halogen gas, preferably chlorine or bromine gas; or a halogen gas source, e.g. HF, HCl, HBr, HI, preferably CF₄Or CCl₄(ii) a Species that react with halogens to form halides. The halogen source may also be an oxygen source (e.g., C)_xO_yX_rWherein X is halogen and X, y and r are integers) and isAs is known in the art. The reactant species may comprise at least one of the following group: alkali or alkaline earth metals or hydrides, rare earth metals, Al, Si and P, which form the corresponding halides. The alkali metal of the reactant preferably corresponds to the alkali metal of the catalyst, and the alkaline earth metal hydride is MgH₂The rare earth element is La, and the Al is nano powder. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon. The reactants can be in any molar ratio. Preferably, the reactant species is in about an equivalent stoichiometric ratio to the halogen, the catalyst is in excess, preferably in about the same molar ratio as the element reacting with the halogen, and the support is in excess. In one embodiment, the reactants comprise: sources or catalysts of the catalyst (e.g., Na, NaH, K, KH, Li, LiH, and H) ₂) (ii) a A halogen gas (preferably chlorine gas or bromine gas); mg, MgH₂At least one of rare earth elements (preferably La, Gd or Pr) and Al; and a support, preferably carbon (e.g., activated carbon).

b. Free radical reaction

In one embodiment, the exothermic reaction is a free radical reaction, preferably a halide ion or oxygen free radical reaction. The source of the halide radical may be a halogen (preferably F)₂Or Cl₂) Or fluorocarbons (preferably CF)₄). The source of the F radical is S₂F₁₀. The reaction mixture comprising the halogen gas may further comprise a free radical initiator. The reactor may contain a source of ultraviolet light that forms radicals, preferably halogen radicals and more preferably chlorine or fluorine radicals. The free radical initiator is a free radical initiator well known in the art, such as peroxides, azo compounds, and sources of metal ions (e.g., metal salts, preferably cobalt halides, such as CoCl)₂It is Co²⁺Source of, or FeSO₄It is Fe²⁺Source). The latter preferably with oxygen species (e.g. H)₂O₂Or O₂) And (4) reacting. The free radicals may be neutral.

The oxygen source may comprise an atomic oxygen source. The oxygen may be singlet oxygen. In one embodiment, singlet oxygen is formed from NaOCl and H₂O₂The reaction of (1). In one embodiment, the source of oxygen Comprising O₂And may further comprise a source of free radicals or a free radical initiator to propagate free radical reactions, preferably free radical reactions that propagate O atoms. The source of free radicals or oxygen may be at least one of ozone or ozonide. In one embodiment, the reactor comprises an ozone source, such as an oxygen discharge, to provide ozone to the reaction mixture.

The source of free radicals or the source of oxygen may further comprise at least one of: peroxy compound, peroxide, H₂O₂Azo group-containing compound, N₂O, NaOCl, Fenton's reagent or the like, OH radicals or their source, xenon-acid ions or their source (e.g. alkali or alkaline earth metal xenon-acid salts, preferably sodium xenon-acid (Na)₄XeO₆) Or potassium permanganate (K)₄XeO₆) Xenon tetroxide (XeO)₄) And high xenon acid (H)₄XeO₆) Metal ion sources (e.g., metal salts). The metal salt can be FeSO₄、AlCl₃、TiCl₃And preferably a cobalt halide, such as Co²⁺Source CoCl₂。

In one embodiment, a radical such as Cl is formed from the reaction mixture (NaH + MgH)₂+ support (e.g. Activated Carbon (AC)) + halogen gas (e.g. Cl +₂) Halogen (e.g. Cl) in₂) And (4) forming. Free radicals accessible via Cl₂With hydrocarbons (e.g. CH)₄) Is reacted at elevated temperatures (e.g., greater than 200 c) to form the mixture. The halogen may be in molar excess relative to the hydrocarbon. The chlorocarbide products and the Cl radicals can react with the reducing agent to provide activation energy and a pathway for the formation of hydrinos. The carbon product can be regenerated by using synthesis gas (syngas) and a fischer-tropsch reaction or by direct hydrogen reduction of carbon to methane. The reaction mixture may contain O at elevated temperatures (e.g., greater than 200 ℃ C.) ₂With Cl₂A mixture of (a). The mixture can react to form Cl_xO_y(x and y are integers), e.g. ClO, Cl₂O and ClO₂. The reaction mixture may contain H at an elevated temperature (e.g., greater than 200 ℃) that can react to form HCl₂And Cl₂. Reaction mixingThe compound may comprise a compound which reacts to form H₂H at slightly higher temperatures (e.g. > 50 ℃) of O₂And O₂With complexing agents (e.g., Pt/Ti, Pt/C, or Pd/C). The complexing agent may be operated at elevated pressures (e.g., greater than one atmosphere, preferably about 2 to 100 atmospheres). The reaction mixture may be non-stoichiometric, thereby favoring the formation of free radicals and singlet oxygen. The system may also comprise a source of ultraviolet light or plasma for the formation of radicals, such as an RF, microwave or glow discharge, preferably a high voltage pulsed plasma source. The reactants may further comprise a catalyst to form at least one of atomic radicals (e.g., Cl, O, and H), singlet oxygen, and ozone. The catalyst may be a noble metal, such as Pt. In embodiments where Cl radicals are formed, the Pt catalyst is maintained at a temperature greater than the platinum chloride (e.g., PtCl)₂、PtCl₃And PtCl₄The decomposition temperatures thereof are 581 ℃, 435 ℃ and 327 ℃ respectively. In one embodiment, Pt may be recovered from a product mixture comprising a metal halide by: the metal halide is dissolved in a suitable solvent in which Pt, Pd or its halide is insoluble and the solution is removed. The solid, which may comprise carbon and Pt or Pd halides, may be heated to form carbon-supported Pt or Pd by decomposition of the corresponding halide.

In one embodiment, N is₂O、NO₂Or NO gas is added to the reaction mixture. N is a radical of₂O and NO₂Can act as a source of NO radicals. In another embodiment, the NO radical is preferably via NH₃Is generated in the battery. The reaction may be NH at elevated temperature₃And O₂Reaction on platinum or platinum-rhodium. NO, NO₂And N₂O can be produced by known industrial methods (e.g. using the Haber process followed by the Ostwald process). In one embodiment, an exemplary sequence of steps is:

in particular, the Haber process may be used to remove N from N at high temperatures and pressures using catalysts such as certain oxides containing alpha-iron₂And H₂Generation of NH₃. The Ostwald process may be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO under a catalyst such as a hot platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst₂And N₂And O. The alkali metal nitrate may be regenerated using the methods shown above.

The system and reaction mixture may initiate and support a combustion reaction to provide at least one of singlet oxygen and free radicals. The combustion reactants may be non-stoichiometric, thereby favoring the formation of free radicals and singlet oxygen that react with other hydrino reactants. In one embodiment, the explosive reaction is suppressed, thereby facilitating a long-lasting stable reaction, or is induced using appropriate reactants and molar ratios, thereby achieving a desired hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the battery comprises at least one barrel of an internal combustion engine.

c. Electron acceptor reaction

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises an electron acceptor. When energy is transferred from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst during the catalytic reaction to form hydrinos, the electron acceptor may act as a sink for electrons (sink) that ionize from the catalyst. The electron acceptor may be at least one of: conductive polymer or metal supports, oxides (e.g., group VI elements, molecules, and compounds), free radicals, species that form stable free radicals, and species with high electron affinity (e.g., halogen atoms, O2, C, CF)_{1. 2, 3 or 4}、Si、S、P_xS_y、CS₂、S_xN_yAnd further comprising O and H, Au, At, Al_xO_y(x and y are integers) (preferably AlO)₂Which in one embodiment is Al (OH)₃Intermediate of Al reaction with R-Ni), R-Ni, ClO, Cl₂、F₂、AlO₂、B₂N、CrC₂、C₂H、CuCl₂、CuBr₂、MnX₃(X = halide), MoX₃(X = halide), NiX₃(X = halide), RuF_{4. 5 or 6}、ScX₄(X = halide), WO₃And other atoms and molecules with high electron affinity known to those skilled in the art). In one embodiment, the support acts as an acceptor for electrons from the catalyst when the catalyst is ionized by accepting non-radiative resonance energy transfer from atomic hydrogen. The carrier is preferably at least one of a carrier having conductivity and a carrier forming a stable radical. Suitable such carriers are conductive polymers. The support may form anions on the macrostructure, e.g. form C ₆Ionic Li-ion battery carbon. In another embodiment, the carrier is a semiconductor, preferably doped to enhance conductivity. The reaction mixture further comprises free radicals or sources thereof, e.g. O, OH, O, which can act as scavengers for free radicals formed from the support during catalysis₂、O₃、H₂O₂F, Cl and NO. In one embodiment, a free radical such as NO may form a complex with a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., an alkali metal). In another embodiment, the carrier has unpaired electrons. The support may be paramagnetic, e.g. a rare earth element or compound, e.g. Er₂O₃. In one embodiment, a catalyst or catalyst source such as Li, NaH, BaH, K, Rb, or Cs is injected into an electron acceptor (e.g., support) and the other components of the reaction mixture are added. The vector is preferably AC with NaH or Na inserted.

d. Oxidation reduction reaction

In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction is activated by a redox reaction. In exemplary embodiments, the reaction mixture comprises at least two species from the following group: a catalyst, a hydrogen source, an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent, and a support. The reaction mixture may also contain a Lewis acid, such as a group 13 trihalide, preferably AlCl ₃、BF₃、BCl₃And BBr₃At least one of (1). In certain embodiments, each reaction mixture comprises at least one species selected from the following groups (i) - (iv).

(i) A catalyst selected from the group consisting of Li, LiH, K, KH, NaH, Rb, RbH, Cs, and CsH.

(ii) Is selected from H₂Gas, H₂A gaseous source or a hydride hydrogen source.

(iii) Selected from carbon, carbides and borides (e.g. TiC, YC)₂、Ti₃SiC₂、TiCN、MgB₂、SiC、B₄C or WC).

(iv) An oxidizing agent selected from metal compounds, such as one of the following: halides, phosphides, borides, oxides, hydroxides, silicides, nitrides, arsenides, selenides, tellurides, antimonides, carbides, sulfides, hydrides, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, bisulfates, phosphates, hydrogenphosphates, dihydrogenphosphates, nitrates, nitrites, permanganates, chlorates, perchlorates, chlorites, perchlorates (perbromate), hypochlorites, bromates, perbromates (perbromites), iodates, periodates, iodites, periodates (periodates), chromates, dichromates, tellurates, selenates, arsenates, silicates, borates, cobalt oxides, tellurium oxides and other oxyanions (e.g., oxyanions of halogens, P, B, Si, N, As, S, Te, Sb, C, S, P, Se, Te, Sb, C, S, B, mn, Cr, Co and Te, wherein the metal preferably comprises a transition metal, Sn, Ga, In, an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal); the oxidant further comprises: lead compounds (e.g. lead halides), germanium compounds (e.g. halides, oxides or sulfides, such as GeF) ₂、GeCl₂、GeBr₂、GeI₂、GeO、GeP、GeS、GeI₄And GeCl₄) Fluorocarbons (e.g. CF)₄Or ClCF₃) Chlorocarbides (e.g. CCl)₄、O₂、MNO₃、MClO₄、MO₂、NF₃、N₂O、NO、NO₂) Boron-nitrogen compounds (e.g. B)₃N₃H₆) Sulfur compounds (e.g. SF)₆、S、SO₂、SO₃、S₂O₅Cl₂、F₅SOF、M₂S₂O₈、S_xX_y(e.g. S)₂Cl₂、SCl₂、S₂Br₂Or S₂F₂、CS₂)、SO_xX_y(e.g., SOCl)₂、SOF₂、SO₂F₂Or SOBr₂))，X_xX'_y(e.g., ClF)₅)，X_xX'_yO_z(e.g., ClO)₂F、ClO₂F₂、ClOF₃、ClO₃F and ClO₂F₃) Boron-nitrogen compounds (e.g. B)₃N₃H₆)，Se，Te，Bi，As，Sb，Bi、TeX_x(preferably TeF)₄、TeF₆)，TeO_x(preferably TeO)₂Or TeO₃)，SeX_x(preferably SeF)₆)，SeO_x(preferably SeO)₂Or SeO₃) Oxides, halides or other tellurium compounds of tellurium (e.g. TeO)₂,TeO₃、Te(OH)₆、TeBr₂、TeCl₂、TeBr₄、TeCl₄、TeF₄、TeI₄、TeF₆CoTe or NiTe), oxides, halides, sulfides or other selenium compounds of selenium (e.g. SeO)₂、SeO₃、Se₂Br₂、Se₂Cl₂、SeBr₄、SeCl₄、SeF₄、SeF₆、SeOBr₂、SeOCl₂、SeOF₂、SeO₂F₂、SeS₂、Se₂S₆、Se₄S₄Or Se₆S₂)，P、P₂O₅、P₂S₅、P_xX_y(e.g., PF₃、PCl₃、PBr₃、PI₃、PF₅、PCl₅、PBr₄F or PCl₄F)、PO_xX_y(e.g., POBr)₃、POI₃、POCl₃Or POF₃)、PS_xX_y(M is an alkali metal, and M is an alkali metal,x, y and z are integers and X' are halogen) (e.g. PSBr₃、PSF₃、PSCl₃) Phosphorus-nitrogen compounds (e.g. P)₃N₅、(Cl₂PN)₃、(Cl₂PN)₄Or (Br)₂PN)_x) Oxides, halides, sulfides, selenides, or tellurides of arsenic or other arsenic compounds (e.g. AlAs, As)₂I₄、As₂Se、As₄S₄、AsBr₃、AsCl₃、AsF₃、AsI₃、As₂O₃、As₂Se₃、As₂S₃、As₂Te₃、AsCl₅、AsF₅、As₂O₅、As₂Se₅Or As₂S₅) Antimony oxides, halides, sulfides, sulfates, selenides, arsenides, or other antimony compounds (e.g., SbAs, SbBr)₃、SbCl₃、SbF₃、SbI₃、Sb₂O₃、SbOCl、Sb₂Se₃、Sb₂(SO₄)₃、Sb₂S₃、Sb₂Te₃、Sb₂O₄、SbCl₅、SbF₅、SbCl₂F₃、Sb₂O₅Or Sb₂S₅) Oxides, halides, sulfides, selenides, or other bismuth compounds of bismuth (e.g. BiAsO)₄、BiBr₃、BiCl₃、BiF₃、BiF₅、Bi(OH)₃、BiI₃、Bi₂O₃、BiOBr、BiOCl、BiOI、Bi₂Se₃、Bi₂S₃、Bi₂Te₃Or Bi₂O₄)，SiCl₄、SiBr₄Metal oxides, hydroxides or halides (e.g. transition metal halides, such as CrCl)₃、ZnF₂、ZnBr₂、ZnI₂、MnCl₂、MnBr₂、MnI₂、CoBr₂、CoI₂、CoCl₂、NiCl₂、NiBr₂、NiF₂、FeF₂、FeCl₂、FeBr₂、FeCl₃、TiF₃、CuBr、CuBr₂、VF₃And CuCl₂(ii) a Metal halides, e.g. SnF ₂、SnCl₂、SnBr₂、SnI₂、SnF₄、SnCl₄、SnBr₄、SnI₄、InF、InCl、InBr、InI、AgCl、AgI、AlF₃、AlBr₃、AlI₃、YF₃、CdCl₂、CdBr₂、CdI₂、InCl₃、ZrCl₄、NbF₅、TaCl₅、MoCl₃、MoCl₅、NbCl₅、AsCl₃、TiBr₄、SeCl₂、SeCl₄、InF₃、InCl₃、PbF₄、TeI₄、WCl₆、OsCl₃、GaCl₃、PtCl₃、ReCl₃、RhCl₃、RuCl₃(ii) a Metal oxides or hydroxides, e.g. Y₂O₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃Or NbO, NiO, Ni₂O₃、SnO、SnO₂、Ag₂O、AgO、Ga₂O、As₂O₃、SeO₂、TeO₂、In(OH)₃、Sn(OH)₂、In(OH)₃、Ga(OH)₃And Bi (OH)₃)，CO₂，As₂Se₃，SF₆，S，SbF₃，CF₄，NF₃Permanganate (e.g. KMnO)₄And NaMnO₄)，P₂O₅Nitrate salts (e.g. LiNO)₃、NaNO₃And KNO₃) Boron halides (e.g. BBr)₃And BI₃) Halides of group 13 elements (preferably indium halides, e.g. InBr)₂、InCl₂And InI₃) Silver halide (preferably AgCl or AgI), lead halide, cadmium halide, zirconium halide, preferably transition metal oxide, sulfide or halide (Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu or Zn in combination with F, Cl, Br or I), halide of a second or third transition system (preferably YF₃) Oxide, sulfide (preferably Y)₂S₃) Or a hydroxide (preferably Y, Zr,Corresponding compounds of Nb, Mo, Tc, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Os, e.g. NbX₃、NbX₅Or TaX₅(in the case of halides)), metal sulfides (e.g., Li)₂S、ZnS、FeS、NiS、MnS、Cu₂S, CuS and SnS), alkaline earth metal halides (e.g., BaBr)₂、BaCl₂、BaI₂、SrBr₂、SrI₂、CaBr₂、CaI₂、MgBr₂Or MgI₂) Rare earth metal halides (e.g. EuBr)₃、LaF₃、LaBr₃、CeBr₃、GdF₃、GdBr₃(ii) a Preferably in the divalent state, e.g. CeI₂、EuF₂、EuCl₂、EuBr₂、EuI₂、DyI₂、NdI₂、SmI₂、YbI₂And TmI₂One of (b), a metal boride (e.g., europium boride), MB₂Borides (e.g. CrB)₂、TiB₂、MgB₂、ZrB₂And GdB₂) Alkali metal halides (e.g. LiCl, RbCl or CsI), metal phosphides, alkaline earth metal phosphides (e.g. Ca)₃P₂) Halides, oxides, sulfides of noble metals (e.g. PtCl) ₂、PtBr₂、PtI₂、PtCl₄、PdCl₂、PbBr₂And PbI₂) Rare earth sulfides (e.g. CeS, other suitable rare earth metals are La and Gd), metals and anions (e.g. Na)₂TeO₄、Na₂TeO₃、Co(CN)₂、CoSb、CoAs、Co₂P、CoO、CoSe、CoTe、NiSb、NiAs、NiSe、Ni₂Si, MgSe), rare earth metal tellurides (e.g., EuTe), rare earth metal selenides (e.g., EuSe), rare earth metal nitrides (e.g., EuN), metal nitrides (e.g., AlN and GdN), alkaline earth metal nitrides (e.g., Mg₃N₂) Compounds containing at least two atoms from the group consisting of oxygen and different halogen atoms (e.g. F)₂O、Cl₂O、ClO₂、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、ClF、ClF₃、ClOF₃、ClF₅、ClO₂F、ClO₂F₃、ClO₃F、BrF₃、BrF₅、I₂O₅、IBr、ICl、ICl₃、IF、IF₃、IF₅、IF₇) Second or third transition metal halides (e.g. OsF)₆、PtF₆Or IrF₆) An alkali metal compound (e.g. halide, oxide or sulfide), a compound of a metal (e.g. alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, rare earth metal, group 13 (preferably In) metal and group 14 metal (preferably Sn)) which may form on reduction, a metal hydride (e.g. rare earth metal hydride, alkaline earth metal hydride or alkali metal hydride, wherein, when the oxidant is a hydride (preferably a metal hydride), the catalyst or source of catalyst may be a metal, such as an alkali metal). Suitable oxidizing agents are metal halides, sulfides, oxides, hydroxides, selenides, nitrides and arsenides, and phosphides, for example: alkaline earth metal halides, e.g. BaBr ₂、BaCl₂、BaI₂、CaBr₂、MgBr₂Or MgI₂(ii) a Rare earth halides, e.g. EuBr₂、EuBr₃、EuF₃、LaF₃、GdF₃、GdBr₃、LaF₃、LaBr₃、CeBr₃、CeI₂、PrI₂、GdI₂And LaI₂(ii) a Halides of transition metals of the second or third series, e.g. YF₃(ii) a Alkaline earth metal phosphides, nitrides or arsenides, e.g. Ca₃P₂、Mg₃N₂And Mg₃As₂(ii) a Metal borides, e.g. CrB₂Or TiB₂(ii) a Alkali metal halides, such as LiCl, RbCl, or CsI; metal sulfides, e.g. Li₂S、ZnS、Y₂S₃、FeS、MnS、Cu₂S, CuS and Sb₂S₅(ii) a Metal phosphides, e.g. Ca₃P₂(ii) a Transition metal halides, e.g. CrCl₃、ZnF₂、ZnBr₂、ZnI₂、MnCl₂、MnBr₂、MnI₂、CoBr₂、CoI₂、CoCl₂、NiBr₂、NiF₂、FeF₂、FeCl₂、FeBr₂、TiF₃、CuBr、VF₃And CuCl₂(ii) a Metal halides, e.g. SnBr₂、SnI₂、InF、InCl、InBr、InI、AgCl、AgI、AlI₃、YF₃、CdCl₂、CdBr₂、CdI₂、InCl₃、ZrCl₄、NbF₅、TaCl₅、MoCl₃、MoCl₅、NbCl₅、AsCl₃、TiBr₄、SeCl₂、SeCl₄、InF₃、PbF₄And TeI₄(ii) a Metal oxides or hydroxides, e.g. Y₂O₃、FeO、NbO、In(OH)₃、As₂O₃、SeO₂、TeO₂、BI₃、CO₂、As₂Se₃(ii) a Metal nitrides, e.g. Mg₃N₂Or AlN; metal phosphides, e.g. Ca₃P₂；SF₆、S、SbF₃、CF₄、NF₃、KMnO₄、NaMnO₄、P₂O₅、LiNO₃、NaNO₃、KNO₃(ii) a And metal borides, e.g. BBr₃. Suitable oxidizing agents include at least one of the following: BaBr₂、BaCl₂、EuBr₂、EuF₃、YF₃、CrB₂、TiB₂、LiCl、RbCl、CsI、Li₂S、ZnS、Y₂S₃、Ca₃P₂、MnI₂、CoI₂、NiBr₂、ZnBr₂、FeBr₂、SnI₂、InCl、AgCl、Y₂O₃、TeO₂、CO₂、SF₆、S、CF₄、NaMnO₄、P₂O₅、LiNO₃. Suitable oxidizing agents include at least one of the following: eubr₂、BaBr₂、CrB₂、MnI₂And AgCl. Suitable sulfide oxidizing agents include Li₂S, ZnS and Y₂S₃At least one of (1). In certain embodiments, the oxide oxidizer is Y₂O₃。

In other embodimentsIn an embodiment, each reaction mixture comprises at least one species selected from the above-mentioned groups (i) to (iii), and further comprises (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from: metals (e.g., alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals of the second and third series, and rare earth metals) and aluminum. The reducing agent is preferably one of the following group: al, Mg, MgH ₂Si, La, B, Zr and Ti powders and H₂。

In other embodiments, each reaction mixture comprises at least one species selected from the group of components (i) - (iv) above, and further comprises (v) a support, such as a conductive support, selected from AC, carbon-supported 1% Pt or Pd (Pt/C, Pd/C), and carbides (preferably TiC or WC).

The reactants may be present in any molar ratio, but in certain embodiments they are present in about an equimolar ratio.

Suitable reaction systems comprising (i) a catalyst or catalyst source, (ii) a hydrogen source, (iii) an oxidizing agent, (iv) a reducing agent, and (v) a support comprise NaH, BaH, or KH as the catalyst or catalyst source and a source of H, comprising BaBr₂、BaCl₂、MgBr₂、MgI₂、CaBr₂、EuBr₂、EuF₃、YF₃、CrB₂、TiB₂、LiCl、RbCl、CsI、Li₂S、ZnS、Y₂S₃、Ca₃P₂、MnI₂、CoI₂、NiBr₂、ZnBr₂、FeBr₂、SnI₂、InCl、AgCl、Y₂O₃、TeO₂、CO₂、SF₆、S、CF₄、NaMnO₄、P₂O₅、LiNO₃Contains Mg or MgH as oxidant₂As a reducing agent (wherein MgH₂May also serve as a source of H) and comprise AC, TiC or WC as a support. In the case of tin halides as the oxidizing agent, the Sn product may act as at least one of a reducing agent and a conductive support in the catalytic mechanism.

In a catalyst comprising (i) a catalyst or catalyst source,(ii) In another suitable reaction system of a hydrogen source, (iii) an oxidizing agent, and (iv) a carrier, comprising NaH, BaH, or KH as a catalyst or catalyst source and a source of H comprising EuBr ₂、BaBr₂、CrB₂、MnI₂And AgCl as an oxidizing agent and containing AC, TiC or WC as a carrier. The reactants may be present in any molar ratio, but are preferably present in about equimolar ratios.

The catalyst, hydrogen source, oxidizing agent, reducing agent, and support can be in any desired molar ratio. In the presence of a reactant (i.e., a catalyst comprising KH or NaH, comprising CrB)₂、AgCl₂And metal halides (preferably bromides or iodides, e.g. EuBr) from the group of halides of alkaline earth metals, transition metals or rare earth metals₂、BaBr₂And MnI₂) Contains Mg or MgH₂And a carrier comprising AC, TiC, or WC), the molar ratio is about the same. Rare earth metal halides can be formed by direct reaction of the corresponding halogen with a metal or hydrogen halide (e.g., HBr). The dihalide may be derived from trihalide via H₂Reducing to form.

The additional oxidizing agent is an oxidizing agent having a high dipole moment or an oxidizing agent forming an intermediate having a dipole moment. Preferably, species with high dipole moments readily accept electrons from the catalyst during the catalytic reaction. These species may have high electron affinity. In one embodiment, the electron acceptor has a half-filled or about half-filled electron shell, e.g., tin, Mn and Gd or Eu compounds, each with a half-filled sp ³3d and 4f shell layers. Representative oxidizing agents of the latter type are metals corresponding to: LaF₃、LaBr₃、GdF₃、GdCl₃、GdBr₃、EuBr₂、EuI₂、EuCl₂、EuF₂、EuBr₃、EuI₃、EuCl₃And EuF₃. In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent comprises a non-metal (e.g., at least one of P, S, Si and C) compound, preferably having a high oxidation state and further comprising a compound having a high electronegativityFor example F, Cl or O. In another embodiment, the oxidizing agent comprises a compound of a metal (e.g., at least one of Sn and Fe), preferably having a low oxidation state (e.g., II) and further comprising atoms having a low electronegativity (e.g., at least one of Br or I). Compared to doubly negatively charged ions (e.g. with a high degree of charge)OrSingly negatively charged ions (e.g. ofOrIs advantageous. In one embodiment, the oxidant comprises a compound, such as a metal halide corresponding to a low melting metal, such that it can be melted and removed from the cell as a reaction product. Suitable oxidizers for low melting point metals are halides of In, Ga, Ag and Sn. The reactants may be present in any molar ratio, but are preferably present in about equimolar ratios.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises (I) a catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a group I element and (ii) a hydrogen source, such as H ₂Gas or H₂(ii) a source of gas, or a hydride, (iii) an oxidant comprising an atom or ion or a compound comprising at least one of an element from groups 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17; preferably selected from the group of F, Cl, Br, I, B, C, N, O, Al, Si, P, S, Se and Te, (iv) a reducing agent comprising an element or a hydride, preferably comprising an element selected from Mg, MgH₂One or more elements or hydrides of Al, Si, B, Zr and rare earth metals such as La, and (v) a support which is preferably conductive and which preferably does not react with other species of the reaction mixture to form another compound. Suitable supports preferably comprise carbon, such as, for example, AC, graphene, impregnated goldAnd carbon and carbides of the genus (e.g., Pt or Pd/C) (preferably TiC or WC).

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises (I) a catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a group I element and (ii) a hydrogen source, such as H₂Gas or H₂(ii) a gas source, or a hydride, (iii) an oxidant comprising a halide, oxide or sulfide, preferably a metal halide, oxide or sulfide, more preferably a halide comprising a group IA, IIA, 3d, 4d, 5d, 6d, 7d, 8d, 9d, 10d, 11d, 12d element and a lanthanide, and most preferably a transition metal halide or a lanthanide halide, (iv) a reductant comprising an element or hydride, preferably comprising a metal selected from Mg, MgH, and the like ₂One or more elements or hydrides of Al, Si, B, Zr and rare earth metals such as La, and (v) a support which is preferably conductive and which preferably does not react with other species of the reaction mixture to form another compound. Suitable supports preferably comprise carbon, for example AC, carbon impregnated with a metal such as Pt or Pd/C, and carbides, preferably TiC or WC.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen or a hydrogen source, and may further comprise other species, such as a reducing agent, a support, and an oxidizing agent, wherein the mixture comprises at least two species selected from the group consisting of: BaBr₂、BaCl₂、TiB₂、CrB₂、LiCl、RbCl、LiBr、KI、MgI₂、Ca₃P₂、Mg₃As₂、Mg₃N₂、AlN、Ni₂Si、Co₂P、YF₃、YCl₃、YI₃、NiB、CeBr₃、MgO、Y₂S₃、Li₂S、GdF₃、GdBr₃、LaF₃、AlI₃、Y₂O₃、EuBr₃、EuF₃、Cu₂S、MnS、ZnS、TeO₂、P₂O₅、SnI₂、SnBr₂、CoI₂、FeBr₂、FeCl₂、EuBr₂、MnI₂、InCl、AgCl、AgF、NiBr₂、ZnBr₂、CuCl₂、InF₃Alkali metals, alkali metal hydrides, alkali metal halides (e.g., LiBr, KI, RbCl), alkaline earth metals, alkaline earth metal hydrides, alkaline earth metal halides (e.g., BaF)₂、BaBr₂、BaCl₂、BaI₂、CaBr₂、SrI₂、SrBr₂、MgBr₂And MgI₂) AC, carbide, boride, transition metal, rare earth metal, Ga, In, Sn, Al, Si, Ti, B, Zr, and La.

e. Exchange reaction, thermoreversible reaction and regeneration

In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent, and at least one of the reducing agent, the catalyst source, and the catalyst, may undergo a reversible reaction. In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent is a halide, preferably a metal halide, more preferably at least one of a halide of a transition metal, tin, indium, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, and rare earth metal, and most preferably a rare earth metal halide. The reversible reaction is preferably a halide ion exchange reaction. Preferably, the reaction energy is low such that halide ions can be reversibly exchanged between the oxidizing agent and at least one of the reducing agent, the catalyst source and the catalyst at temperatures between ambient temperature and 3000 ℃, preferably between ambient temperature and 1000 ℃. The reaction equilibrium can be shifted to drive the hydrino reaction. This migration can be achieved by temperature changes or reaction concentration or ratio changes. The reaction can be maintained by the addition of hydrogen. In a representative reaction, the exchange is

Wherein n is₁、n₂X and y are integers, X is a halide, and M_oxA metal which is an oxidant, M_red/catA metal that is at least one of a reducing agent, a catalyst source, and a catalyst. In one embodiment, one or more of the reactants is a hydride and the halide-removing ion is exchangedIn addition, the reaction further includes reversible hydride exchange. The reversible reaction can be controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure, among other reaction conditions such as reactant temperature and concentration. An exemplary reaction is

In one embodiment, the one or more reactants are hydrides and the reaction includes reversible hydride exchange. The reversible reaction can be controlled by controlling the temperature, among other reaction conditions such as reactant hydrogen pressure and concentration. An exemplary reaction is

Wherein n is₁、n₂、n₃、n₄、n₅X, y and z are integers including 0, M_catIs a source of and a metal of the catalyst, and M_redA metal that is a reducing agent. The reaction mixture may comprise a catalyst or source of catalyst, hydrogen or a source of hydrogen, a support, and at least one or more reducing agents, for example an alkaline earth metal, an alkali metal (e.g., Li), and another hydride (e.g., an alkaline earth metal hydride or an alkali metal hydride). In embodiments comprising a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., KH, BaH, or NaH) comprising at least one alkali metal, regeneration is achieved by evaporating the alkali metal and hydrogenating it to form the initial metal hydride. In one embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source and the hydrogen source comprise NaH or KH, and the metal reactant for hydride exchange comprises Li. The product LiH is then regenerated by thermal decomposition. Since the vapor pressure of Na or K is much higher than that of Li, the former can be selectively evaporated and rehydrogenated and added back to regenerate the reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the reducing agent or metal used for hydride exchange may comprise two alkaline earth metals, such as Mg and Ca. The regeneration reaction may further include thermally decomposing another metal hydride under vacuum, where the hydride is a reaction product, such as MgH₂Or CaH₂. In one embodiment, the hydride is an intermetallic hydride or a mixture of hydrides, such as a hydride comprising H and at least two of Na, Ca and Mg. The decomposition temperature of the mixed hydride may be lower than the most stable monometallic hydride. In one embodiment, the hydride reduces H₂Pressure to prevent hydrogen embrittlement of the reactor system. The support may comprise a carbide, such as TiC. The reaction mixture may comprise NaH, TiC, Mg and Ca. Alkaline earth metal hydride products (e.g., CaH)₂) Can be heated at high temperature under vacuum (e.g. under vacuum)>700 deg.C) decomposition. Alkali metals such as Na may be evaporated and re-hydrogenated. Other alkaline earth metals such as magnesium may also be separately evaporated and condensed. The reactants may be combined to form an initial reaction mixture. The reagents may be in any molar ratio. In another embodiment, the evaporated metal (e.g. Na) is returned by a wick or capillary structure. The wick may be a wick of a heat pipe. Alternatively, the condensed metal can fall back into the reactants by gravity. Hydrogen may be supplied to form NaH. In another embodiment, the reducing agent or metal used for hydride exchange may comprise an alkali metal or a transition metal. The reactants may further comprise a halide, such as an alkali metal halide. In one embodiment, the compound (e.g., halide) may serve as a carrier. The compound may be a metal compound, such as a halide. The metal compound may be reduced to the corresponding conductive metal to constitute the support. Suitable reaction mixtures are NaHTiCMgLi, NaHTiCMgH ₂Li、NaHTiCLi、NaHLi、NaHTiCMgLiH、NaHTiCMgH₂LiH、NaHTiCLiH、NaHLiH、NaHTiC、NaHTiCMgLiBr、NaHTiCMgLiCl、NaHMgLiBr、NaHMgLiCl、NaHMgLi、NaHMgH₂LiBr、NaHMgH₂LiCl、NaHMgLiH、KHTiCMgLi、KHTiCMgH₂Li、KHTiCLi、KHLi、KHTiCMgLiH、KHTiCMgH₂LiH、KHTiCLiH、KHLiH、KHTiC、KHTiCMgLiBr、KHTiCMgLiCl、KHMgLiBr、KHMgLiCl、KHMgLi、KHMgH₂LiBr、KHMgH₂LiCl and KHMgLiH. Another suitable reaction mixture is NaHMgH₂TiC、NaHMgH₂TiCCa、NaMgH₂TiC、NaMgH₂TiCCa、KHMgH₂TiC、KHMgH₂TiCCa、KMgH₂TiC and KMgH₂TiCca. Other suitable reaction mixtures include NaHMg, nahmgttic and NaHMgAC. Since neither Na nor Mg forms intercalation to any extent and AC surface area is extremely large, AC is the preferred carrier for NaH + Mg. The reaction mixture may comprise a fixed reaction volume of the hydride mixture to establish the desired hydrogen pressure at a selected temperature. The hydride mixture may comprise alkaline earth metals and hydrides thereof, e.g. Mg and MgH₂. In addition, hydrogen may be added. Suitable pressures are from 1atm to 200 atm. Suitable reaction mixtures are one or more of the following groups: KHMgTiC + H₂、KHMgH₂TiC+H₂、KHMgMgH₂TiC+H₂、NaHMgTiC+H₂、NaHMgH₂TiC+H₂And NaHMgMgH₂TiC+H₂. Other suitable carriers besides TiC are YC₂、Ti₃SiC₂、TiCN、MgB₂、SiC、B₄C or WC.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may comprise at least two of the following: a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen source (e.g., an alkali metal hydride), a reducing agent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal, Li, or LiH), and an absorbent or support (e.g., an alkali metal halide). During the reaction, the non-conductive support may be converted to a conductive support, such as a metal. The reaction mixture may comprise NaHMg and LiCl or LiBr. Subsequently, conductive Li can be formed during the reaction. Exemplary experimental results are

031010WFCKA2# 1626; 1.5' LDC; 8.0gNaH #8+8.0gMg #6+3.4gLiCl #2+20.0gTiC # 105; tmax is 575 ℃; 284kJ of Ein; dE is 12 kJ; theoretical energy: 2.9 kJ; energy gain: 4.2.

in one embodiment, the reaction mixture (e.g., MH (M is an alkali metal), a reducing agent (e.g., Mg), a support (e.g., TiC or WC), and an oxidizing agent (e.g., MX (M is an alkali metal and X is a halide) or MX₂(M is an alkaline earth metal and X is a halide))), the product comprises a metal hydrido, for example MH (/ p). Can be measured by adding a chemical meterAn amount of acid (e.g., HCl, which may be a pure gas) converts the hydrinos to molecular hydrinos. The product metal halide can be regenerated to a metal hydride by melt electrolysis and subsequent metal hydrogenation.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a halide (e.g., an alkali metal halide) and a reducing agent (e.g., a rare earth metal) as a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen (e.g., a hydride or H)₂). Suitable reactants are Mg + RbF and H sources and Mg + LiCl and H sources. The reaction proceeds to form Rb separately⁺And a Li catalyst.

A suitable reaction temperature range is the reaction temperature range in which the hydrino reaction takes place. The temperature may be in the range where at least one component of the reaction mixture melts, undergoes a phase change, undergoes a chemical change (e.g., decomposition), or at least two components of the mixture react. The reaction temperature may be in the range of 30 ℃ to 1200 ℃. Suitable temperatures range from 300 ℃ to 900 ℃. The reaction temperature range of the reaction mixture comprising at least NaH may be greater than 475 ℃. The reaction temperature of the reaction mixture comprising the metal halide or hydride may be greater than or equal to the regeneration reaction temperature. A suitable temperature range for the reaction mixture comprising the alkali, alkaline earth or rare earth metal halide and the catalyst or catalyst source comprising the alkali or alkali metal hydride is from 650 ℃ to 850 ℃. For compositions comprising formation of alkali metal as product (e.g. MC) _x(M is an alkali metal)) may be formed at a temperature not lower than the formation temperature of the alkali metal. The reaction can be carried out at the following temperatures: at said temperature, MC_xUndergoing regeneration at reduced pressure to form M and C.

In one embodiment, the volatile species is a metal such as an alkali metal. Suitable metals include Na and K. During regeneration, the metal may condense in the cooling section of the system (e.g., a standpipe which may contain a side arm connected to the reactor). The metal may be added to the metal reservoir. The reservoir may have a hydrogen supply feed below the surface to form a metal hydride (e.g., NaH or KH), with metal columns in the tube holding the hydrogen near the supply. The metal hydride may be formed within a capillary system (e.g., the capillary structure of a heat pipe). The capillary can selectively bring the metal hydride to the site of the reactor with the reaction mixture by capillary action to allow addition of the metal hydride to the reaction mixture. The capillary tube may be selective for ionic liquids as compared to metallic liquids. The hydrogen in the capillary wick can be under sufficient pressure to maintain the metal hydride in a liquid state.

The reaction mixture may comprise at least two of a catalyst or catalyst source, hydrogen or a hydrogen source, a support, a reducing agent, and an oxidizing agent. In one embodiment, the intermetallic compound may act as at least one of a solvent, a support, and a reducing agent. The intermetallic compound may comprise at least two alkaline earth metals, for example a mixture of Mg and Ca or a mixture of an alkaline earth metal (e.g. Mg) and a transition metal (e.g. Ni). The intermetallic compound may act as a catalyst or a source of catalyst and hydrogen or a solvent for at least one of the hydrogen sources. NaH or KH can be solubilized by the solvent. The reaction mixture may comprise NaHMgCa and a carrier (e.g., TiC). The support may be an oxidant such as carbon or a carbide. In one embodiment, a solvent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg) interacts with a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., an alkali metal hydride, such as a NaH ionic compound) to form NaH molecules, allowing further reactions to occur that form hydrinos. The cell can be operated at this temperature with periodic addition of H₂To sustain heat generation.

In one embodiment, an oxidizing agent (e.g., an alkali metal halide, alkaline earth metal halide, or rare earth metal halide, preferably LiCl, LiBr, RbCl, MgF) is used ₂、BaCl₂、CaBr₂、SrCl₂、BaBr₂、BaI₂、EuX₂Or GdX, wherein X is a halide or sulfide ion, most preferably EuBr₂) With a catalyst or catalyst source (preferably NaH or KH) and optionally a reducing agent (preferably Mg or MgH)₂) Reaction to form M_oxOr M_oxH₂And halides or sulfides of the catalyst (e.g., NaX or KX). The rare earth metal halide can be removed by selectively removing the catalyst orThe catalyst is regenerated by sourcing and optionally removing the reductant. In one embodiment, M_oxH₂Thermal decomposition may occur and the hydrogen is removed by methods such as pumping. The halide ion exchanges (formulas (62-63)) the metal forming the catalyst. The metal may be removed as a molten liquid or as a vaporized or sublimed gas leaving a metal halide, such as an alkaline earth or rare earth metal halide. The liquid may be removed by methods such as centrifugation or by a pressurized inert gas stream. The catalyst or catalyst source may be rehydrogenated at the appropriate time to regenerate the original reactants and reconstitute the original mixture with the rare earth metal halide and support. Adding Mg or MgH₂In the case of use as a reducing agent, H may be added₂Forming a hydride, melting the hydride and removing the liquid to remove Mg first. In embodiments where X = F, MgF ₂The product can be obtained by reacting with rare earth (such as EuH)₂) Exchange F for conversion to MgH₂In which molten MgH is continuously removed₂. The reaction can be carried out at high pressure H₂To facilitate the formation and selective removal of MgH₂. The reducing agent may be rehydrogenated and added to the other regeneration reactants to form the original reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the exchange reaction is conducted between a metal sulfide or oxide as the oxidizing agent and at least one of a reducing agent, a catalyst source, and a catalyst. An exemplary system of each type is 1.66gKH +1gMg +2.74gY₂S₃₊4gAC and 1gNaH +1gMg +2.26gY₂O₃+4gAC。

The selective removal of the catalyst, catalyst source or reducing agent may be carried out continuously, wherein the catalyst, catalyst source or reducing agent may be at least partially recycled or regenerated within the reactor. The reactor may further comprise a still or reflux component (e.g., still 34 of fig. 4) to remove catalyst, catalyst source, or reducing agent and return it to the cell. Optionally, it may be hydrogenated or further reacted and this product may be returned. The battery can be filled with inert gas and H₂A mixture of (a). The gas mixture may contain the ratio H₂Heavy gas, thereby making H ₂Float to the top of the reactor. The gas may be at least one of Ne, Ar, Ne, Kr, and Xe. Alternatively, the gas may be an alkali metal or hydride, such as K, K₂KH or NaH. The gas may be formed by operating the cell at an elevated temperature, such as about the boiling point of the metal. Having a high concentration of H₂May be a cooler so that the metal vapour condenses in this region. The metal vapor may be reacted with H₂The reaction forms a metal hydride and the hydride can be returned to the cell. The hydride may be returned through an alternative path other than the path forming the metal transport. Suitable metals are catalysts or catalyst sources. The metal may be an alkali metal and the hydride may be an alkali metal hydride, such as for example Na or K and NaH or KH, respectively. LiH was stable up to 900 ℃ and melted at 688.7 ℃; thus, it can be added back to the reactor at a corresponding regeneration temperature that is less than the LiH decomposition temperature without thermal decomposition occurring.

The reaction temperature can be cycled between the two extremes, continuously recirculating the reactants through equilibrium migration. In one embodiment, the system heat exchanger has the ability to rapidly change the cell temperature between high and low values, shifting the equilibrium back and forth to propagate the hydrino reaction.

In another embodiment, the reactants may be delivered to the thermal reaction zone by a mechanical system, such as a conveyor or auger (auger). Heat may be extracted by a heat exchanger and supplied to a load (e.g., a turbine and a generator). When the product is moved back into the thermal reaction zone in a cycle, the product can be regenerated continuously or in batches. The regeneration may be thermal regeneration. Regeneration may be carried out by evaporating metals, such as the metals that make up the catalyst or the source of the catalyst. The removed metal may be hydrogenated and combined with the remainder of the reaction mixture prior to entering the thermal reaction zone. The combination may further comprise a mixing step.

The regeneration reaction may comprise a catalytic reaction with the added species (e.g., hydrogen). In one embodiment, the catalyst and source of H is KH and the oxidizing agent is EuBr₂. Thermally drivenThe regeneration reaction may be

2KBr+Eu→EuBr₂+2K(65)

Or

2KBr+EuH₂→EuBr₂+2KH(66)

Or, H₂Can act as a catalyst or catalyst source and oxidizing agent (e.g., KH and EuBr), respectively₂) The regenerated catalyst of (2):

3KBr+1/2H₂+EuH₂→EuBr₃+3KH(67)

then, through H₂Reduction from EuBr₃Formation of EuBr₂. Possible ways are

EuBr₃+1/2H₂→EuBr₂+HBr(68)

HBr can be recycled:

HBr+KH→KBr+H₂(69)

the total reaction is as follows:

2KBr+EuH₂→EuBr₂+2KH.(70)

the rate of the thermally driven regeneration reaction can be increased by using other paths with lower energy known to those skilled in the art:

2KBr+H₂+Eu→EuBr₂+2KH(71)

3KBr+3/2H₂+Eu→EuBr₃+3KH OR (72)

EuBr₃+1/2H₂→EuBr₂+HBr.(73)

Because at H₂When present, there is an equilibrium between the metal and the corresponding hydride, the reaction given by formula (71) being possible, for example

The reaction path may involve lower energy intermediate steps known to those skilled in the art, e.g.

2KBr+Mg+H₂→MgBr₂+2KH and (75)

MgBr₂+Eu+H₂→EuBr₂+MgH₂.(76)

The reaction mixture may comprise a support, e.g. TiC, YC₂、B₄C. NbC and Si nanopowder.

The KH or K metal may be removed as a molten liquid or as a vaporized or sublimed gas leaving a metal halide, such as an alkaline earth or rare earth metal halide. The liquid may be removed by methods such as centrifugation or by a pressurized inert gas stream. In other embodiments, other catalysts or catalyst sources (e.g., NaH, LiH, RbH, CsH, BaH, Na, Li, Rb, Cs) may be substituted for KH or K, and the oxidizing agent may comprise other metal halides (e.g., other rare earth or alkaline earth halides, preferably MgF₂、MgCl₂、CaBr₂、CaF₂、SrCl₂、SrI₂、BaBr₂Or BaI₂)。

In the case of a small reactant-product energy gap, the reactants can be thermally regenerated. For example, it is thermodynamically advantageous to thermally reverse the following reactions:

EuBr₂+2KH→2KBr+EuH₂ΔH＝-136.55kJ(77)

the following reactions are achieved by several routes:

2KBr+Eu→EuBr₂+2K(78)

the reaction can be pushed more toward completion by the dynamic removal of potassium. The reaction given by formula (78) is confirmed by: a two-to-one molar mixture of KBr and Eu (3.6g (30 mmol) KBr and 2.3g (15 mmol) Eu) was set at 1 inch O D nickel foil wrapped alumina boat in quartz tube at 1050 ℃ for 4 hours under argon atmosphere. Potassium metal evaporated from the hot zone and the major product identified by XRD as EuBr₂. In another embodiment, EuBr₂The reaction given according to formula (78) is formed in the following manner: an approximately two to one molar mixture of KBr and Eu (4.1g (34.5 mmol) KBr and 2.1g (13.8 mmol) Eu) wrapped in a stainless steel foil crucible was reacted in a 0.75 inch OD stainless steel tube open at one end in a 1 inch OD vacuum sealed quartz tube. The reaction was allowed to proceed under vacuum at 850 ℃ for one hour. Potassium metal evaporated from the hot zone and the major product identified by XRD as EuBr₂. In one embodiment, a reaction mixture (e.g., a salt mixture) is used to lower the melting point of the regeneration reactants. Suitable mixtures are eutectic salt mixtures of multiple cations (e.g., alkali metal cations) of multiple catalysts. In other embodiments, a metal, hydride or other compound or mixture of elements is used to lower the melting point of the regeneration reactant.

The energy balance of the non-fractional hydrogen chemistry of the hydrino catalyst system is substantially neutral, such that each power and regeneration cycle, which is synchronized to form a continuous power source, releases 900 kj/mole of EuBr per cycle under experimental measurements ₂. The observed power density was about 10W/cm³. The temperature limit is the temperature limit set by the vessel material breaking. The net fuel balance for the hydrino reaction is 50 kj/mol consumption to form H₂H of (1/4)₂。

In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent is hydrated EuX₂(X is a halide) wherein water may be present as a minority species such that its stoichiometry is less than one. The oxidizing agent may further comprise europium, a halide and an oxide (e.g., EuOX, preferably EuOBr or EuX)₂Mixtures of (a) and (b). In another embodiment, the oxidizing agent is EuX₂(e.g., EuBr)₂) The carrier being a carbide (e.g. YC)₂Or TiC).

In one embodiment, when the exchange reaction (e.g., halide ion exchange) is performedMetathesis) with an oxidizing agent (e.g. EuBr)₂) The regeneration of (a) occurs by evaporating the metal catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., K or Na) from the hot zone. The catalyst metal may be condensed in a condensation chamber having a valve (e.g., a valve or gate valve) that separates the chamber from the main reactor chamber when closed. The catalyst metal may be hydrogenated by addition of a hydrogen source, such as hydrogen gas. The hydride can then be added back to the reaction mixture. In one embodiment, the valve is opened and the hydride is heated to the melting point, allowing it to flow back into the reaction chamber. Preferably, the condensation chamber is above the main reaction chamber, such that the flow is at least partially gravity-fed. The hydride can also be added back mechanically. Other suitable reaction systems that are thermally regenerated comprise at least NaH, BaH or KH and an alkali metal halide (e.g., LiBr, LiCl, Ki and RbCl) or an alkaline earth metal halide (e.g., MgF) ₂、MgCl₂、CaBr₂、CaF₂、SrCl₂、SrI₂、BaCl₂、BaBr₂Or BaI₂)。

The reaction mixture may comprise intermetallic compounds (e.g. Mg)₂Ba) as a reducing agent or as a carrier, and may further comprise a mixture of oxidizing agents, for example, from alkaline earth metal halides (e.g., MgF) alone₂+MgCl₂) Mixtures of the constituents or alkaline earth metal halides with alkali metal halides (e.g. KF + MgF)₂Or KMgF₃) A mixture of (a). These reactants can be thermally regenerated from the products of the reaction mixture. At MgF₂+MgCl₂During regeneration, MgCl₂Can be removed dynamically as a product of the exchange reaction of Cl to F. At least in the latter case, the removal may be carried out by evaporation, sublimation or precipitation from the liquid mixture.

In another embodiment, the reactant-product energy gap is larger and the reactant can still be thermally regenerated by removing at least one species. For example, at temperatures less than 1000 ℃, it is thermodynamically unfavorable to thermally reverse the following reactions:

MnI₂+2KH+Mg→2KI+Mn+MgH₂ΔH=-373.0kJ(79)

however, by removing species such as K, there are several routes to achieve the following reaction:

2KI+Mn→MnI₂+2K(80)

thus, non-equilibrium thermodynamics holds true, and many reaction systems that are thermodynamically unfavorable can be regenerated taking into account only the equilibrium thermodynamics of a closed system.

The reaction given by equation (80) can be pushed more toward completion by dynamically removing potassium. The reaction given by formula (80) is confirmed by: a two to one molar mixture of KI and Mn was reacted in a 0.75 inch OD vertical stainless steel tube open at one end in a 1 inch OD vacuum sealed quartz tube. The reaction was carried out at 850 ℃ under vacuum for one hour. Potassium metal was evaporated from the hot zone and MnI was identified by XRD ₂And (3) obtaining the product.

In another embodiment, the metal halide that can act as an oxidizing agent comprises an alkali metal (e.g., KI, LiBr, LiCl, or RbCl) or alkaline earth metal halide. A suitable alkaline earth metal halide is a magnesium halide. The reaction mixture may comprise: a source of catalyst and a source of H (e.g., KH, BaH, or NaH); oxidizing agents (e.g. MgF)₂、MgBr₂、MgCl₂、MgBr₂、MgI₂One, mixture (e.g. MgBr)₂And MgI₂) Or mixed halides (e.g., MgIBr)); reducing agents (e.g., Mg metal powder); and carriers (e.g. TiC, YC)₂、Ti₃SiC₂、TiCN、MgB₂、SiC、B₄C or WC). The magnesium halide oxidizing agent is advantageous in that removal of Mg powder may not be required to regenerate the reactant oxidizing agent. Regeneration may be performed by heating. The thermally driven regeneration reaction may be

2KX+Mg→MgX₂+2K(81)

Or

2KX+MgH₂→MgX₂+2KH(82)

Wherein X is F, Cl, Br or I. In other embodiments, other alkali metals or alkali metal hydrides (e.g., NaH or BaH) may be substituted for KH.

In another embodiment, the metal halide that can act as an oxidizing agent includes an alkali metal halide, such as KI, where the metal is also the catalyst or the metal of the source of the catalyst. The reaction mixture may comprise: a source of catalyst and a source of H, such as KH or NaH; an oxidant, such as one of KX or NaX (where X is F, Cl, Br or I), or a mixture of oxidants; reducing agents, such as Mg metal powder; and carriers, e.g. TiC, YC ₂、B₄C. NbC and Si nanopowders. The advantage to such halide oxidants is that the system is simplified to regenerate the reactant oxidant. Regeneration may be performed by heating. The thermally driven regeneration reaction may be

KX+KH→KX+K(g)+H₂(83)

An alkali metal such as K can be collected as a vapor, rehydrogenated, and added to the reaction mixture to form an initial reaction mixture.

LiH was stable up to 900 ℃ and melted at 688.7 ℃; thus, lithium halides such as LiCl and LiBr can act as an oxidant or halide for the hydrogen ion-halide ion exchange reaction, where other catalyst metals (e.g., K or Na) preferentially evaporate during regeneration when LiH reacts to form the initial lithium halide. The reaction mixture may comprise a catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen or a hydrogen source (such as KH or NaH), and may further comprise one or more of the following: reducing agents, such as alkaline earth metals (e.g., Mg powder); vectors, e.g. YC₂TiC or carbon; and an oxidizing agent, such as an alkali metal halide (e.g., LiCl or LiBr). The product may comprise a catalyst metal halide and lithium hydride. The power-producing hydrino reaction and regeneration reaction may be, respectively:

MH+LiX→MX+LiH(84)

and

MX+LiH→M+LiX+1/2H₂(85)

where M is a catalyst metal, for example an alkali metal (e.g. K or Na), and X is a halide, for example Cl or Br. M preferentially evaporates due to the high volatility of M and the relative instability of MH. The metal M can be hydrogenated separately and returned to the reaction mixture to regenerate it. In another embodiment, Li displaces LiH in the regeneration reaction because it has a much lower vapor pressure than K. For example, at 722 ℃, the vapor pressure of Li is 100 Pa; however, at a similar temperature of 756 deg.C, the vapor pressure of K is 100 kPa. In this way, K can be selectively evaporated during the regeneration reaction between MX and Li or LiH in formula (85). In other embodiments, other alkali metals M (e.g., Na) are substituted for K.

In another embodiment, the hydrino-forming reaction comprises at least one of the following reactions: hydride ion exchange and halide ion exchange between at least two species (e.g., two metals). The at least one metal may be a catalyst or source of catalyst for forming hydrinos, such as an alkali metal or alkali metal hydride. Hydride ion exchange can occur between at least two hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one hydride, between at least two metal hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one metal hydride, and other such combinations (where exchange occurs between or involves more than two species). In one embodiment, the hydride ion exchange forms a mixed metal hydride, e.g., (M)₁)_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₁And M₂Is a metal. In one embodiment, the hybrid hydride comprises an alkali metal and an alkaline earth metal, such as KMgH₃、K₂MgH₄、NaMgH₃And Na₂MgH₄. The reaction mixture may be: at least one of NaH and KH, at least one metal (e.g., an alkaline earth metal or a transition metal), and a support (e.g., carbon or carbide). The reaction mixture may comprise NaHMg and TiC or NaH or KHMgTiC and MX, wherein LiX wherein X is a halide. Hydride ion exchange can occur between NaH and at least one other metal. In embodiments, the battery may contain or form a hydride to form hydrinos. Hydrogenation The compound may comprise a mixed metal hydride, such as Mg_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₂Is a metal. In one embodiment, the hybrid hydride comprises an alkali metal and Mg, such as KMgH₃、K₂MgH₄、NaMgH₃、Na₂MgH₄And a hybrid hydride with a dopant that enhances H mobility. The dopant may increase the H mobility by increasing the concentration of H vacancies. Suitable dopants are small amounts of substituents which may be present as monovalent cations to replace the usual divalent B-type cations in perovskite structures. For example in Na (Mg)_x-1Li_x)H_3-xOne example is a Li dopant to create x vacancies. An exemplary cell is [ Li/olefin separator LP40/NaMgH₃]And [ Li/LiCl-KCl/NaMgH ]₃]。

In one embodiment, the catalyst is an atom or ion of at least one bulk material (e.g., metals of intermetallic compounds, supported metals, and compounds) wherein at least one electron of the atom or ion accepts an integer multiple of about 27.2eV from atomic hydrogen to form a hydrino. In one embodiment, Mg²⁺The catalyst formed hydrino because its third ionization energy (IP) was 80.14 eV. The catalyst may form or constitute a reactant compound of the hydrino reaction mixture in the plasma. Suitable Mg compounds are those which provide Mg in the environment ²⁺So that its third IP more closely matches the 81.6eV resonance energy given by formula (5) (m = 3). Exemplary magnesium compounds include halides, hydrides, nitrides, carbides, and borides. In one embodiment, the hydride is a mixed metal hydride, such as Mg_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₂Is a metal. In one embodiment, the hybrid hydride comprises an alkali metal and Mg, such as KMgH³、K²MgH⁴、NaMgH³And Na₂MgH₄. The catalytic reaction is given by the formula (6-9), wherein Cat^q+Is Mg²⁺R =1 and m = 3. In thatIn another embodiment, Ti²⁺Since its third ionization energy (IP) is 27.49eV, it becomes a catalyst for forming hydrinos. The catalyst may form or constitute a reactant compound of the hydrino reaction mixture in the plasma. Suitable Ti compounds are those which provide Ti in the environment²⁺To more closely match its third IP to the 27.2eV resonance energy given by formula (5) (m = 1). Exemplary titanium compounds include halides, hydrides, nitrides, carbides, and borides. In one embodiment, the hydride is a mixed metal hydride, such as Ti_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₂Is a metal. In one embodiment, the hybrid hydride comprises at least one of an alkali or alkaline earth metal and Ti, such as KTiH ₃、K₂TiH₄、NaTiH₃、Na₂TiH₄And MgTiH₄。

The bulk magnesium metal comprises Mg²⁺Ions and planar metal electrons as counter charges in the metal lattice. The third ionization energy of Mg is IP₃=80.1437 eV. Increase the energy by E_b=147.1 kj/mole (1.525eV) (Mg mole metal bond energy), resulting in IP₃And E_bThe sum is about 3 × 27.2eV, which matches the energy necessary for Mg to act as catalyst (formula (5)). Ionized third electrons may be formed by ions containing ionized Mg²⁺The central metal particle is bonded or conductively grounded. Similarly, calcium metal comprises Ca²⁺Ions and planar metal electrons as counter charges in the metal lattice. The third ionization energy of Ca is IP₃=50.9131 eV. Increase the energy by E_b=177.8 kj/mole (1.843eV) (Ca mole metal bond energy), so that IP is achieved₃And 2E_bThe sum is about 2 × 27.2eV, which matches the energy necessary for Ca to function as a catalyst (formula (5)). The fourth ionization energy of La is IP₄49.95 eV. Increase the energy by E_b=431.0 kJ/mole (4.47eV) (La mole metal bond energy), thereby enabling IP₄And E_bThe sum is about 2 × 27.2eV, which matches the energy necessary for La to function as a catalyst (formula (5)). Having the sum of the ionization energy of lattice ions and the lattice energy or thereofA smaller multiple (equal to about m.times.27.2 eV (equation (5)), such as Cs (IP) ₂=23.15eV)、Sc(IP₃=24.75666eV)、Ti(IP₃=27.4917eV)、Mo(IP₃=27.13eV)、Sb(IP₃=25.3eV)、Eu(IP₃=24.92eV)、Yb(IP₃=25.05eV) and Bi (IP)₃=25.56eV)) may act as a catalyst. In one embodiment, Mg or Ca is the catalyst source for the reaction mixture disclosed herein. The reaction temperature can be controlled to control the reaction rate for forming hydrinos. The temperature may range from about 25 ℃ to 2000 ℃. A suitable temperature range is the metal melting point +/-150 ℃. Ca can also act as a catalyst because of the first four ionization energies (IP)₁=6.11316eV、IP₂=11.87172eV、IP₃=50.9131eV、IP₄=67.27eV) is 136.17eV, that is, 5 × 27.2eV (formula (5)).

In one embodiment, the catalyst reaction energy is the ionization of a species (e.g., atom or ion) with H₂Bond energy (4.478eV) or H^-Sum of ionization energies (IP =0.754 eV). The third ionization energy of Mg is IP₃=80.1437eV。H^-With Mg²⁺Ions (including Mg in the metal lattice)²⁺Ionic) having a catalytic reaction corresponding to IPH^-+MgIP₃Enthalpy of about 3X 27.2eV (formula (5)). The third ionization energy of Ca is IP₃=50.9131eV。H^-With Ca²⁺Ions (including Ca in the metal lattice)²⁺Ionic) having a catalytic reaction corresponding to IPH^-+CaIP₃Enthalpy of about 2X 27.2eV (formula (5)). The fourth ionization energy of La is IP₄=49.95eV。H^-And La³⁺Ions (including La in the metal lattice)³⁺Ionic) having a catalytic reaction corresponding to IPH^-+LaIP₄Enthalpy of about 2X 27.2eV (formula (5)).

In one embodiment, the ionization energy of the ions of the metal lattice plus the energy of less than or equal to the metal work function is a multiple of 27.2eV such that the reaction of the ions to ionize to a metal energy band with the metal ionization limit at the upper limit has sufficient energy to match the energy accepted to catalyze H to the hydrino state. The metal can improve work function On a plurality of carriers. Suitable supports are carbon or carbides. The work function of the latter is about 5 eV. The third ionization energy of Mg is IP₃=80.1437eV, third ionization energy of Ca is IP₃=50.9131eV, and the fourth ionization energy of La is IP₄=49.95 eV. Thus, each of these metals on a carbon or carbide support can act as a catalyst with a net enthalpy of 3 × 27.2eV, 2 × 27.2eV, and 2 × 27.2eV, respectively. Mg has a work function of 3.66 eV; thus, Mg alone can act as a catalyst for 3 × 27.2 eV.

Energy transfer from H to the acceptor (e.g., atom or ion) eliminates the binding energy of the central charge and the acceptor electron. Allowing an energy transfer equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. In the case where the acceptor electron is an outer layer electron of an ion in a metal or a compound, the ion exists in a crystal lattice so as to accept energy greater than vacuum ionization energy of the acceptor electron. The lattice energy is increased by an amount less than or equal to the work function (i.e., the limiting component energy of the ionization of electrons off the lattice). In one embodiment, the ionization energy of the ions of the metal lattice plus the energy of less than or equal to the metal work function is a multiple of 27.2eV such that the reaction of the ions to ionize to a metal energy band with the metal ionization limit at the upper limit has sufficient energy to match the energy accepted to catalyze H to the hydrino state. The metal may be on a support that increases the work function. Suitable supports are carbon or carbides. The work function of the latter is about 5 eV. The third ionization energy of Mg is IP3=80.1437eV, and the third ionization energy of Ca is IP ₃=50.9131eV, and the fourth ionization energy of La is IP₄=49.95 eV. Thus, each of these metals on a carbon or carbide support can act as a catalyst with a net enthalpy of 3 × 27.2eV, 2 × 27.2eV, and 2 × 27.2eV, respectively. Mg has a work function of 3.66 eV; thus, Mg alone can act as a catalyst for 3 × 27.2 eV. The same mechanism applies to ions or compounds. Ions of the ion lattice can act as a catalyst when the ionization energy of such ions plus an energy less than or equal to the work function of the compound is a multiple of 27.2 eV.

Suitable supports for the catalyst system (e.g. bulk catalysts such as Mg) are TiC, Ti₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、YC₂SiC and B₄C. In one embodiment, the support of the bulk catalyst may comprise compounds of the same or different metals, such as halides of alkali or alkaline earth metals. A suitable compound for the Mg catalyst is MgBr₂、MgI₂、MgB₂、CaBr₂、CaI₂And SrI₂. The support may further comprise halogenated compounds, for example fluorocarbons, such as Teflon, fluorocarbon, hexafluorobenzene and CF₄. The reaction product of magnesium fluoride and carbon can be regenerated by known methods such as melt electrolysis. The carbon fluoride can be directly regenerated by using a carbon anode. Hydrogen may be supplied by permeating the hydrogen permeable membrane. Suitable reaction mixtures are Mg and a support (e.g. TiC, Ti) ₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、YC₂SiC and B₄C) In that respect The reactants can be in any molar ratio. The carrier may be in excess. The molar ratio may range from 1.5 to 10000. The hydrogen pressure can be maintained so that the hydrogenation degree of Mg is extremely low to maintain Mg metal and H₂And (4) atmosphere. For example, the hydrogen pressure may be maintained below atmospheric pressure at elevated reactor temperatures, such as at 1 torr to 100 torr at temperatures in excess of 400 ℃. One skilled in the art will determine suitable temperature and hydrogen pressure ranges based on the magnesium hydride composition versus temperature and hydrogen pressure.

The hydrino reaction mixture may comprise high surface area Mg, a support, a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Or hydride) and optionally other reactants (e.g., an oxidizing agent). Support (e.g. TiC, Ti)₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、YC₂SiC and B₄At least one of C) can be regenerated by evaporating the volatile metal. Mg can be removed by washing with anthracene-Tetrahydrofuran (THF), where a Mg complex is formed. Mg can be recovered by thermal decomposition of the complex.

In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a metal or compound having an ionization energy equal to an integer multiple of 27.2eV, as measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In one embodiment, NaH serves as a catalyst and source of H, wherein the reaction temperature is maintained above 638 ℃ melting point of NaH at a hydrogen pressure of 107.3 bar or more.

Al metal can act as a catalyst. The first, second and third ionization energies are 5.98577eV, 18.82856eV and 28.44765eV, respectively, such that Al is to Al³⁺The ionization of (a) is 53.26198 eV. This enthalpy plus the Al bond energy at the defect is matched to 2X 27.2 eV.

Another class of species satisfying catalyst conditions that provide a net enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2eV is the combination of a hydrogen molecule and another species (e.g., atom or ion), whereby H₂The sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of one or more electrons of other substances is m × 27.2 (formula (5)). For example, H₂The bond energy is 4.478eV and the first and second ionization energies of Mg are IP₁=7.64624eV and IP₂=15.03528 eV. Thus, Mg and H₂It can act as a catalyst with a net enthalpy of 27.2 eV. In another embodiment, the catalyst conditions that provide a net enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2eV are satisfied by a combination of a hydride and another species (e.g., an atom or ion), whereby the sum of the ionization energies of H "and one or more electrons of the other species is m × 27.2 (equation (5)). For example, the H-ionization energy is 0.754eV and the third ionization energy IP of Mg₃=80.1437 eV. Thus, Mg²⁺And H-can act as a catalyst with a net enthalpy of 3X 27.2 eV.

Another class of species that satisfies the catalyst conditions that provide a net enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2eV is a combination of a hydrogen atom and another species (e.g., an atom or ion), whereby the sum of the ionization energies of the hydrogen atom and one or more electrons of the other species is m × 27.2 (equation (5)). For example, the ionization energy of H is 13.59844eV and the first, second, and third ionization energies of Ca are IP ₁=6.11316eV、IP₂=11.87172eV and IP₃=50.9131 eV. Thus, Ca and H can act as catalysts with a net enthalpy of 3 × 27.2 eV. Because of the first, second, third and fourth (IP) of Ca₄=67.27eV) ionization energy sum is 5 × 27.2eV, so Ca can also act as a catalyst. In the latter case, because H (1/4) is preferred for its stability, the H atom catalyzed by Ca can transition to the H (1/4) state, where it is transferred to Ca to ionize it to Ca⁴⁺The energy of (A) comprises 81.6eVComponent, thereby forming intermediate H (1/4) and releasing 54.56eV as part of the decay energy of H (1/4).

In one embodiment, the hydrogen atoms may act as a catalyst. For example, a hydrogen atom may serve as a catalyst, where m =1, m =2, and m =3 in formula (5) correspond to one, two, and three atoms, respectively, of a catalyst serving as another. The rate of diatomic catalyst 2H can be higher when the extremely fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H, where two atoms receive 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom in the colliding pair in a resonant and non-radiative manner. By the same mechanism, two heats H₂The collision of (3) provided 3H to act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. As predicted, EUV continuum at 22.8nm and 10.1nm, notably (C) was observed from the plasma system >50eV) Barlow end alpha line broadening, highly excited H states and product gas H₂(1/4). High densities of H atoms for multi-body interactions can also be achieved on supports such as carbides or borides. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a support (e.g., TiCTiCN, WC)_{Nano meter}Carbon black, Ti₃SiC₂、MgB₂、TiB₂、Cr₃C₂、B₄C、SiC、YC₂) And a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Gases and hydrides, e.g. MgH₂). The reaction mixture may further comprise a dissociating agent, such as Pd/Al₂O₃Pd/C, R-Ni, Ti powder, Ni powder and MoS₂。

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least two of the following: a catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen or a hydrogen source, such as KH, BaH or NaH; supports, e.g. metal carbides (preferably TiC, Ti)₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、B₄C. SiC or YC₂) Or a metal (e.g., a transition metal such as Fe, Mn, or Cr); reducing agents, such as alkaline earth metal and alkaline earth metal halides (which may act as oxidizing agents). The alkaline earth metal halide oxidizing agent and the reducing agent preferably comprise the same alkaline earth metal. An exemplary reaction mixture comprises: KHMgTiC or YC₂MgCl₂(ii) a KHMgTiC or YC₂MgF₂(ii) a KHCaTiC or YC₂CaCl₂(ii) a KHCaTiC or YC₂CaF₂(ii) a KHSrTiC or YC₂SrCl₂(ii) a KHSrTiC or YC₂SrF₂(ii) a KHBaTiC or YC₂BaCl₂(ii) a KHBaTiC or YC₂BaBr₂(ii) a KHBaTiC or YC₂BaI₂.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises: a catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen or a hydrogen source, such as KH, BaH or NaH; and supports, e.g. metal carbides (preferably TiC, Ti) ₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、B₄C. SiC or YC₂) Or a metal (e.g., a transition metal such as Fe, Mn, or Cr). Suitable supports are those which allow the catalyst and hydrogen to be formed so that H forms hydrinos. An exemplary reaction mixture comprises: KHYC₂；KHTiC；NaHYC₂And NaHTiC.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen or a hydrogen source, such as an alkali metal hydride. Suitable reactants are KH, BaH and NaH. The reaction mixture may further comprise a reducing agent, such as an alkaline earth metal, preferably Mg, and may additionally comprise a support, wherein the support may be carbon, for example activated carbon, a metal or a carbide. The reaction mixture may further comprise an oxidizing agent, such as an alkaline earth metal halide. In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent may be a support, such as carbon. The carbon may comprise forms such as graphite and activated carbon, and may further comprise hydrogen dissociating agents, such as Pt, Pd, Ru, or Ir. Suitable such carbons may comprise Pt/C, Pd/C, Ru/C or Ir/C. The oxidizing agent may form an intercalation compound with one or more metals or reaction mixtures. The metal may be a catalyst or a catalyst-derived metal, such as an alkali metal. In an exemplary reaction, the intercalation compound may be KC _xWhere x may be 8, 10, 24, 36, 48, 60. In one embodiment, the intercalation compound may be regenerated to form the metal and carbon. Regeneration may be carried out by heating, where the metal may be dynamically removed to further drive the reaction to completion. Suitable regeneration temperatures are from about 500 deg.C to about 1000 deg.C, preferably about 750 deg.C-900 ℃. The reaction may be further promoted by the addition of other species, such as gases. The gas may be an inert gas or hydrogen. The hydrogen source may be a hydride, for example a catalytic source (e.g. KH) or an oxidant source (e.g. MgH)₂). Suitable gases are one or more of inert gases and nitrogen. Alternatively, the gas may be ammonia, or a mixture of other gases, or a mixture of ammonia and other gases. The gas may be removed by methods such as suction. Other displacers include intercalants that do not include a catalyst or catalyst source intercalant, such as another alkali metal that does not correspond to the catalyst or catalyst source alkali metal. The exchange may be dynamic or occur intermittently so that at least some of the catalyst or catalyst source is regenerated. Carbon is also regenerated, for example, by: the intercalation compound formed by the displacer is decomposed more readily. This can be done by heating or by using a gas displacement agent. Any methane or hydrocarbon formed from carbon and hydrogen can be reformed into carbon and hydrogen over a suitable catalyst. Methane can also be reacted with a metal (e.g., an alkali metal) to form the corresponding hydride and carbon. Suitable alkali metals are K and Na.

NH₃The solution dissolves K. In one embodiment, NH₃May be at liquid density when intercalated in carbon. Then, it can act as a solvent to drive the carbon from the MC_xRegenerated and NH₃Is easily removed from the reaction chamber in gaseous form. In addition, NH₃Reversibly reacting with M (e.g. K) to form an amide (e.g. KNH)₂) It can push the slave MC_xThe reaction for extracting M is completed. In one embodiment, NH is reacted under pressure and under other reaction conditions₃Is added to MC_xSo that the carbon is regenerated when M is removed. Followed by NH removal under vacuum₃. It can be recovered for use in another regeneration cycle.

In another embodiment, the metal may be extracted from the intercalation product (e.g., MC) by using a metal solvent_x(M is an alkali metal)) removing the alkali metal to form a metal and carbon. A suitable solvent for dissolving the alkali metal is hexamethylphosphoramide (OP (N (CH)₃)₂)₃) Ammonia, amines, ethers, complexing solvents, crown ethers and cryptands and solvents such as ethers or amides, e.g. THF with addition of crown ethers or cryptands. An acoustic wave can be used to increase the removal rate of the alkali metal. In one embodiment, a reaction mixture, for example, a reaction mixture comprising a catalyst or catalyst source and further comprising hydrogen or a hydrogen source (e.g., an alkali metal hydride, such as KH, BaH, or NaH), a reducing agent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal), and a carbon support (e.g., activated carbon), is flowed through the power generation section to the product regeneration section. Regeneration may be performed by extracting any intercalated metals with a solvent. The solvent may be evaporated to remove the alkali metal. The metals may be hydrogenated and combined with regenerated carbon and reductant to form an initial reaction mixture, which is then flowed to a power section to complete the power generation and regeneration cycle. The kinetic reaction section may be maintained at an elevated temperature to initiate the kinetic reaction. The heat source to maintain this temperature and to provide heat for any other step in the cycle (e.g., solvent evaporation) may come from the hydrino formation reaction.

In one embodiment, reaction conditions (e.g., battery supply temperature) are maintained such that the intercalation compound is dynamically formed and decomposed, with the kinetic and regeneration reactions being maintained simultaneously. In another embodiment, the temperature is periodically varied to shift the equilibrium between intercalation formation and decomposition, thereby alternately maintaining the kinetic and regeneration reactions. In another embodiment, the metal and carbon may be electrochemically regenerated from the intercalation compound. In this case, the cell further comprises a cathode and an anode, and may also comprise cathode and anode compartments electrically contacted by suitable salt bridges. The reduced carbon may be oxidized to carbon and hydrogen may be reduced to hydride, thereby reacting reactants such as KH and AC from KC_xAnd (4) regenerating. In one embodiment, the battery comprises liquid potassium K_mAn anode and an intercalated graphite cathode. The electrodes may be coupled by an electrolyte and a salt bridge. The electrodes may be coupled by a solid potassium-glass electrolyte, which may couple K⁺Ions are transported from the anode to the cathode. The anodic reaction may be

K⁺+e^-→K_m(86)

The cathodic reaction may involve a change of order, for example from n-1 to n, wherein the higher the order the lower the amount of intercalated K. In the case of an order change from 2 to 3, the cathodic reaction may be

3C₂₄K→2C₃₆K+K⁺+e^-(87)

The total reaction is

3C₂₄K→2C₃₆K+K_m(88)

The cell may be operated cyclically or intermittently with the kinetic reaction being carried out after regeneration or partial regeneration of the reactants. The emf change caused by injecting current into the system can cause the hydrino reaction to recover.

In embodiments comprising a catalyst or catalyst source, hydrogen or hydrogen source, and at least one of an oxidizing agent, a support, and a reducing agent, wherein the oxidizing agent may comprise a form of carbon, such as the reaction mixture KHMgAC, the oxidation reaction produces a metal intercalation compound that can be regenerated with high temperature and vacuum. Alternatively, the carbon may be regenerated by using a displacement gas. The pressure may range from about 0.1 to 500 atmospheres. A suitable gas is H₂Inert gas, N₂Or CH₄Or other volatile hydrocarbons. Preferably reduced carbon (e.g. KC)_xAC) to carbon without oxidizing or otherwise reacting K to form compounds that cannot be thermally converted back to K. After K has been removed from the carbon by methods such as evaporation or sublimation, the replacement gas may be withdrawn, K may or may not be hydrogenated and returned to the cell, and the kinetic reaction may proceed again.

The intercalated carbon may be charged to increase the catalytic rate of hydriding. Charging can change the chemical potential of the reactants. A high voltage may be applied using an electrode in contact with the reactant and a counter electrode not in contact with the reactant. While the reaction is proceeding, a voltage may be applied. The pressure (e.g., hydrogen pressure) may be adjusted to allow a voltage to be developed that charges the reactants while avoiding glow discharge. The voltage may be DC or RF or any desired frequency or waveform, including pulses with any offset within a maximum voltage range, any voltage maximum, and a duty cycle. In one embodiment, the counter electrode system is in electrical contact with the reactants, thereby maintaining an electrical current through the reactants. The counter electrode may be negatively biased and the conductive cell grounded. Alternatively, the polarity may be reversed. A second electrode may be introduced such that the reactants are between the electrodes and an electrical current is caused to flow between the electrodes through at least one of the reactants.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises KH, Mg and Activated Carbon (AC). In other embodiments, the reaction mixture comprises one or more of the following: LiHMgAC; nahmgaac; KHMgAC; RbHMgAC; CsHMgAC; LiMgAC; NaMgAC; KMgAC; RbMgAC; and CsMgAC. In other exemplary embodiments, the reaction mixture comprises one or more of the following: KHMgACMgF₂；KHMgACMgCl₂；KHMgACMgF₂+MgCl₂；KHMgACSrCl₂(ii) a And KHMgACBaBr₂. The reaction mixture may include an intermetallic compound (e.g., Mg2Ba) as a reducing agent or as a support, and may further include a mixture of oxidizing agents (e.g., a mixture consisting only of alkaline earth halides (e.g., MgF)₂+MgCl₂) Or mixtures of alkaline earth metal halides and alkali metal halides (e.g. KF + MgF)₂Or KMgF₃)). These reactants can be thermally regenerated from the products of the reaction mixture.

At temperatures above 527 ℃, K does not intercalate into the carbon. In one embodiment, the battery system is operated at a higher temperature so that no K-intercalated carbon is formed. In one embodiment, K is added to the reaction cell at this temperature. The battery reactants may further comprise a surplus, such as Mg. Can be mixed with H₂The pressure is maintained at a level that will form KH in situ, for example about 5 to 50 atm.

In another embodiment, AC can be reacted with a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., K) to form the corresponding ionic compound (e.g., MC)_x(M is an alkali metal, comprising M⁺And) In another material displacement. The material may act as an oxidizing agent. The material may form an intercalation compound with at least one of: catalyst, catalyst source, and hydrogen source (e.g., K, Na, NaH, BaH, and KH). Suitable intercalation materials are hexagonal boron nitride and metal chalcogenides. Suitable chalcogenides are compounds having a layered structure, e.g. MoS₂And WS₂. The layered chalcogenide may be one or more from the group consisting of: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、VSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂. Other suitable exemplary materials are silicon, doped silicon, silicides, boron, and borides. Suitable borides include those that form double-stranded and two-dimensional networks (like graphite). The boride of the two-dimensional network structure, which may be conductive, may have, for example, MB₂Wherein M is a metal, such as at least one of Cr, Ti, Mg, Zr, and Gd (CrB)₂、TiB₂、MgB₂、ZrB₂、GdB₂). The formation of the compound may be thermally reversible. The reactants may be thermally regenerated by removing the catalyst or catalyst source.

In one embodiment, a reaction mixture comprising reactants that form an intercalation compound (e.g., metal graphite, metal hydride graphite, or similar compound containing a non-carbon element) as an oxidizing agent is operated at a first power cycle operating temperature that maximizes the fractional hydrogen yield. The battery temperature may then be changed to a second value or range that is optimal for regeneration during the regeneration cycle. In the case where the regeneration cycle temperature is lower than the power cycle temperature, a heat exchanger may be used to reduce the temperature. In the case where the regeneration cycle temperature is higher than the power cycle temperature, a heater may be used to increase the temperature. The heater may be a resistance heater using electricity emitted from thermal power generated during a power cycle. The system may include a heat exchanger, such as a reflux system, wherein heat loss is minimized as the cooling regeneration reactants heat the product for regeneration. As an alternative to resistive heating, a heat pump may be used to heat the mixture to reduce the electricity consumed. Heat loss may also be minimized by transferring heat from a hotter object to a cooler object, such as a battery using a heat pipe. Reactants may be continuously supplied through the hot zone to cause the hydrino reaction and may further flow or be transported to another zone, compartment, reactor or system, where regeneration may be performed in batches, intermittently, or continuously, where the products in the regeneration may be stationary or moving.

In one embodiment, NaOH is the source of NaH in the regeneration cycle. NaOH forms Na with Na₂The reaction of O and NaH is

NaOH+2Na→Na₂O + NaH (-44.7 KJ/mol) (89)

The exothermic reaction may drive the formation of nah (g). Thus, the decomposition of NaH to Na or a metal can act as a reducing agent to form the catalyst NaH (g). In one embodiment, Na formed as a product of a reaction that produces NaH catalyst (such as the reaction given in formula (89)) is reacted₂The reaction of O with a source of hydrogen forms NaOH, which can further serve as a source of NaH catalyst. In one embodiment, the reaction to regenerate NaOH from the product of formula (89) in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

Na₂O +1/2H → NaOH + Na.DELTA.H-11.6 kJ/mol NaOH (9)0)

NaH → Na + H (1/3) Δ H-10,500 kJ/mol H (91)

And

NaH → Na + H (1/4) Δ H-19,700 kJ/mol H (92)

Thus, small amounts of NaOH and Na from sources such as Na metal or NaH and atomic hydrogen sources or atomic hydrogen serve as catalytic sources for the NaH catalyst, which in turn forms large amounts of hydrinos via multiple cycles of regeneration reactions (as given by formulas (89-92)). The reaction given by formula (90) can be carried out by using a catalyst selected from H₂Hydrogen dissociators forming atoms H. Suitable debonding agents include at least one member from the group of noble metals, transition metals, Pt, Pd, Ir, Ni, Ti, and these elements supported on a support. The reaction mixture may comprise NaH or a source of NaH and NaOH or a source of NaOH, and may further comprise at least one of: reducing agents, for example alkaline earth metals, such as Mg; and supports, e.g. carbon or carbides, e.g. TiC, YC ₂、TiSiC₂And WC. The reaction may be carried out in a vessel inert to the reactants and products (e.g. Ni, Ag, Ni-plated, Ag-plated or Al)₂O₃Container) is used.

In one embodiment, KOH is the source of K and KH in the regeneration cycle. KOH and K form K₂The reaction of O and KH is

KOH+2K→K₂O + KH (+5.4 KJ/mol) (93)

During the formation of KH, a hydrino reaction takes place. In one embodiment, let K₂O reacts with a hydrogen source to form KOH, which can further serve as a reactant of formula (93). In one embodiment, the reaction to regenerate KOH of formula (93) in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

K₂O+1/2H₂→ KOH + K.DELTA.H ═ 63.1 kJ/mol KOH (94)

KH → K + H (1/4) Δ H ═ 19,700 kJ/mole H (95)

Thus, from metals such as KOr a source of KH or the like and a source of atomic hydrogen or small amounts of KOH and K of atomic hydrogen act as catalytic sources of KH source for the catalyst, which in turn forms large amounts of hydrinos over multiple cycles of regeneration reactions (as given by formulas (93-95)). The reaction given by formula (94) can be carried out by using a catalyst selected from H₂Hydrogen dissociators forming atoms H. Suitable debonding agents include at least one member from the group of noble metals, transition metals, Pt, Pd, Ir, Ni, Ti, and these elements supported on a support. The reaction mixture may comprise a KH or KH source and a KOH or KOH source, and may further comprise at least one of: a reducing agent; and a support (e.g. carbon, carbide or boride, such as TiC, YC) ₂、TiSiC₂、MgB₂And WC). In one embodiment, the support is non-reactive or has low reactivity with KOH. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one KOH-doped support, such as R-Ni, KOH, and KH.

The components of the reaction mixture can be in any molar ratio. A suitable ratio of the reaction mixture comprising the catalyst or catalyst source and the hydrogen source (e.g. NaH or KH), reducing agent, solvent or hydride exchange reactant (e.g. an alkaline earth metal such as Mg) and support is such that the first two are in a near equimolar ratio with an excess of support. Exemplary suitable ratios of NaH or KH + Mg to carrier (e.g., AC) are 5%, 5% and 90%, respectively, where each mole% can be varied by a factor of 10 to add up to 100%. In the case where the support is TiC, exemplary suitable ratios are 20%, and 60%, respectively, where each mole% can be varied by a factor of 10 to add up to 100%. Suitable ratios of the reaction mixture comprising the catalyst or catalyst source and the hydrogen source (e.g., NaH or KH), reducing agent, solvent or hydride exchange reactant (e.g., an alkaline earth metal (e.g., Mg), a metal halide comprising an oxidizing agent or halide exchange reactant (e.g., a halide of an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, Ag, In, or rare earth metal)) and support are such that the two are In a near equimolar ratio, the metal halide is In equimolar or lesser abundance, and the support is In excess. NaH or KH + Mg + MX or MX ₂Exemplary suitable ratios of (M is a metal and X is a halide) to support (e.g., AC) are 10%, 2%, and 78%, respectively, wherein each mole% canThe changes were 10-fold to add up to 100%. In the case where the support is TiC, exemplary suitable ratios are 25%, 6% and 44%, respectively, where each mole% can be varied by a factor of 10 to add up to 100%.

In one embodiment, the power plant shown in fig. 2 comprises a multi-tube reactor, wherein the hydrino reaction (power-producing catalysis that forms H into hydrino) and regeneration reactions are temporarily controlled between reactors to continuously maintain the desired power output. The cell may be heated to cause the reaction, and energy from the fractional hydrogen formation reaction may be stored in a thermal mass (including the cell thermal mass) and transferred through a heat transfer medium and control system under controlled conditions to continuously obtain the desired contribution to electricity. The regeneration reaction may be performed in multiple cells along with the power reaction to maintain continuous operation. Regeneration may be performed thermally, where heat may be provided at least partially or entirely by energy released upon formation of hydrinos. Regeneration may be carried out in an inclusion unit associated with each tube (reactor) of the multitubular reactor. In one embodiment, heat from the power generation cell may flow to the cell undergoing regeneration due to the thermal gradient. The flow may be through a heat transfer medium, including a coolant, wherein the flow is controlled by a valve and at least one flow rate controller and pump.

In the embodiment shown in fig. 5, the reactor comprises a primary reactor 101 for generating power from reactants by catalyzing hydrogen to hydrinos and a second chamber 102 in communication with the primary reactor. The dual chamber reactor 110 contains the cells of the multi-cell assembly that make up the multi-tube reactor 100. Each unit further comprises a heat exchanger 103. Each cell may have a thermal barrier, such as insulation or an air gap, for controlling heat transfer. The heat exchanger may be arranged so that the coldest part is at the second chamber of the region furthest from the main reaction chamber. The temperature may gradually increase as the heat exchanger approaches the bottom of the main reaction chamber. The heat exchanger may comprise tubing wrapped around the chamber to maintain a temperature gradient along the heat exchanger. The heat exchanger may have a line 107 from the hottest portion of the exchanger to the heat load (e.g., steam generator 104, steam turbine 105, and generator 106). This line may be near the bottom of the main reactor as shown in fig. 5 and may further be part of the closed main circulation loop 115. Heat from the multi-tube reactor system may be transferred to a thermal load through a heat exchanger 111, which heat exchanger 111 isolates the heat transfer medium of the power system (primary loop) from the thermal load (e.g., generator systems 104, 105, and 106). A working fluid (e.g., high temperature steam) in the power conversion system may be received as low temperature steam from the turbine through a recycle line 113 and a condenser 112 (which may further include a heat rejection heat exchanger). The power cycle system may include a secondary loop 116 for a working medium (e.g., steam and water). In an alternative embodiment comprising a single loop heat transfer system, line 115 is connected directly to steam generator 104 and return line 108 is connected directly to condenser 112, where circulation in either configuration may be provided by circulation pump 129.

In one embodiment, the chamber is vertical. The coldest part of the heat exchanger with cold input line 108 may be located at the top of the second chamber with counter-flow heat exchange, where the heat transfer medium (e.g. fluid or gas) becomes increasingly hot from the top of the second chamber to the main chamber (where heat is removed to the thermal load with line 107 at about the middle of the main chamber). The chambers may be in communication with or isolated from each other by opening and closing chamber isolation valves (e.g., valves) between the chambers. The reactor 110 may further include an exhaust mechanism 121, which may include a vacuum pump 127. The exhaust gas may be separated by a hydrogen fractional gas separator 122, and the hydrogen fractional gas may be used for chemical production in a system 124. The hydrogen gas may be collected by a hydrogen recycler 123, which recycler 123 may return recycled hydrogen by adding gaseous hydrogen via line 120 and optionally from a supply 125.

Using exemplary reactants KH and SrBr₂In embodiments of (1), the hydrino-dynamic reaction can be carried out followed by opening the valve when SrBr is formed in the main chamber₂K is moved to the cold top of the second chamber, valve is closed, K is hydrogenated, valve is opened, KH is dropped back into the main chamber, valve is closed, and then regenerated SrBr is used ₂And KH to make the power reaction of fractional hydrogen proceedAnd (6) rows. Mg metal may also be collected in the second chamber. Because of its low volatility, it can be condensed separately from K and returned separately to the first chamber. In other embodiments, KH may be replaced by another alkali metal or alkali metal hydride, the oxidant SrBr₂May be replaced by another. The reactor is preferably a metal capable of high temperature operation and not forming an intermetallic compound with Sr in the operating temperature range. Suitable reactor materials are stainless steel and nickel. The reactor may comprise a Ta or Ta coating and may further comprise an intermetallic that prevents further formation of intermetallics, such as an intermetallic of Sr with stainless steel or nickel.

The reaction can be controlled by: the pressure of the inert gas that can be introduced through the hydrogen inlet 120 and removed through the gas exhaust mechanism 121 is controlled. The gate valve may be opened to allow catalyst, such as K, to evaporate from the reaction chamber 101 to the chamber 102. The hydrogen may be extracted using the exhaust mechanism 121. The catalyst or hydrogen source (e.g., KH) may no longer be supplied when needed, or may be controlled in amounts to terminate or reduce power. Adding H through supply 120 and gate valve ₂Or by direct addition of H via a separate line₂Reducing agents such as Mg may be hydrogenated to reduce the rate. The thermal mass of the reactor 110 may be such that the temperature does not exceed a failure level where the reactants are fully reacted, wherein an interrupted regeneration cycle may be maintained.

In the case where the reactor temperature is greater than the hydride decomposition temperature, the hydride (e.g., KH) can be added to the reheated reaction mixture in a time much less than the thermal decomposition time of the hydride. LiH is stable up to 900 ℃ and melts at 688.7 ℃; thus, it can be added back into the reactor and not thermally decomposed at the corresponding regeneration temperature, which is less than the LiH decomposition temperature. A suitable reaction mixture comprising LiH is LiHMgTiCsrCl₂、LiHMgTiCSrBr₂And LiHMgTiCBaBr₂. A suitable reaction mixture comprising LiH is LiHMgTiCsrCl₂、LiHMgTiCSrBr₂、LiHMgTiCBaBr₂And LiHMgTiCBaCl₂。

The thermal battery undergoing regeneration may be heated by other batteries that generate power. Heat transfer between the cells during the power and regeneration cycles may be through valves that control the flowing coolant. In one embodiment, the battery may comprise a can, such as a tube having a diameter of 1 to 4 inches. The cell may be embedded in a heat conducting medium such as a solid, liquid or gaseous medium. The medium may be water, which may undergo boiling at the cell walls by modes such as nucleate boiling. Alternatively, the medium may be a molten metal or salt, or may be a solid (e.g., copper particles). The cells may be square or rectangular to transfer heat therebetween more efficiently. In one embodiment, the regenerating cells are maintained at a temperature above the regeneration temperature by heat transfer from the cells in the power generation cycle. Heat transfer may occur via a conductive medium. The power producing cells may produce a higher temperature than necessary for regeneration to maintain some heat transfer to the cells. A heat load (e.g., a heat exchanger or steam generator) may receive heat from the conductive medium. Suitably at the periphery. The system may include a thermal barrier that maintains the conductive medium at a temperature above the thermal load. The barrier may comprise insulation or an air gap. The cells that generate power heat those cells undergoing regeneration in a manner such that the power output is statistically close to a constant level as the number of cells increases. Thus, the power is statistically constant. In one embodiment, the cycling of each cell is controlled to select the cell that produces power, thereby providing heat to the selected regenerating cell. The cycle can be controlled by controlling the reaction conditions. The device used to condense the metal vapor away from the reaction mixture can be controlled on and off to control each cell cycle.

In another embodiment, the heat flow may be passive or active. A plurality of cells are embedded in a heat transfer medium. The medium may have a high thermal conductivity. Suitable media may be: solids, such as metals, including copper, aluminum, and stainless steel; liquids, such as molten salts; or a gas, for example an inert gas such as helium or argon.

The multitube reactor may comprise a plurality of cells oriented horizontally with a non-working zone (dead space) along the long axis of the cell that allows vapors of metals such as alkali metals to escape during regeneration. The metal may condense in a cooling zone in contact with the cell interior where the temperature may be kept below the cell temperature. Suitably at the ends of the cell. The cooling zone may be maintained at a desired temperature by a heat exchanger with a variable heat reception rate. The condensation zone may comprise a chamber having a closable valve (e.g., a valve). The condensed metal (e.g., K) may be hydrogenated and the hydride may be returned to the reactor by methods such as mechanical or pneumatic. The reaction mixture may be agitated by methods known in the art, such as mechanical mixing or mechanical agitation, including vibration at low frequencies or ultrasound. Mixing may also be carried out pneumatically, for example by sparging with a gas such as hydrogen or an inert gas.

In another embodiment of a multitube reactor comprising a horizontally oriented cell with a non-working zone along the long axis of the cell that allows vapors of metals such as alkali metals to escape during regeneration, the zone along the length of the cell is maintained at a lower temperature than the reaction mixture. Along which the metal can condense. The cooling zone may be maintained at a desired temperature by a heat exchanger having a variable and controlled rate of heat exchange. The heat exchanger may comprise a conduit with flowing coolant, or a heat pipe. The temperature of the cooling zone and the battery can be controlled to a desired value depending on the flow rate in the conduit or the heat transfer rate of the heat pipe, which is controlled by parameters such as its pressure, temperature, and heat receiving surface area. Condensed metals (such as K or Na) can be hydrogenated due to the presence of hydrogen in the cell. The hydride can be returned to the reactor and mixed with the other reactants by rotating the cell about its long axis. The rotation may be driven by an electric motor, wherein a transmission may be used to synchronize the batteries. The rotation may be alternated in clockwise and counter-clockwise directions for mixing the reactants. The battery may be intermittently rotated 360. The rotation can be performed at high angular velocity, so that the heat transfer to the heat collector is minimally altered. The fast rotation may be coupled with a slow constant rotation rate to achieve further mixing of possible residual reactants (e.g., metal hydride). Hydrogen is supplied to each cell by a hydrogen line or by permeation through the cell wall or hydrogen permeable membrane, where the hydrogen is supplied to the cell-containing chamber. Hydrogen may also be supplied by electrolysis of water. The electrolysis cell may comprise a rotating assembly of cells, such as a cylindrical rotating shaft along the centerline of the reactor cell.

Alternatively, one or more internal scrapers or stirrers may be swept over the inner surface to mix the formed hydride with the other reactants. Each scraper or stirrer may be rotatable about an axis parallel to the long axis of the cell. The squeegees can be driven using magnetic coupling of the internal squeegees to a source of external rotating magnetic field. The vessel wall (e.g., a stainless steel wall) is magnetically permeable. In one embodiment, the rate of rotation of the cell or paddle or stirrer is controlled to maximize power output when the metal vapor reacts to form a metal hydride and mixes with the reaction mixture. The reaction cell may be tubular with a circular, elliptical, square, rectangular, triangular or polyhedral cross-section. The heat exchanger may comprise coolant-carrying tubes or conduits, which may have square or rectangular as well as circular, elliptical, triangular or polyhedral cross-sections to achieve the desired surface area. An array of square or rectangular tubes may constitute a continuous surface for heat exchange. The surface of each tube or conduit may be modified with fins or other surface area increasing material.

In another embodiment, the reactor comprises a plurality of zones having different temperatures to selectively condense multiple selected components of or from the product mixture. These components can be regenerated as initial reactants. In one embodiment, the coldest zone condenses an alkali metal, for example a catalyst or catalyst derived alkali metal, such as at least one of Na and K. Another zone condenses a second component, for example an alkaline earth metal such as magnesium. The temperature of the first zone may be in the range of 0 ℃ to 500 ℃; the temperature of the second zone may be in the range of 10 ℃ to 490 ℃ and less than the temperature of the first zone. The temperature of each zone can be controlled by a heat exchanger or collector with variable and controlled efficiency.

In another embodiment, a reactor comprises: a reaction chamber capable of withstanding a vacuum or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, one or more inlets for material in at least one of a gaseous, liquid or solid state, and at least one material outlet. One outlet may contain a vacuum line for drawing off gas, such as hydrogen. The reaction chamber further comprises a hydrino-forming reactant. The reactor further comprises a heat exchanger located within the reaction chamber. The heat exchanger may include a coolant conduit. The conduits may be distributed throughout the reaction chamber so as to receive heat from the reaction mixture in the reaction. Each conduit may have an insulating barrier between the reaction mixture and the conduit wall. Alternatively, the thermal conductivity of the wall may be such that a temperature gradient exists between the reactants and the coolant during operation. The insulation may be a vacuum gap or an air gap. The conduit may be a tube that penetrates the reaction mixture and is sealed by the chamber wall at the point of penetration to maintain the pressure integrity of the reaction chamber. The flow rate of the coolant (e.g., water) can be controlled to maintain the reaction chamber and reactants at a desired temperature. In another embodiment, the conduit is replaced by a heat pipe that removes heat from the reaction mixture and transfers it to a heat sink (e.g., a heat exchanger or boiler).

In one embodiment, a plurality of thermally coupled cells arranged in a bundle (where the cells in the power generation phase of the cycle heat the cells in the regeneration phase) are used to maintain and regenerate the hydrino reaction in a batch mode. In this intermittent battery power design, the thermodynamic is statistically constant as the number of batteries increases, or the battery cycle is controlled to achieve stable power. Thermal power may be converted into electrical power using a heat engine utilizing a cycle (e.g., rankine, brayton, stirling, or steam engine cycle).

Each cell cycle can be controlled by controlling the reactants and products of the hydrino chemistry. In one embodiment, the chemistry that drives the formation of hydrinos includes a halide-hydride anion exchange reaction between an alkali metal hydride catalyst and a hydrogen source and a metal halide oxidant (such as an alkaline earth metal or alkali metal halide). In a closed system, the reaction is spontaneous. However, when the system is open such that the alkali metal of the initial hydride is evaporated from the other reactants, the reverse reaction to form the initial alkali metal hydride and alkaline earth halide is thermally reversible. The alkali metal which is subsequently condensed is rehydrogenated and returned to the system. A cell comprising a reaction chamber 130 and a metal condensation and rehydrogenation chamber 131 separated by a gate valve or valves 132 that control the kinetic reaction and the regeneration reaction by controlling the flow rate of the evaporated metal vapor, the rehydrogenation of the metal and the resupply of regenerated alkali metal hydride is shown in fig. 6. The cooled region may be maintained at a desired temperature in the condensing chamber by a heat exchanger 139, such as a water-cooled coil having a variable heat acceptance rate. Thus, the battery shown in fig. 6 includes two chambers separated by a gate valve or gate 132. With the reaction chamber 130 closed, the forward reaction proceeds to form hydrinos and alkali metal halide and alkaline earth metal hydride products. Then, the valve is opened and heat from the other cell causes the product metal to exchange halide ions as the volatile alkali metal evaporates and condenses in the other catalyst chamber 131 cooled by the coolant loop 139. The valve is closed, the condensed metal is reacted with hydrogen to form an alkali metal hydride, and the valve is opened again to resupply the reactant with the regenerated initial alkali metal hydride. Hydrogen is recycled and make-up is added to replace the hydrogen consumed, thereby forming hydrino. Hydrogen is pumped from the reaction chamber through an exhaust line 133 by a pump 134. The fractional hydrogen gas is vented in line 135. The remaining hydrogen is recycled via line 136 and make-up is added from the hydrogen source via line 137 and supplied to the catalyst chamber via line 138. Horizontally oriented cells are another design that allows the catalyst to evaporate over a larger surface area. In this case, the hydride is re-supplied by mechanical mixing rather than just gravity fed. In another embodiment, the cell may be tilted vertically so that the hydride falls into the reaction chamber and mixes therein.

In one embodiment, chamber 131 shown in FIG. 6 further comprises a fractionation column or thermal separator that will at least react or regenerate the reaction product mixture (e.g., a mixture of alkali metals, such as at least two of Li, Na, or K; alkaline earth gold)Genera, such as Mg; and metal halides, e.g. LiCl or SrBr₂Which may be formed by an exchange reaction such as a metal halide-metal hydride exchange or other reaction that may occur during distillation). A carrier such as TiC may remain in the reaction chamber 130. The alkali metal may be rehydrogenated. Separating the species and the reaction product species (e.g., LiH, NaH or KH, alkaline earth metals, and metal halides, such as LiCl or SrBr)₂) Back into the reaction chamber 130 to reconstitute the original reaction mixture that forms a fractional hydrogen.

In one embodiment, a compound comprising H is decomposed to release atomic H that is catalyzed to form hydrinos, wherein at least one H acts as a catalyst for at least another H. The H compound may be H intercalated in a matrix, for example H in carbon or H in a metal (e.g. R-Ni). The compound may be a hydride, e.g. of an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, noble metal or rare earth metal, LiAlH ₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides. The decomposition may be carried out by heating the compound. The compounds may be regenerated by methods such as controlling reactor temperature and hydrogen pressure. Catalysis may occur during regeneration of the H-containing compound. The disintegration and reformation may occur periodically to maintain power output. In one embodiment, the hydride is decomposed by addition to a molten salt (e.g., a molten eutectic salt, such as a mixture of alkali metal halides). The eutectic salt may be a hydrogen anion conductor, such as LiCl-KCl or LiCl-LiF. The metal may be recovered by physical separation techniques (such as those of the present invention), dehydrogenated and added back to the molten salt to generate power again. The cycle may be repeated. A plurality of thermally coupled cells having controlled phase differences in a power regeneration cycle may generate continuous power.

In embodiments, the thermal reaction and regeneration system comprises an alkali metal chalcogenide, hydroxide anion, H halogen system, and metal hydroxides and oxyhydroxides (obtained in CIHT cell sections). A typical reaction is represented by MXH +2M → M₂X + MH(s) (formula (217-233)). Suitable exemplary hydrosulfides are MOH, MHS, MHSe, and MHTe (M = Li, Mn,Na, K, Rb, Cs). The system may be regenerated by adding hydrogen. The MH product can be removed by evaporation or physical separation. MH can be decomposed to M and added back to the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture may further comprise a support, such as carbon, carbide, nitride or boride.

The power producing cell increases its temperature above that required for regeneration. Next, plurality of cells 141 of FIG. 7 and plurality of cells 148 of FIG. 8 are arranged in a bundle 147 in boiler 149 of FIG. 8 such that the cells being regenerated are maintained above the regeneration temperature (e.g., about 700℃.) by heat transfer from the cells in the power generation cycle. The bundles may be arranged in a boiler box. Referring to fig. 7, the thermal gradient facilitates heat transfer between the cells 141 of each bundle in different phases of the power regeneration cycle. In order to obtain a temperature profile (e.g., a temperature profile in the range of 750 ℃ on the highest temperature power generation side of the gradient to about 700 ℃ on the lower temperature regeneration side), the battery is embedded in a medium having high thermal conductivity. The highly conductive material 142 (e.g., copper particles) efficiently transfers heat between cells and to the periphery while maintaining a temperature profile in the bundle that achieves regeneration and maintains the core temperature below that required by the material limits. Ultimately transferring heat to the coolant (e.g., water) boiling at the periphery of each bundle containing boiler tubes 143. Suitable boiling water temperatures are in the temperature range of 250 ℃ to 370 ℃. These temperatures are high enough to achieve nucleate boiling, the most efficient method of heat transfer to the aqueous medium; but these temperatures are below an upper limit determined by the excess steam pressure at temperatures above this range. In one embodiment, due to the much higher temperatures required in each cell bundle, a temperature gradient is maintained between each bundle and the thermal load, boiling water and subsequent systems. In one embodiment, a peripheral thermal barrier maintains this gradient. The bundle of multi-tube reactor cells is encased in an inner cylindrical annulus or bundle confinement tube 144 with an insulation or vacuum gap 145 between the inner and outer annuli to maintain the temperature gradient. Heat transfer control can be achieved by varying the gas pressure in this gap or by using a gas with the desired thermal conductivity. The outer wall of the outer annular surface 143 is brought into contact with water, where nucleate boiling occurs on this surface to generate steam in the boiler (as shown in fig. 10). The steam turbine may receive steam from boiling water and may generate electricity with the generator shown in FIG. 11.

The boiler 150 shown in fig. 9 comprises a multi-cell bundle 151, a cell reaction chamber 152, a catalyst chamber 153 for receiving and hydrogenating metal vapor, a conduit 154 containing hydrogen gas exhaust and supply lines and catalyst chamber coolant tubes, a coolant 155 (e.g., water), and a steam manifold 156. The power generation system shown in fig. 10 includes a boiler 158, a high pressure turbine 159, a low pressure turbine 160, a generator 161, a moisture separator 162, a condenser 163, a cooling tower 164, a cooling water pump 165, a condensate pump 166, a boiler feedwater purification system 167, a first stage feedwater heater 168, a de-aerated feedwater tank 169, a feedwater pump 170, a booster pump 171, a product storage and processor 172, a reactant storage and processor 173, a vacuum system 174, a start-up heater 175, an electrolyzer 176, a hydrogen supply 177, a coolant line 178, a coolant valve 179, a reactant and product line 180, and a reactant and product line valve 181. Other components and modifications are contemplated in the present invention, as would be known to one skilled in the art.

The cell size, number of cells in each bundle and width of the vacuum gap are selected to maintain the desired temperature profile in each bundle, the desired temperature of the boiling water in the periphery of the cell power flow and sufficient boiling surface heat flux. Reaction parameters for design analysis can be obtained experimentally from a variety of possible hydride-halide exchange reactions and other reactants that can form hydrinos with significant kinetic and energy gains, and including reactions that can be thermally regenerated as disclosed herein. Exemplary operating parameters for design engineering purposes are 5-10W/cc, 300-400 kJ/mol oxidant, 150 kJ/mol delivered K, 3 to 1 energy gain relative to regeneration chemistry, 50 MJ/mol H ₂A regeneration temperature of 650 ℃ to 750 ℃, a cell operating temperature sufficient to maintain the cell regeneration temperature at the corresponding stage of the power regeneration cycle, a regeneration time of 10 minutes, and a reaction time of 1 minute.

In an exemplary 1MW thermal system, the bundle consists of 33 closely packed tubes (each with 5cmID) 2 meters long embedded in high thermal conductivity copper pellets. Thus, the working volume of each tube is slightly less than four liters. Since the duration of the power and regeneration phases are 1 and 10 minutes, respectively, selecting 33 tubes (a multiple of 11 minutes of the cycle period) can produce a temporally constant instantaneous power from the bundle. The beam limiting tube had an inner diameter of 34cm and a wall thickness of 6.4 mm. The inner diameter and the wall thickness of the boiler tube were 37.2cm and 1.27cm, respectively. Using the usual reaction parameters, each tube in the bundle produced a time-averaged thermal power of about 1.6kW, and each bundle produced a thermal power of about 55 kW. The intra-beam temperature ranges between about 782 ℃ at the center to 664 ℃ at the surface facing the gap. The heat flux at the surface of the boiler tubes was about 22kW/m²It maintains the temperature of the outer surface of the boiler tubes at 250 ℃ and just high enough to cause nucleate boiling at the surface. Increasing the kinetic density of the reaction beyond 7W/cc or decreasing the regeneration time increases the boiling flux, resulting in higher boiling efficiency. About 18 bundles should produce an output of 1MW of heat.

An alternative system design for the boiler shown in FIG. 9 is shown in FIG. 11. The system includes at least one thermally coupled multi-cell bundle and a peripheral water wall as a thermal load for heat transferred across the gap. The hydrino-forming reaction mixture comprises a high surface area conductive support and a reducing agent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal). These materials may also have a high thermal conductivity so that they may at least partially replace the highly conductive material of the bundle of fig. 9. The chemistry facilitates heat transfer between cells and to the periphery while maintaining the appropriate thermal profile and gradient in the array. The steam generated in the water-walled tubes may flow to a turbine and generator to directly generate electricity, or the water walls may feed the steam into a primary steam circuit that transfers heat to a secondary steam circuit through a heat exchanger. The secondary loop may power the turbine and the generator to produce electricity.

The system comprises a plurality of reactor cell arrays or cell bundles each having a heat collector. As shown in fig. 11, the reactor cells 186 may be square or rectangular to achieve intimate contact. The cells may be grouped in a bundle 185 and heat transfer occurs from the bundle to a load 188, wherein the bundle temperature is maintained at least at the temperature required for regeneration. A temperature gradient may be maintained between the beam and a heat load, such as a heat collector or exchanger 188. The heat exchanger may comprise a water wall or a circumferential bank of tubes with flowing coolant, wherein the flow may be maintained with at least one pump, and may be encased in insulation 189. The reactor system may include an air gap 187 between the heat collector or exchanger 188 and each multi-tube reactor cell or bundle 185 of multi-tube reactor cells. Heat transfer control may occur by: in the air gap 187 between the beam wall 185 and the heat collector or exchanger 188, the air pressure is varied or a gas having a desired thermal conductivity is used.

The cycling of each cell is controlled to select the cell that produces power to provide heat for the selected regenerating cell. Alternatively, the battery that generates power heats the battery undergoing regeneration in a random manner such that the power output statistically approaches a constant level as the number of batteries increases. Thus, the power is statistically constant.

In another embodiment, the system includes a dynamic density gradient that increases from the center outward to maintain a desired temperature profile throughout the beam. In another embodiment, heat is transferred from the battery to the boiler via a heat pipe. The heat pipes may interface with the heat exchanger, or may be in direct contact with the coolant.

In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction is maintained and continuously regenerated in each cell, with heat from the power generation stage of the thermally reversible cycle providing energy for the formation of the initial reactants from product regeneration. Since the reactants undergo two modes simultaneously in each cell, the thermodynamic output from each cell is constant. Converting thermal power to electrical power may be accomplished using a heat engine utilizing a cycle, such as a rankine, brayton, stirling, or steam cycle.

The continuous power producing multi-tube reactor system shown in fig. 12 comprises a plurality of repeating insulating planar layers 192, reactor cells 193, heat transfer medium 194, and heat exchanger or collector 195. In one embodiment, each cell is a round tube, and the heat exchanger is parallel to the cell and continuously receives heat. Fig. 13 shows a single unit of a multi-tube reactor system comprising chemicals 197 (comprising at least one of reactants and products), insulation 198, reactor 199, and thermally conductive material 200 with embedded water tubes 201 (comprising a heat exchanger or collector).

Each cell continuously generates power to raise its reactant temperature above that required for regeneration. In one embodiment, the reaction to form hydrinos is a hydride exchange between an alkali metal hydride catalyst and a source of hydrogen and an alkaline earth metal or lithium metal. Reactants, exchange reactions, products, and regeneration reactions and parameters are disclosed herein. The multi-tube reaction system of fig. 12, comprising alternating insulating layers, reactor cells and heat exchangers, maintains continuous power through cell thermal gradients. The reactant alkali metal hydride is continuously regenerated by product decomposition and alkali metal evaporation in the high temperature bottom zone maintained by the reaction, and condensation and rehydrogenation in the cooler top zone maintained by the heat collector. The rotating scraper causes the regenerated alkali metal hydride to recombine with the reaction mixture.

After the condensed metal (e.g., K or Na) is hydrogenated by the presence of hydrogen in the cell, including make-up hydrogen to replenish hydrogen that has been consumed to produce hydrinos, the hydride is returned to the bottom of the reactor and mixed with other reactants. One or more internal rotating scrapers or stirrers can be swept across the internal cell walls to mix the formed hydride with the other reactants. Optionally, recombination and chemical mixing of the alkali metal hydride with the other reactants is achieved by rotating the cell about its long axis. This rotation also transfers heat from the battery bottom position to the new top position after rotation; thus, it provides another method of controlling the internal cell temperature gradient for the delivery of alkali metals. However, the corresponding heat transfer rates are high, requiring extremely low spin rates to maintain the thermal gradient. The mixed rotation of the blades or batteries may be driven by an electric motor, wherein a gearing arrangement may be used to synchronize the batteries. The mixing may also be performed by magnetic induction through a low permeability cell wall, such as a stainless steel cell wall.

In one embodiment, the initial alkali metal hydride is regenerated by: evaporated at 400 c to 550 c and condensed at a temperature as low as about 100 c in the presence of hydrogen which reacts to form an alkali metal hydride. Thus, in each cell that drives heat regeneration, there is a thermal gradient between the high temperature reactants and the cooling zone. The cell is horizontally oriented and has a non-working zone along the long axis of the cell (which allows alkali metal vapor to escape from the reactants along the bottom of the cell during continuous regeneration). The metal condenses along the top of the cell in the cooling zone. The cooler area is maintained at the desired condensing temperature by a heat collector containing a boiler tube with a variable heat reception rate at the top of each cell. The heat exchanger includes a boiler tube water wall with flowing water heated to steam. Specifically, the saturated water flows through the water tubes, absorbing energy from the reactor, and evaporates to form steam. In another exemplary embodiment, the thermal reactor zone is in the range of 750 ℃ ± 200 ℃ and the cooler zone is maintained at a temperature in the range of 50 ℃ to 300 ℃ lower than the thermal reactor zone. The reaction mixture and thermal regeneration reaction may comprise the reaction mixture and thermal regeneration reaction of the present invention. For example, suitable reaction mixtures comprise at least two of the following: an alkali metal or hydride thereof, a source of hydrogen, a reducing agent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal such as Mg or Ca), and a carrier (e.g., TiC, Ti) ₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、B₄C. SiC and YC₂). The reactants may undergo a hydride-halide exchange reaction, and the regeneration reaction may be a thermally driven reverse exchange reaction.

The heat is eventually transferred to the water boiling in the tubes at the periphery of each reactor cell, where the boiler tubes form the water walls. Suitable boiling water temperatures are in the range of 250 ℃ to 370 ℃. These temperatures are high enough to achieve nucleate boiling, the most efficient method of transferring heat to an aqueous medium; but these temperatures are below an upper limit determined by the excess steam pressure at temperatures above this range. Nucleate boiling of water occurs on the inner surfaces of each of the boiler tubes 201 of fig. 13, wherein a uniform temperature distribution in the water tube walls is maintained due to the tubes being embedded in a highly conductive heat medium 200 (e.g., copper), and further, water that is not evaporated to steam is recirculated. Heat flows from the top cell walls through the media to the boiler tubes. Due to the much higher temperatures required in each cell, even at the lower end of its gradient, a second temperature gradient is maintained between the top of each cell and the heat load, boiling water and subsequent systems. Because the boiler tubes have a higher capacity to remove heat than the cells that have to generate heat, the second external thermal gradient is maintained by adding one or more thermal barriers between the upper half of the cell wall and the water wall. The required high internal battery temperature and gradient is achieved by insulating at least one of the upper half of the battery and the outer wall of each boiler tube from the conductive medium. The battery temperature and gradient are controlled at optimum values via variable heat transfer by adjusting the thermal barrier located at the upper half of the battery and at the boiler tubes, the thermal conductivity of the medium penetrated by the boiler tubes and the heat exchanger capacity and the flow rate of steam in the tubes. In the former case, the thermal barriers may each contain a gas or vacuum gap, which may vary based on gas composition and pressure.

The multi-tube reaction system was assembled in the boiler system shown in fig. 14 to output steam. The boiler system comprised a multi-tube reaction system and a coolant (saturated water) flow rate regulation system as shown in fig. 12. The reaction system comprising reactor 204 heats saturated water and produces steam. The flow rate regulation system (i) collects the saturated water stream in the steam collection line 205 and the inlet recycle line 206 and inputs the stream into the steam-water separator 207 that separates steam and water, (ii) recirculates the separated water through the boiler tubes 208 using the recirculation pump 209, the outlet recycle line 210, and the water distribution line 211, and (iii) outputs and directs the steam into the main steam line 212 to the turbine or load and the heat exchanger. The pipes and lines may be insulated to prevent heat loss. The incoming coolant (e.g., condensed water from the turbine or return water from the heat load and heat exchanger) is fed through an inlet return water pipe 213 and increased in pressure by an inlet booster pump 214.

The steam produced in the water-walled tubes may be passed to a turbine and generator to directly produce electricity, or the water wall may feed steam into the primary steam loop, which transfers heat to the secondary steam loop through a heat exchanger. The secondary loop may power the turbine and the generator to produce electricity. In the embodiment shown in fig. 15, steam is generated in the boiler system and output from the steam-water separator to the main steam line. The steam turbine receives steam from the boiling water and generates electricity with a generator. The steam is condensed and pumped back into the boiler system. The power generation system shown in fig. 15 includes a boiler 217, a heat exchanger 218, a high pressure turbine 219, a low pressure turbine 220, a generator 221, a moisture separator 222, a condenser 223, a cooling tower 224, a cooling water pump 225, a condensate pump 226, a boiler feedwater purification system 227, a first stage feedwater heater 228, a de-aerated feedwater tank 229, a feedwater pump 230, a booster pump (214 of fig. 14), a product storage and processor 232, a reactant storage and processor 233, a vacuum system 234, a startup heater 235, an electrolyzer 236, a hydrogen supply 237, a coolant line 238, a coolant valve 239, a reactant and product line 240, and a reactant and product line valve 241. Other components and modifications are contemplated in the present invention, as would be known to one skilled in the art.

Consider an exemplary 1MW thermal system. To achieve a cell bottom temperature of 400-550 c on the higher temperature power generation side of the gradient and a temperature about 100 c lower on the regeneration side of the top, as shown in fig. 12, the cell has a heat collector only on the top, the power generation reactants are located at the bottom, and the bottom of the cell is insulated. The selected system design parameters were: (1) battery size, (2) number of batteries in the system, (3) thermal resistance of the material surrounding the lower half of the battery, (4) thermal barrier at the upper half of the battery outer wall, (5) thermal conductivity of the medium surrounding the upper half of the battery penetrated by the boiler tubes, (6) thermal barrier at the outer boiler tube wall, (7) boiler tube number, size and spacing, (8) steam pressure, and (9) steam flow rate and recirculation rate. Selecting system design parameters to implement or ensureThe following required operating parameters were maintained: (1) the temperature of each cell and the temperature gradients inside and outside, (2) the temperature of the boiling water surrounding the cell power flow, and (3) sufficient boiling surface heat flux. Reaction parameters for design analysis can be obtained experimentally from a variety of possible hydride ion exchange reactions that result in the formation of hydrinos with significant kinetic and energy gains, and include reactions that can be thermally regenerated. Power and regeneration chemistry and parameters thereof are disclosed herein. Typical operating parameters for design engineering purposes are 0.25W/cc constant power, 0.67W/g reactant, 0.38g/cc reactant density, 50 megajoules/mole H ₂A 2 to 1 energy gain relative to hydride regeneration chemistry, equal reaction and regeneration times to maintain constant power output, and temperatures of 550 ℃ and 400 ℃ to 450 ℃ for power and regeneration, respectively, where the reaction temperature is sufficient to evaporate alkali metal at the bottom of the cell and the internal thermal gradient maintains the regeneration temperature at the top of the cell. Using the reactants and kinetic density, the total mass of reactants and reactant to produce 1MW of continuous thermal power was 3940 liters and 1500kg, respectively. The total reactor volume was 15.8m using a 0.25% reactant fill factor³。

In the sample design, the boiler contained 140 stainless steel reaction cells with end plates of 176cm length, 30.5cm OD, 0.635cm cylindrical wall thickness, and 3.81cm thickness. Since the exemplary pressure determines the equilibrium decomposition pressure of the reactant NaH, the wall thickness meets the design requirements of an internal pressure of 330PSI at 550 ℃. Each cell weighed 120kg and outputted 7.14kW of thermal power. The lower half of each tube is embedded in the insulation. Copper or aluminum pellets (a highly thermally conductive medium, which is penetrated by water tubes) surround the upper half of each cell. The temperature inside the cell is between about 550 ℃ at the bottom wall and 400 ℃ at the surface of the wall facing the beads. As shown in FIG. 13, each reactor has a 30.5cm OD cross-sectional area covered by six 2.54cm OD, 0.32cm thick, uniformly spaced boiler (water) tubes centered at 5.08 cm. The heat flux of the inner surface of each boiler tube was about 11.8kW/m ²Which maintains the temperature of the outer surface of each boiler tube at about 367 c.

In one exemplary embodiment, thermal power generated from the reactants is used to generate saturated steam at 360 ℃. Fig. 16 shows a steam generation flow chart. Water at room temperature (about 25 ℃) is flowed into a heat exchanger where it is mixed with saturated steam and heated to a saturation temperature of 360 ℃ by condensation of the steam. The booster pump 251 raises the water pressure to a saturation pressure of 18.66MPa at 360 c at the inlet of the steam-water separator 252. The saturated water is flowed through the boiler tubes of the water wall of the boiler system 253 to generate steam at the same temperature and pressure. A portion of the steam is flowed back into the heat exchanger to preheat the return water from the turbine, and a portion of it is passed to the turbine to produce electricity. In addition, the unevaporated water in the water wall is recirculated to maintain a uniform temperature along each boiler tube. To accomplish this, a steam collection line receives steam and unevaporated water and passes it to steam-water separator 252. Water is drawn from the bottom of the separator to return it to the boiler tubes through the water distribution lines. Steam flows from the top of the separator 252 to the turbine, with a portion diverted to a heat exchanger to preheat the return water from the turbine. In the boiler tubes, the flow rate of saturated water from the 140 reactor systems was 2.78kg/s and the total steam output flow rate was 1.39 kg/s.

In one embodiment, the reactants comprise a catalyst or catalyst source and at least two of a hydrogen source (e.g., KH), a support (e.g., carbon), and a reducing agent (e.g., Mg). The product may be a metal-carbon product, such as an intercalation product MH_yC_xAnd MC_x(y may be a fraction or an integer and x is an integer), e.g. KC_x. The reactor may include one or more reactant supplies, a reaction chamber maintained at an elevated temperature such that the flowing reactants undergo a reaction therein to form hydrinos, a heat exchanger to remove heat from the reaction chamber, and a receiving product (e.g., KC)_x) And regenerating the plurality of vessels of at least one reactant. Can be removed from the MH by applying heat and vacuum_yC_xAnd MC_xAnd M or MH, wherein the collected evaporated metal M may be hydrogenated. In the case where the reducing agent is a metal, it may also be recovered by evaporation. Each metal or hydride may be collected in one reactant supply. A reactant supply may be includedEach vessel regenerating carbon and containing carbon and optionally a reductant.

The heat for regeneration may be supplied by power from the hydrinos. A heat exchanger may be used to transfer heat. The heat exchanger may comprise at least one heat pipe. Heat from the heated regeneration vessel may be transferred to a power load, such as a heat exchanger or a boiler. The flow of reactants or products (e.g., reactants or products comprising carbon) may be performed mechanically or at least partially using gravity. The mechanical transport means may be an auger or a conveyor belt. In the case where the hydrino reaction is much shorter than the regeneration time, the volume of the regeneration vessel may exceed the volume of the thermal reaction zone. These volumes may be proportioned to maintain a constant flow through the reaction zone.

The rate of evaporation, sublimation, or volatilization of a volatile metal (e.g., an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal) in one embodiment is limited by the surface area of the reactant relative to the vacuum space above it. This rate can be increased by rotating the cell or by other mixing means to expose fresh surfaces to vacuum space. In one embodiment, a reactant (e.g., a reducing agent, such as an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg) binds the support particles together to reduce their surface area. For example, Mg melts at 650 ℃ and can bond TiC particles together to reduce surface area; this can be done by hydrogenating the metal (e.g. hydrogenation of Mg to MgH₂) And subsequently overcome by grinding or pulverizing to form a powder. A suitable method is ball milling. Alternatively, the hydride may melt and be removed in liquid form, or remain in liquid form, if this improves aggregation of the carrier particles. A suitable hydride is MgH₂This is because the melting point is low (327 ℃ C.).

In one embodiment, the reactor comprises a fluidized bed, wherein the liquid reactants may comprise a coating on a support. The solids may be separated in a stage after the reactants have reacted to form products, including hydrinos. The separation may be performed with a cyclone separator. The separation condenses the metal vapor, thereby forcing some of the product back to react back to at least one of the original reactants. The original reaction mixture is regenerated, preferably thermally.

In one embodiment, an exemplary molten mixture material, K/KHMgMgMgX₂(X is a halide) comprises a coating on the TiC support, rather than being present as a separate phase. K further comprises steam and the pressure is preferably higher in the power stage. The temperature in the motive stage of the reactor is preferably higher than the temperature required for regeneration, for example from about 600 ℃ to 800 ℃. During regeneration of the reactants by carrying out a halide ion exchange reaction above the regeneration temperature, K is condensed and KH is formed. The condensation may be carried out at a temperature of about 100 ℃ to 400 ℃, wherein H may be present₂To form KH. To allow for K condensation at low temperatures and halide ion exchange reactions at high temperatures, the reaction system further comprises a separator that removes particles from the vapor. This allows heating of the particles in one section or chamber and condensation of the vapour in the other.

In other embodiments, the thermo-reversible reaction comprises other exchange reactions, preferably between two species each comprising at least one metal atom. The exchange may be performed between a metal of the catalyst (e.g., an alkali metal) and a metal of the exchange object (e.g., an oxidizing agent). Exchange may also be performed between an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. The exchanged species may be an anion, such as a halide, hydride, oxide, sulfide, nitride, boron, carbon, silicon, arsenic, selenium, tellurium, phosphate, nitrate, hydrosulfide, carbonate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, hydrogenphosphate, dihydrogenphosphate, perchlorate, chromate, dichromate, cobalt oxide and other oxyanions and anions known to those skilled in the art. At least one of the exchange objects may include an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, a second transition metal, a third transition metal, a noble metal, a rare earth metal, Al, Ga, In, Sn, As, Se, and Te. Suitable exchange anions are halide, oxide, sulfide, nitride, phosphate and boron. Metals suitable for exchange are: alkali metal, preferably Na or K; an alkaline earth metal, preferably Mg or Ba; the rare earth metals, preferably Eu or Dy, are each in the form of a metal or hydride. Exemplary catalyst reactants and exemplary exchange reactions are set forth below. These reactions are not meant to be exhaustive and other examples will be known to those skilled in the art.

·4gAC3-3+1gMg+1.66gKH+2.5gDyI₂135.0kJ of Ein, 6.1kJ of dE, none of TSC, 403 ℃ of Tmax, 1.89kJ of theory and 3.22 times of gain,

·4gAC3-3+1gMg+1gNaH+2.09gEuF₃185.1kJ of Ein, 8.0kJ of dE, none of TSC, 463 ℃ of Tmax, 1.69kJ of theory, 4.73 times of gain,

·KH8.3gm+Mg5.0gm+CAII-30020.0gm+CrB₂3.7gm, Ein:317kJ, dE:19kJ, no TSC, Tmax of about 340 ℃, theoretical energy of 0.05kJ for heat absorption, infinite gain,

·0.70gTiB₂1.66gKH, 1gMg powder and 4gCA-III300 activated carbon powder (AC 3-4). The energy gain was 5.1kJ, but no sudden increase in the battery temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature is 431 ℃, theoretically 0.

0.42g LiCl, 1.66gKH, 1g Mg powder and 4gAC3-4 depletion. The energy gain was 5.4kJ, but no sudden increase in the battery temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature is 412 ℃, theoretically 0, and the gain is infinite.

1.21 gCBCl, 1.66gKH, 1gMg powder and 4gAC3-4, the energy increase was 6.0kJ, but no sudden increase in cell temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature is 442 ℃, theoretically 0.

4gAC3-5+1gMg +1.66gKH +0.87gLiBr, Ein:146.0kJ, dE:6.24kJ, TSC: not observed; tmax is 439 ℃, theoretically, the material is endothermic,

·KH8.3gm+Mg_5.0gm+CAII-30020.0gm+YF₃7.3gm, Ein:320kJ, dE:17kJ, no TSC, Tmax about 340 ℃; the energy gain was about 4.5X (X was about 0.74kJ by 5=3.7kJ),

·NaH5.0gm+Mg5.0gm+CAII-30020.0gm+BaBr₂14.85gm (dry); ein of 328kJ, dE of 16kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320 ℃; energy gain 160X (X is about 0.02kJ 5=0.1kJ),

·KH8.3gm+Mg5.0gm+CAII-30020.0gm+BaCl₂10.4gm, Ein:331kJ, dE:18kJ without TSC, Tmax about 320 ℃. Energy gain of about 6.9X (X is about 0.52X 5=2.6kJ)

·NaH5.0gm+Mg5.0gm+CAII-30020.0gm+MgI₂13.9gm, Ein:315kJ, dE:16kJ, no TSC, Tmax about 340 ℃. The energy gain is about 1.8X (X is about 1.75X 5=8.75kJ),

4gAC3-2+1gMg +1gNaH +0.97gZnS, Ein:132.1kJ, dE:7.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax:370 ℃, theoretically 1.4kJ, gain 5.33 times,

·2.74gY₂S₃1.66gKH, 1gMg powder and 4gCA-III300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), the energy gain was 5.2kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature was 444 ℃, theoretically 0.41kJ, the gain was 12.64 times,

·4gAC3-5+1gMg+1.66gKH+1.82gCa₃P₂133.0kJ Ein, 5.8kJ dE, none TSC, 407 ℃ Tmax, theoretically heat absorption and infinite gain.

·20gAC3-5+5gMg+8.3gKH+9.1gCa₃P₂282.1kJ for Ein, 18.1kJ for dE, none for TSC, 320 ℃ for Tmax, theoretically endothermic, and infinite gain.

In one embodiment, a thermal regeneration reaction system comprises:

(i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source selected from NaH, BaH and KH;

(ii) selected from NaH, KH, BaH and MgH₂At least one hydrogen source;

(iii) at least one oxidizing agent selected from the group consisting of: alkaline earth metal halides, e.g. BaBr₂、BaCl₂、BaI₂、CaBr₂、MgBr₂Or MgI₂(ii) a Rare earth halides, e.g. EuBr₂、EuBr₃、EuF₃、DyI₂、LaF₃Or GdF₃(ii) a Halides of transition metals of the second or third series, e.g. YF ₃(ii) a Metal borides, e.g. CrB₂Or TiB₂(ii) a Alkali metal halides, such as LiCl, RbCl, or CsI; metal sulfides, e.g. Li₂S, ZnS or Y₂S₃(ii) a Metal oxides, e.g. Y₂O₃(ii) a Metal phosphides, nitrides or arsenides, e.g. alkaline earth metal phosphides, nitrides or arsenides, e.g. Ca₃P₂、Mg₃N₂And Mg₃As₂，

(iv) Selected from Mg and MgH₂At least one reducing agent; and

(v) a support selected from AC, TiC and WC.

In another exemplary system capable of thermal regeneration, a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., NaH, BaH, or KH) is exchanged with an alkaline earth metal halide (e.g., BaBr) that can act as an oxidizing agent₂Or BaCl₂) In the meantime. The alkali metal and alkaline earth metal are not miscible in any moiety. The melting points of Ba and Mg are 727 ℃ and 1090 ℃ respectively; thus, separation during regeneration can be easily achieved. Further, Mg does not form intermetallic compounds with Ba with less than about 32 atomic% of Ba and the temperature is maintained below about 600 ℃. Formation of BaCl₂、MgCl₂、BaBr₂And MgBr₂The heat of the reaction solution is-855.0 kJ/mol, -641.3 kJ/mol, -757.3 kJ/mol and-524.3 kJ/mol respectively; thus, barium halides are more advantageous than magnesium halides. Thus, thermal regeneration can be effected from a suitable reaction mixture (e.g., KH or NaHMgTiC and BaCl to form alkali metal halides and alkaline earth metal hydrides ₂Or BaBr₂) The process is carried out. Regeneration may be performed by: the product is heated and the alkali metal is evaporated so that it is collected by a method such as condensation. The catalyst may be rehydrogenated. In one embodiment, removal of the alkali metal drives the reformation reaction of the alkaline earth metal halide. In other embodiments, the hydride may be decomposed by heating under vacuum, if desired. Because of MgH₂Melting at 327 deg.C, MgH can be preferentially introduced by melting and selectively removing liquid when desired₂Separated from other products.

f. Absorbent, support or matrix assisted hydrino reactions

In another embodiment, the exchange reaction is endothermic. In this embodiment, the metal compound may serve as at least one of an advantageous carrier or matrix for the hydrino reaction or a product absorber that increases the hydrino reaction rate. Exemplary catalyst reactants and exemplary supports, matrices, or absorbents are set forth below. These reactions are not meant to be exhaustive and other examples will be known to those skilled in the art.

·4gAC3-5+1gMg+1.66gKH+2.23gMg₃As₂139.0kJ Ein, 6.5kJ dE and 393 ℃ Tmax, theoretically, the gain is infinite.

·20gAC3-5+5gMg+8.3gKH+11.2gMg₃As₂298.6kJ for Ein, 21.8kJ for dE, none for TSC, 315 ℃ for Tmax, theoretically endothermic, and infinite gain.

·1.01gMg₃N₂1.66gKH,1gMg powder and 4gAC3-4 in a 1' heavy duty battery, the energy gain was 5.2kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature is 401 ℃, theoretically 0, and the gain is infinite.

0.41gAlN, 1.66gKH,1gMg powder and 4gAC3-5 in a 1' heavy duty battery, the energy gain was 4.9kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum cell temperature is 407 ℃, theoretically endothermic.

In one embodiment, the thermal regeneration reaction system comprises at least two components selected from (i) - (v):

(i) selected from NaH, BaH, KH and MgH₂At least one catalyst or catalyst source;

(ii) at least one hydrogen source selected from NaH, BaH and KH;

(iii) selected from metal arsenides (e.g. Mg)₃As₂) And metal nitrides (e.g., Mg)₃N₂Or AlN) at least one oxidizing agent, matrix, second support or absorber;

(iv) selected from Mg and MgH₂At least one reducing agent; and

(v) at least one support selected from AC, TiC or WC.

D. Liquid fuel: organic and molten solvent system

Other embodiments include a molten solid (e.g., molten salt) or a liquid solvent in the chamber 200. The liquid solvent may be evaporated by operating the cell at a temperature above the boiling point of the solvent. Reactants such as catalyst may be dissolved or suspended in the solvent, or this may suspend or dissolve the reactants that form the catalyst and H in the solvent. The vaporized solvent can act as a catalyst-laden gas to increase the rate of the hydrino catalyst reaction. The molten solid or vaporized solvent may be maintained by heating with heater 230. The reaction mixture may further comprise a solid support, such as HSA material. The reaction may occur at the surface due to the interaction of molten solid, liquid or gaseous solvent with the catalyst and hydrogen (e.g., K or Li plus H or NaH). In embodiments where heterogeneous catalysts are used, the solvent of the mixture may increase the catalyst reaction rate.

In embodiments comprising hydrogen, H may be added₂Bubble through the solution. In another embodiment, the cell is pressurized to increase dissolved H₂The concentration of (c). In another embodiment, it is preferred to stir the reactants at high speed and at a temperature near the boiling point of the organic solvent and near the melting point of the inorganic solvent.

The organic solvent reaction mixture may be heated at a temperature preferably in the range of about 26 ℃ to 400 ℃, more preferably in the range of about 100 ℃ to 300 ℃. The inorganic solvent mixture can be heated to a temperature above the temperature at which the solvent is a liquid and below the temperature that causes complete decomposition of the NaH molecules.

The solvent may comprise molten metal. Suitable metals have low melting points, such as Ga, In, and Sn. In another embodiment, the molten metal may serve as a support, such as a conductive support. The reaction mixture may comprise at least three of a catalyst or catalyst source, hydrogen or a hydrogen source, a metal, a reducing agent, and an oxidizing agent. The cell can be operated so that the metal melts. In one embodiment, the catalyst is selected from NaH or KH which also acts as a hydrogen source, the reducing agent is Mg, and the oxidizing agent is EuBr₂、BaCl₂、BaBr₂、AlN、Ca₃P₂、Mg₃N₂、Mg₃As₂、MgI₂、CrB₂、TiB₂Alkali metal halide, YF₃、MgO、Ni₂Si、Y₂S₃、Li₂S、NiB、GdF₃And Y₂O₃One kind of (1). In another embodiment, the oxidizing agent is MnI ₂、SnI₂、FeBr₂、CoI₂、NiBr₂One of AgCl and InCl.

a. Organic solvent

The organic solvent may comprise one or more moieties that can be modified to other solvents by the addition of functional groups. The parts may include at least one of the following: hydrocarbons (e.g., alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, cyclic alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heterocycles, and combinations thereof), ethers, halogenated hydrocarbons (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodohydrocarbons, preferably fluorinated), amines, sulfides, nitriles, phosphoramides (e.g., OP (N (CH)₃)₂)₃) And aminophosphazenes. The group may include at least one of the following groups: alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, cyano, carbamoyl, C, O, N, S-containing heterocycle, sulfo, sulfamoyl, alkoxysulfonyl, phosphono, hydroxy, halogen, alkoxy, alkylmercapto, acyloxy, aryl, alkenyl, aliphatic, acyl, carboxy, amino, cyanoalkoxy, diazo, carboxyalkylcarboxamido, alkenylmercapto, cyanoalkoxycarbonyl, carbamoylalkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, cyanoalkylamino, alkoxycarbonylalkylamino, sulfoalkylamino, alkylsulfamoylalkylamino, epoxy, hydroxyalkyl, carboxyalkylcarbonyloxy, cyanoalkyl, carboxyalkylmercapto, arylamino, heteroarylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, cyanoalkoxy, alkoxycarbonylalkoxy, carbamoylalkoxy, carbamoylalkylcarbonyloxy, a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring, or a substituted heterocyclic ring, or, Sulfoalkoxy, nitro, alkoxyaryl, haloaryl, aminoaryl, alkylaminoaryl, tolyl, alkenylaryl, allylaryl, alkenyloxyaryl, allyloxyaryl, cyanoaryl, carbamoylaryl, carboxyaryl, alkoxycarbonyl Aryl, alkylcarbonyloxy aryl, sulfoaryl, alkoxysulfoaryl, sulfamoylaryl and nitroaryl. The group preferably comprises at least one of the following groups: alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, cyano, C, O, N, S-containing heterocycle, sulfo, phosphono, halo, alkoxy, alkylmercapto, aryl, alkenyl, aliphatic, acyl, alkylamino, alkenylmercapto, arylamino, heteroarylamino, haloaryl, aminoaryl, alkylaminoaryl, alkenylaryl, allylaryl, alkenyloxyaryl, allyloxyaryl, and cyanoaryl.

In embodiments comprising a liquid solvent, the catalyst NaH is at least one component of the reaction mixture and is formed from the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of the following group: NaH, Na, NH₃、NaNH₂、Na₂NH、Na₃N、H₂O, NaOH, NaX (X is an anion, preferably a halide), NaBH₄、NaAlH₄Ni, Pt black, Pd black, R-Ni doped with Na species (such as at least one of Na, NaOH and NaH), HSA carrier, absorbent, dispersant, hydrogen source (such as H)₂) And a hydrogen dissociating agent. In other embodiments, Li, K, Rb, or Cs replaces Na. In one embodiment, the solvent has a halogen functional group, preferably fluorine. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise at least one of hexafluorobenzene and octafluoronaphthalene added to a catalyst (e.g., NaH) and mixed with a support (e.g., activated carbon, fluoropolymer, or R-Ni). In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises one or more species from the group: na, NaH, a solvent (preferably a fluorinated solvent), and HSA material. Fluorinated solvents suitable for regeneration are CF ₄. The carrier or HSA material suitable for the fluorinated solvent and NaH catalyst is NaF. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least NaH, CF₄And NaF. Other fluorine-based carriers or absorbents include: m₂SiF₆Wherein M is an alkali metal, such as Na₂SiF₆And K₂SiF₆；MSiF₆Wherein M is an alkaline earth metal, e.g. MgSiF₆、GaF₃、PF₅；MPF₆Wherein M is an alkali metal; MHF₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, e.g. NaHF₂And KHF₂、K₂TaF₇、KBF₄、K₂MnF₆And K₂ZrF₆Other similar compounds, e.g. compounds with another alkali metal or alkaline earth metal substitution, e.g. one of Li, Na or K as alkali metal, are also contemplated.

b. Inorganic solvent

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least one inorganic solvent. The solvent may additionally comprise a molten inorganic compound, such as a molten salt. The inorganic solvent may be molten NaOH. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst, a hydrogen source, and an inorganic solvent for the catalyst. The catalyst may be at least one of NaH molecules, Li and K. The solvent may be at least one of the following: a molten salt or a molten salt (fusedstat) or a co-solute, for example at least one of the molten salts of the group of alkali metal halides and alkaline earth metal halides. The inorganic solvent of the NaH catalyst reaction mixture may comprise a low melting co-solvent of an alkali metal halide mixture (e.g., NaCl with KCl). The solvent may be a low melting point salt, preferably a Na salt, such as at least one of: NaI (660 ℃), NaAlCl ₄(160℃)、NaAlF₄And with NaMX₄(where M is a metal and X is a halide) the same class of compounds having metal halides that are more stable than NaX. The reaction mixture may further comprise a support, such as R-Ni.

The inorganic solvent of the Li catalyst reaction mixture may comprise a low melting eutectic of an alkali metal halide mixture (e.g., LiCl and KCl). The molten salt solvent may comprise a fluorine-based NaH-stable solvent. LaF₃The melting point was 1493 ℃ and the NaF melting point was 996 ℃. The ball-milled mixture with optional other fluorides in the appropriate ratio contains a fluoride salt solvent that is stable to NaH and preferably melts in the range of 600 ℃ to 700 ℃. In a molten salt embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a NaH + salt mixture, such as NaF-KF-LiF (11.5-42.0-46.5) MP =454 ℃, or a NaH + salt mixture, such as LiF-KF (52% -48%) MP =492 ℃.

Regeneration system and reaction

A schematic of the system for recycling or regenerating fuel of the present invention is shown in fig. 4. In one embodiment, the by-product of the hydrino reaction comprises a metal halide MX, preferably NaX or KX. Next, the fuel recycler 18 (fig. 4) includes a separator 21 that separates inorganic compounds (such as NaX) from the carrier. In one embodiment, the separator or components thereof comprise a phase shifter (shifter) or cyclone 22, which separates based on density differences of species. The other separator or assembly thereof comprises a magnetic separator 23 in which magnetic particles such as nickel or iron are attracted by a magnet while a non-magnetic material (e.g., MX) is caused to flow through the separator. In another embodiment, the separator or components thereof comprise a differential product solubilization or suspension system 24 comprising a component solvent wash 25 (which dissolves or suspends at least one component to a greater extent than the other component to allow separation) and may further comprise a compound recovery system 26 (such as a solvent evaporator 27 and a compound collector 28). Alternatively, the recovery system includes a precipitator 29 and a compound dryer and collector 30. In one embodiment, waste heat from the turbine 14 and the water condenser 16 shown in FIG. 4 is used to heat at least one of the evaporator 27 and the dryer 30 (FIG. 4). The heat of any other stage of the recycler 18 (fig. 4) may comprise waste heat.

The fuel recycler 18 (fig. 4) further comprises an electrolyzer 31 that electrolyzes the recovered MX into metal and halogen gases or other halogenated or halide products. In one embodiment, electrolysis occurs within the kinetic reactor 36, preferably from a melt (e.g., a eutectic melt). The electrolysis gas and metal products are collected in a high volatility gas collector 32 and a metal collector 33 (which may further comprise a metal still or separator 34 in the case of a metal mixture), respectively. If the initial reactant is a hydride, the metal is hydrogenated by a hydrogenation reactor 35 comprising a cell 36 capable of accumulating pressures less than, greater than, and equal to atmospheric pressure, an inlet and outlet 37 for the metal and hydride, an inlet 38 for hydrogen and its valve 39, a hydrogen supply 40, a gas outlet 41 and its valve 42, a pump 43, a heater 44, and a pressure and temperature gauge 45. In one embodiment, the hydrogen supply 40 comprises an aqueous electrolyzer with hydrogen and oxygen separators. The separated metal product is at least partially halogenated in a halogenation reactor 46 comprising a cell 47 capable of having a pressure less than, greater than, and equal to atmospheric pressure, a carbon inlet and halogenation product outlet 48, a fluorine gas inlet 49 and its valve 50, a halogen gas supply 51, a gas outlet 52 and its valve 53, a pump 54, a heater 55, and a pressure and temperature gauge 56. Preferably, the reactor also contains a catalyst and other reactants to cause the metal 57 to become a halide as a product having the desired oxidation state and stoichiometry. At least two of the metal or metal hydride, metal halide, carrier, and other initial reactants are recycled to the boiler 10 after mixing in the mixer 58 for another power generation cycle.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, Mg, MnI₂And a carrier (activated carbon, WC, or TiC). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is MnI₂By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

2KH+MnI₂→2KI+Mn+H₂(114)

Mg+MnI₃→MgI₂+Mn.(115)

KI and MgI₂Can be electrolyzed from molten salt to I₂K and Mg. The melt electrolysis can be performed using a down cell (downcell) or a modified down cell. A mechanical separator and optionally a sieve can be used to separate Mn. Unreacted Mg or MgH₂Separation can be by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The iodide used for electrolysis may result from washing the reaction products with a suitable solvent such as deoxygenated water. The solution may be filtered to remove the support (e.g., AC) and optional transition metals. The solids may be centrifuged and dried (preferably using waste heat from the power system). Alternatively, the halide may be isolated by melting it, followed by separation of the liquid phase from the solid phase.In another embodiment, the lighter AC may be initially separated from other reaction products by methods such as cyclone separation. K is immiscible with Mg and the isolated metal (e.g. K) may be used preferably from H₂H of O electrolysis ₂And (4) gas hydrogenation. The metal iodide may be formed by known reactions with the isolated metal or with a metal that is not isolated from AC. In one embodiment, Mn is reacted with HI to form MnI₂And make H₂Is recycled and mixed with I₂The reaction formed HI. In other embodiments, other metals (preferably transition metals) replace Mn. Other reducing agents (e.g., Al) may replace Mg. Other halides (preferably chlorides) may replace the iodide. LiH, KH, RbH, or CsH can replace NaH.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, Mg, AgCl and a support (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is an oxidation reaction of AgCl to oxidize a metal hydride, e.g.

KH+AgCl→KCl+Ag+1/2H₂(116)

Mg+2AgCl→MgC_l22Ag.(117)

KCl and MgCl₂Can be electrolyzed from molten salts to Cl₂K and Mg. The melt electrolysis may be performed using a down cell or a modified down cell. A mechanical separator and optional screen can be used to separate the Ag. Unreacted Mg or MgH₂Separation can be by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The chloride used for electrolysis may come from washing the reaction product with a suitable solvent such as deoxygenated water. The solution may be filtered to remove the support (e.g., AC) and optional Ag metal. The solids may be centrifuged and dried (preferably using waste heat from the power system). Alternatively, the halide may be separated by melting it, followed by separation of the liquid phase from the solid phase. In another embodiment, the lighter AC may be initially separated from other reaction products by methods such as cyclone separation. K is immiscible with Mg and the isolated metal (e.g. K) may be used preferably from H ₂H of O electrolysis₂And (4) gas hydrogenation. The metal chloride being separableMetal or a known reaction with a metal not separated from AC. In one embodiment, Ag is reacted with Cl₂Reacting to form AgCl and reacting H₂Is recycled and mixed with I₂The reaction formed HI. In other embodiments, other metals (preferably transition metals or In) replace Ag. Other reducing agents (e.g., Al) may replace Mg. Other halides (preferably chlorides) may replace the iodide. LiH, KH, RbH, or CsH can replace NaH.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is regenerated from the hydrino reaction product. In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the solid fuel reaction mixture comprises KH or NaH catalyst, Mg or MgH₂And alkaline earth metal halides (e.g., BaBr)₂) And a support (activated carbon, WC or preferably TiC). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is BaBr₂By oxidation of metal hydrides or of metals, e.g. by oxidation

2KH+Mg+BaBr₂→2KBr+Ba+MgH₂(118)

2NaH+Mg+BaBr₂→2NaBr+Ba+MgH₂.(119)

Ba. Magnesium, MgH₂The melting points of NaBr and KBr were 727 deg.C, 650 deg.C, 327 deg.C, 747 deg.C and 734 deg.C, respectively. Thus, MgH can be synthesized in the following manner₂Separation from barium and any Ba-Mg intermetallics: maintenance of MgH₂And optionally adding H₂Preferentially melting MgH ₂And separating the liquid from the reaction-product mixture. Optionally, it is thermally decomposable to Mg. The remaining reaction product may then be added to the electrolytic melt. The solid support and Ba precipitate, preferably forming a detachable layer. Alternatively, Ba may be separated in liquid form by melting. Next, NaBr or KBr can be electrolyzed to form alkali metal and Br₂. The latter is reacted with Ba to form BaBr₂. Alternatively, Ba is the anode and BaBr₂Formed directly in the anode compartment. The alkali metal can be hydrogenated after electrolysis or in the cathode compartment by bubbling H in this compartment during electrolysis₂To form the composite material. Then, makeMgH₂Or Mg, NaH or KH, BaBr₂And the support is returned to the reaction mixture. In other embodiments, other alkaline earth metal halides (e.g., BaI)₂、MgF₂、SrCl₂、CaCl₂Or CaBr₂) Replacement of BaBr₂。

In another embodiment, the regeneration reaction may occur without electrolysis due to a smaller energy difference between the reactants and the products. The reaction given by formula (118-119) can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions (e.g., temperature or hydrogen pressure). Alternatively, molten or volatile species (e.g., K or Na) may be selectively removed to drive the reaction back up, thereby regenerating the reactants or species, which may be further reacted and added back to the cell to form the original reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the volatile species may be continuously refluxed to maintain a reversible reaction between the catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., NaH, BaH, KH, Na, or K) and the initial oxidant (e.g., an alkaline earth metal halide or a rare earth metal halide). In one embodiment, reflux is achieved using a still (e.g., the still 34 shown in FIG. 4). The distiller can contain a wick or capillary system that forms droplets of volatile species such as K or other alkali metals. The droplets may fall by gravity into the reaction chamber. The wick or capillary may be similar to that of a molten metal heat pipe, or the still may comprise a molten metal heat pipe. The heat pipe can return a volatile species (e.g., a metal such as K) to the reaction mixture via a capillary wick. In another embodiment, the hydride may be formed and mechanically wiped from the collection surface or structure. The hydride may fall back into the reaction mixture by gravity. The return supply may be continuous or intermittent. In this embodiment, the battery may be level with the vapor space along the horizontal axis of the battery, and the condenser portion may be located at the end of the battery. The amount of volatile species (e.g., K) can be present in the cell at a stoichiometry about equal to or less than the metal of the oxidant such that it is limiting, thereby allowing the oxidant to form in a reverse reaction as the volatile species are transported in the cell. Hydrogen can be supplied to the cell at a controlled optimum pressure. Hydrogen gas may be bubbled through the reaction mixture to increase its pressure. Hydrogen gas can be flowed through the material to maintain the desired hydrogen pressure. Heat may be removed from the condensing portion by a heat exchanger. The heat transfer may be performed by boiling a coolant such as water. The boiling may be nucleate boiling which increases the rate of heat transfer.

In another embodiment comprising a reaction mixture consisting of more than one volatile species (e.g., metal), the species may be evaporated or sublimated to a gaseous state and condensed. Each species may be condensed in a separate zone based on the difference in vapor pressure versus temperature relationship between the species. Each species may be further reacted with another reactant (e.g., hydrogen) or returned directly to the reaction mixture. The combined reaction mixture may comprise a regenerated initial reaction mixture that forms hydrinos. The reaction mixture may comprise at least two species from the following group: catalyst, hydrogen source, oxidant, reductant and carrier. The carrier may also comprise an oxidizing agent. Carbon or carbides are such suitable supports. The oxidizing agent may comprise an alkaline earth metal such as Mg, the catalyst and the source of H may comprise KH. K and Mg can thermally volatilize and condense into separate ribbons. K can be determined by reaction with H₂Work-up to hydrogenate to KH, and KH may be returned to the reaction mixture. Alternatively, K can be returned and then reacted with hydrogen to form KH. Mg can be returned directly to the reaction mixture. When power is generated by the formation of hydrinos, the product may be continuously or intermittently regenerated back to the original reactants. The respective H consumed is replaced to maintain power output.

In another embodiment, reaction conditions such as temperature or hydrogen pressure may be varied to reverse the reaction. In this case, the reaction is initially carried forward to form hydrinos and reaction mixture products. Products other than lower energy hydrogen are then converted to the initial reactants. This may be done by changing the reaction conditions and possibly adding or removing products or reactants that are at least partially the same or different from the products or reactants originally used or formed. Thus, the forward and regeneration reactions are carried out in alternating cycles. Hydrogen may be added to replace the hydrogen consumed in forming the hydrinos. In another embodiment, reaction conditions (e.g., elevated temperature) are maintained, wherein the reversible reaction is optimized such that both the forward and reverse reactions proceed in a manner that achieves a desired, preferably maximum, rate of formation of hydrinos.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, a solid fuel reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, Mg, FeBr₂And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is FeBr₂By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

2NaH+FeBr₂→2NaBr+Fe+H₂(120)

Mg+FeBr₂→MgBr₂+Fe.(121)

NaBr and MgBr₂Can be electrolyzed from molten salt to Br₂Na and Mg. The melt electrolysis may be performed using a down cell or a modified down cell. Fe is ferromagnetic and can be separated magnetically using a mechanical separator and optionally a sieve. In another embodiment, ferromagnetic Ni may replace Fe. Unreacted Mg or MgH ₂Separation can be by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The bromide used for electrolysis may result from washing the reaction product with a suitable solvent, such as deoxygenated water. The solution may be filtered to remove the support (e.g., AC) and optionally the transition metal. The solids may be centrifuged and dried (preferably using waste heat from the power system). Alternatively, the halide may be isolated by melting it and then separating the liquid phase from the solid phase. In another embodiment, the lighter AC may be initially separated from other reaction products by methods such as cyclone separation. Na is not miscible with Mg and the separated metal (e.g. Na) can be used preferably from H₂H of O electrolysis₂The gas is hydrogenated. The metal bromide may be formed by known reactions with the isolated metal or with a metal that is not isolated from the AC. In one embodiment, Fe is reacted with HBr to form FeBr₂And is caused to H₂Recycled and reacted with Br₂The reaction forms HBr. In other embodiments, other metals (preferably transition metals) replace Fe. Other reducing agents (e.g., Al) may replace Mg. Other halides (preferably chlorides) may be substituted for bromineAnd (4) melting the mixture. LiH, KH, RbH, or CsH can replace NaH.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the solid fuel reaction mixture comprises KH or NaH catalyst, Mg or MgH ₂、SnBr₂And a carrier (activated carbon, WC or TiC). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is SnBr₂By oxidation of metal hydrides or of metals, e.g. by oxidation

2KH+SnBr₂→2KBr+Sn+H₂(122)

2NaH+SnBr₂→2NaBr+Sn+H₂(123)

Mg+SnBr₂→MgBr₂+Sn.(124)

Tin, magnesium, MgH₂The melting points of NaBr and KBr were 119 deg.C, 650 deg.C, 327 deg.C, 747 deg.C and 734 deg.C, respectively. For about 5 wt.% Mg as given in its alloy phase diagram, the tin-magnesium alloy will melt at temperatures exceeding, for example, 400 ℃. In one embodiment, the tin and magnesium metals and alloys are separated from the support and halides by melting the metals and alloys and separating the liquid phase from the solid phase. Can form MgH₂Alloying with H at solid and tin metal temperatures₂And (4) reacting. The solid and liquid phases can be separated to obtain MgH₂And tin. MgH₂Can be thermally decomposed into Mg and H₂. Alternatively, any unreacted Mg and any Sn-Mg alloy may be selectively converted to solid MgH₂And liquid tin at a temperature of H₂Added in situ to the reaction product. Tin can be selectively removed. Next, the MgH can be heated₂And removed in liquid form. Next, the halide may be removed from the support by: (1) melting it and allowing the phases to separate, (2) cyclonic separation based on density differences, where dense supports such as WC are preferred, or (3) sieving based on size differences. Alternatively, the halide may be dissolved in a suitable solvent and the liquid and solid phases separated by methods such as filtration. The liquid may be evaporated and the halide may then be electrolyzed from the melt into immiscible Na or K and possibly Mg metal and separated each. In addition to In one embodiment, K is formed by reduction of halides using Na metal regenerated electrolytically by sodium halide, preferably the same halide formed in the fractional hydrogen reactor. In addition, electrolysis of the melt collects halogen gases (e.g., Br)₂) And reacting it with the separated Sn to form SnBr₂Reacting with NaH or KH and Mg or MgH₂(wherein the hydride is reacted with H₂The gases undergoing hydrogenation formation) are recycled together for another cycle of the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, HBr is formed and reacted with Sn to form SnBr₂. HBr can be obtained by reacting Br₂And H₂Formed by reaction, or by bubbling H through the anode during electrolysis₂Which has the advantage of reducing the electrolytic energy. In other embodiments, Sn may be replaced with other metals, preferably transition metals, and other compounds may replace Br, such as I.

In another embodiment, in an initial step, all of the reaction products are reacted with aqueous HBr and the solution is concentrated to allow SnBr₂From MgBr₂And precipitation in KBr solution. Other suitable solvents and separation methods may be used to separate the salts. Then MgBr is added₂And KBr to Mg and K. Alternatively, the Mg or MgH is first removed using mechanical or selective solvent methods₂So that only KBr needs to be electrolyzed. In one embodiment, Sn is MgH as a melt from a solid ₂Is removed, the solid MgH₂By adding H during or after the hydriding reaction₂And (4) forming. Then MgH is added₂Or Mg, KBr and support are added to the electrolytic melt. The carriers settle in the deposition zone due to their large particle size. MgH₂And KBr forms part of the melt and separates based on density. Mg is immiscible with K and K also forms a separate phase so that Mg and K can be collected separately. The anode may be Sn, such that K, Mg and SnBr₂Is an electrolysis product. The anode may be liquid tin, or liquid tin may be sprayed onto the anode to react with bromine and form SnBr₂. In this case, the energy gap for regeneration is the difference in compounds relative to the higher elemental difference (corresponding to elemental product at both electrodes). In another embodiment, the reactant packageComprises KH, a carrier and SnI₂Or SnBr₂. Sn may be removed in liquid form and the remaining product (e.g., KX) and the addition of a carrier, which separates based on density, may be added to the electrolytic melt. In this case, a dense carrier such as WC is preferable.

The reactants may comprise oxygen compounds that form oxide products, for example, oxides of the catalyst or source of the catalyst (e.g., NaH, Li, or K) and oxides of the reducing agent (e.g., Mg, MgH) ₂Oxides of Al, Ti, B, Zr or La). In one embodiment, the reactants are regenerated by reacting the oxide with an acid (e.g., a hydrogen halide acid, preferably HCl) to form the corresponding halide (e.g., chloride). In one embodiment, the oxidized carbon species (e.g., carbonate, bicarbonate, carboxylic acid species (e.g., oxalic acid or oxalate)) may be reduced by a metal or metal hydride. Preferably, Li, K, Na, LiH, KH, NaH, Al, Mg and MgH are used₂Reacts with a species comprising carbon and oxygen and forms the corresponding metal oxide or hydroxide and carbon. Each respective metal can be regenerated by electrolysis. The electrolysis may be performed using a molten salt (e.g., a molten salt of a eutectic mixture). The halogen gas electrolysis product (e.g., chlorine gas) may be used to form the corresponding acid (e.g., HCl) as part of the regeneration cycle. The hydrogen halide acid HX may be formed by reacting a halogen gas with hydrogen gas and by optionally dissolving the hydrogen halide gas in water. The hydrogen gas is preferably formed by electrolysis of water. The oxygen may be a reactant of the hydrino reaction mixture or a source of oxygen that can be reacted to form the hydrino reaction mixture. The step of reacting the oxide hydrino reaction product with an acid may comprise rinsing the product with an acid to form a solution comprising a metal salt. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction mixture and the corresponding product mixture comprise a support (e.g., carbon, preferably activated carbon). The metal oxide may be separated from the support by dissolving it in an aqueous acid solution. Thus, the product may be washed with acid and may be further filtered to separate the components of the reaction mixture. The water may be removed by evaporation using heat (preferably waste heat from a power system), a salt such as a metal chloride may be added to the electrolysis mixture to form a metal and A halogen gas. In one embodiment, any methane or hydrocarbon product may be reformed into hydrogen and optionally carbon or carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the methane is separated from the gaseous product mixture and sold in commercial form. In another embodiment, methane may be formed into other hydrocarbon products by methods known in the art (e.g., fischer-tropsch reactions). Methane formation can be inhibited by adding an interfering gas (e.g., an inert gas) and by maintaining adverse conditions (e.g., reduced hydrogen pressure or temperature).

In another embodiment, the metal oxide is obtained directly electrolytically from the eutectic mixture. Oxides such as MgO may react with water to form hydroxides, e.g. Mg (OH)₂. In one embodiment, the hydroxide is reduced. The reducing agent may be an alkali metal or hydride, such as Na or NaH. The product hydroxide can be directly electrolyzed as molten salt. The products of the hydric reaction, such as alkali metal hydroxides, can also be used as commercial products and the corresponding halides obtained. The halide can then be electrolyzed into a halogen gas and a metal. Halogen gas can be used as a commercially available industrial gas. The metal may be hydrogenated with hydrogen, preferably for electrolysis of water, and fed to the reactor as part of the hydrino reaction mixture.

Reducing agents such as alkali metals can be removed from the solution containing the corresponding compound (preferably NaOH or Na) using methods and systems known to those skilled in the art₂O) is regenerated. One method involves electrolysis in a mixture such as a eutectic mixture. In another embodiment, the reductant product may include at least some oxides, such as a reductant metal oxide (e.g., MgO). The hydroxide or oxide can be dissolved in a weak acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid) to form the corresponding salt, e.g., NaCl or MgCl₂. The treatment with acid may also be an anhydrous reaction. The gas may flow at low pressure. The salt may be treated with a product reducing agent (e.g., an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal) to form the original reducing agent. In one embodiment, the second reducing agent is an alkaline earth metal, preferably Ca, wherein NaCl or MgCl is added₂Reducing to Na or Mg metal. CaCl is also recovered and recycled₃Other products of (2). In an alternative embodiment, H is used at elevated temperatures₂And reducing the oxide.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the reaction mixture contains NaH catalyst, MgH₂、O₂And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is O₂By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

MgH₂+O₂→Mg(OH)₂(125)

MgH₂+1.5O₂+C→MgCO₃+H₂(126)

NaH+3/2O₂+C→NaHCO₃(127)

2NaH+O₂→2NaOH.(128)

Any MgO product can be converted to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂.(129)

Sodium or magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, and other species containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced by Na or NaH:

NaH+Na₂CO₃→3NaOH+C+1/H₂(130)

NaH+1/3MgCO₃→NaOH+1/3C+1/3Mg(131)

Mg(OH)₂reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg.(132)

NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O₂. A Castner process may be used. Suitable cathodes and anodes for the alkaline solution are nickel. The anode may also be carbon, a noble metal (e.g., Pt), a support (e.g., Ti coated with a noble metal such as Pt), or a dimensionally stable anode. In another embodiment, NaOH is converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein NaCl can be electrolyzed with gaseous Cl₂From the electrolysis of waterH of (A) to (B)₂The reaction forms HCl. Electrolysis of molten NaCl may be performed using a down cell or a modified down cell. Alternatively, HCl can be produced by chlor-alkali electrolysis. The aqueous NaCl solution used for this electrolysis may result from rinsing the reaction product with aqueous HCl. The solution may be filtered to remove carriers such as AC, which may be centrifuged and dried (preferably using waste heat from a power system).

In one embodiment, the reacting step comprises: (1) washing the product with aqueous HCl to form metal chlorides from species such as hydroxides, oxides and carbonates, (2) by H using the water gas shift reaction and the Fischer-Tropsch reaction ₂Reduction of any liberated CO₂Conversion to water and C, wherein C is recycled as a carrier in step 10 and water may be used in step 1, 4 or 5, (3) filtration and drying of the carrier (e.g. AC), wherein drying may include a centrifugation step, (4) electrolysis of the water to H₂And O₂With provision for steps 8 to 10, (5) optionally electrolytic formation of H from an aqueous NaCl solution₂And HCl to supply steps 1 and 9, (6) separating and drying the metal chloride, (7) electrolyzing the metal chloride melt to metal and chlorine, (8) passing Cl₂And H₂To form HCl to supply step 1, (9) to hydrogenate any metal by reaction with hydrogen to form the corresponding starting reactant, and (10) to add O from step 4₂Or using O separated from the atmosphere₂An initial reaction mixture is formed.

In another embodiment, at least one of magnesium oxide and magnesium hydroxide is electrolyzed from a melt to Mg and O₂. The melt may be a NaOH melt, in which Na may also be electrolyzed. In one embodiment, carbon oxides such as carbonates and bicarbonates may be decomposed into CO and CO₂May be added to the reaction mixture as an oxygen source. Alternatively, the catalyst may be reacted with hydrogen, such as CO₂And carbon oxide species such as CO are reduced to carbon and water. CO 2 ₂And CO may be reduced by the water gas shift reaction and the Fischer-Tropsch reaction.

In exemplary hydriding and regenerating reactions, the reaction mixture comprisesNaH catalyst, MgH₂、CF₄And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is CF₄By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

2MgH₂+CF₄→C+2MgF₂+2H₂(133)

2MgH₂+CF₄→CH₄+2MgF₂(134)

4NaH+CF₄→C+4NaF+2H₂(135)

4NaH+CF₄→CH₄+4NaF.(136)

NaF and MgF₂Can be electrolyzed from a molten salt which can additionally contain HF to F₂Na and Mg. Na is not miscible with Mg and the isolated metal can be used preferably from H₂H of O electrolysis₂And (4) gas hydrogenation. Can make F₂Gas with carbon and any CH₄Reaction products react to regenerate CF₄. Alternatively and preferably, the anode of the electrolytic cell comprises carbon and the current and electrolysis conditions are maintained such that the CF₄Is an anode electrolysis product.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the reaction mixture contains NaH catalyst, MgH₂、P₂O₅(P₄O₁₀) And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is P₂O₅By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

5MgH₂+P₂O₅→5MgO+2P+5H₂(137)

5NaH+P₂O₅→5NaOH+2P.(138)

Phosphorus can be introduced into the reaction vessel through the reaction vessel at O₂Conversion of medium combustion to P₂O₅

2P+2.5O₂→P₂O₅.(139)

The MgO product can be converted to the hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂(140)

Mg(OH)₂Reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg.(141)

NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O ₂Or it can be converted into NaCl by reaction with HCl, where NaCl can be electrolyzed to form Cl₂With H from electrolysis of water₂The reaction forms HCl. In embodiments, metals (such as Na and Mg) can be passed through with H, preferably from electrolysis of water₂The reaction is converted to the corresponding hydride.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, a solid fuel reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, MgH₂、NaNO₃And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is NaNO₃By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

NaNO₃+NaH+C→Na₂CO₃+1/2N₂+1/2H₂(142)

NaNO₃+1/2H₂+2NaH→3NaOH+1/2N₂(143)

NaNO₃+3MgH₂→3MgO+NaH+1/2N₂+5/2H₂(144)

NaH+Na₂CO₃→3NaOH+C+1/H₂(145)

NaH+1/3MgCO₃→NaOH+1/3C+1/3Mg.(146)

the carbonate can also be decomposed from the aqueous medium into hydroxide and CO₂

Na₂CO₃+H₂O→2NaOH+CO₂.(147)

The water gas shift reaction and the Fischer-Tropsch reaction can be used to pass H₂Reduction of liberated CO₂Reaction with water and C

CO₂+H₂→CO+H₂O(148)

CO+H₂→C+H₂O.(149)

The MgO product can be converted to the hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂.(150)

Mg(OH)₂Reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg.(151)

the alkali metal nitrate may be regenerated using methods known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, NO₂Can be produced by known industrial methods, such as by the Haber process followed by the Ostwald process. In one embodiment, an exemplary sequence of steps is:

In particular, the Haber process may be used to remove N from N at high temperatures and pressures using catalysts such as certain oxides containing alpha-iron₂And H₂Generation of NH₃. The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO over a catalyst such as a hot platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst₂. The heat may be waste heat from the power system. Can convert NO into₂Dissolving in water to form nitric acid, mixing with NaOH and Na₂CO₃Or NaHCO₃The reaction forms sodium nitrate. The remaining NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O₂Or it can be converted into NaCl by reaction with HCl, where NaCl can be electrolyzed to form Cl₂With water and electricityH of solution₂The reaction forms HCl. In embodiments, metals such as Na and Mg may be passed through with H, preferably from electrolysis of water₂Reacted to convert to the corresponding hydride. In other embodiments, Li and K are substituted for Na.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the reaction mixture contains NaH catalyst, MgH₂、SF₆And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is SF₆By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

4MgH₂+SF₆→3MgF₂+4H₂+MgS(153)

7NaH+SF₆→6NaF+3H₂+NaHS.(154)

NaF and MgF₂And sulfides can be electrolyzed from molten salts that may additionally contain HF to Na and Mg. Can react fluorine electrolysis gas with sulfide to form SF ₆Gas, which may be removed dynamically. SF can be separated by methods known in the art (e.g., cold distillation, membrane separation, or chromatography using media such as molecular sieves)₆And F₂And (5) separating. NaHS melts at 350 ℃ and may melt a portion of the electrolytic mixture. Any MgS product can react with Na to form NaHS, where the reaction can occur in situ during electrolysis. S and metal may be products formed during electrolysis. Alternatively, the metal may be present in minor proportions to allow for more stable fluoride formation, or F may be added₂To form fluorides.

3MgH₂+SF₆→3MgF₂+3H₂+S(155)

6NaH+SF₆→6NaF+3H₂+S(156)

NaF and MgF₂Can be electrolyzed from a molten salt which can additionally contain HF to F₂Na and Mg. Na is not miscible with Mg and the separated metal can be H₂Hydrogenation of the gas, of this H₂The gas is preferably derived from H₂Make-up gas for O electrolysis. Can make F₂Gas reaction with sulfurShould be such that SF₆And (4) regenerating.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the reaction mixture contains NaH catalyst, MgH₂、NF₃And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is NF₃By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

3MgH₂+2NF₃→3MgF₂+3H₂+N₂(157)

6MgH₂+2NF₃→3MgF₂+Mg₃N₂+6H₂(158)

3NaH+NF₃→3NaF+1/2N₂+1.5H₂.(159)

NaF and MgF₂Can be electrolyzed from a molten salt which can additionally contain HF to F₂Na and Mg. Mg (magnesium)₃N₂Conversion to MgF₂Can take place in the melt. Na is not miscible with Mg and the isolated metal can be used preferably from H ₂H of O electrolysis₂The gas is hydrogenated. Can make F₂Gas and NH₃Preferably in a copper bulk reactor to form NF₃. Ammonia may be produced from the Haber process. Alternatively, NF₃Can be prepared by electrolysis of NH in anhydrous HF₄F is formed.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, a solid fuel reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, MgH₂、Na₂S₂O₈And a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is Na₂S₂O₈By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

8MgH₂+Na₂S₂O₈→2MgS+2NaOH+6MgO+6H₂(160)

7MgH₂+Na₂S₂O₈+C→2MgS+Na₂CO₃+5MgO+7H₂(161)

10NaH+Na₂S₂O₈→2Na₂S+8NaOH+H₂(162)

9NaH+Na₂S₂O₈+C→2Na₂S+Na₂CO₃+5NaOH+2H₂.(163)

Any MgO product can be converted to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂(164)

NaH+Na₂CO₃→3NaOH+C+1/H₂(165)

NaH+1/3MgCO₃→NaOH+1/3C+1/3Mg.(166)

MgS can be burned in oxygen, hydrolyzed, exchanged with Na to form sodium sulfate, and electrolyzed to Na₂S₂O₈

2MgS+10H₂O+2NaOH→Na₂S₂O₈+2Mg(OH)₂+9H₂(167)

Na₂S can be burnt in oxygen, hydrolyzed into sodium sulfate, and electrolyzed to form Na₂S₂O₈

2Na₂S+10H₂O→Na₂S₂O₈+2NaOH+9H₂(168)

Mg(OH)₂Reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg.(169)

NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O₂Or it can be converted into NaCl by reaction with HCl, where NaCl can be electrolyzed to form Cl₂With H from electrolysis of water₂The reaction forms HCl.

In an exemplary hydriding reaction and regeneration reaction, a solid fuel reaction mixture comprises NaH catalyst, MgH ₂S and a carrier (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is an oxidation reaction of the metal hydride S to oxidize, for example

MgH₂+S→MgS+H₂(170)

2NaH+S→Na₂S+H₂(171)

Magnesium sulfide can be converted to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgS+2H₂O→Mg(OH)₂+H₂S(172)

H₂S can be decomposed at high temperature or used to remove SO₂Is converted into S. Sodium sulfide can be converted to hydroxide by combustion and hydrolysis

Na₂S+1.5O₂→Na₂O+SO₂

Na₂O+H₂O→2NaOH(173)

Mg(OH)₂Reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg(174)

NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O₂Or it can be converted into NaCl by reaction with HCl, where NaCl can be electrolyzed to form Cl₂With H from electrolysis of water₂The reaction forms HCl. SO (SO)₂Can be used at high temperature₂To reduce

SO₂+2H₂S→3S+2H₂O(175)

In embodiments, metals such as Na and Mg may be passed through with H, preferably from electrolysis of water₂Reacted to convert to the corresponding hydride. In other embodiments, S and metal may be regenerated by electrolysis from the melt.

In exemplary hydriding and regeneration reactions, the reaction mixture contains NaH catalyst, MgH₂、N₂O, and a support (activated carbon). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is N₂Oxidation of metal hydrides by O, e.g.

4MgH₂+N₂O→MgO+Mg₃N₂+4H₂(176)

NaH+3N₂O+C→NaHCO₃+3N₂+1/2H₂(177)

The MgO product can be converted to the hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO+H₂O→Mg(OH)₂(178)

Magnesium nitride can also be hydrolyzed to magnesium hydroxide:

Mg₃N₂+6H₂O→3Mg(OH)₂+3H₂+N₂(179)

Sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and other species containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced by Na or NaH:

NaH+Na₂CO₃→3NaOH+C+1/H₂(180)

Mg(OH)₂reduction to Mg using Na or NaH:

2Na+Mg(OH)₂→2NaOH+Mg(181)

NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt into Na metal and NaH and O₂Or it can be converted into NaCl by reaction with HCl, where NaCl can be electrolyzed to form Cl₂With H from electrolysis of water₂The reaction forms HCl. Ammonia oxidation (formula (152)) from the Haber process and temperature control to facilitate N production₂O, reacting the N₂O is separated from the other gases of the steady state reaction product mixture.

In exemplary hydriding and regenerating reactions, the reaction mixture comprisesNaH catalyst, MgH₂、Cl₂And a carrier (e.g., activated carbon, WC, or TiC). The reactor may further comprise a source of high energy light, preferably ultraviolet light, to dissociate the Cl₂Thereby initiating the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is Cl₂By oxidation of metal hydrides, e.g.

2NaH+Cl₂→2NaCl+H₂(182)

MgH₂+Cl₂→MgCl₂+H₂(183)

NaCl and MgCl₂Can be electrolyzed from molten salts to Cl₂Na and Mg. Electrolysis of molten NaCl may be performed using a down cell or a modified down cell. The aqueous NaCl solution used for this electrolysis may result from rinsing the reaction product with an aqueous solution. The solution may be filtered to remove carriers such as AC, which may be centrifuged and dried (preferably using waste heat from a power system). Na is not miscible with Mg and the isolated metal can be used preferably from H ₂H of O electrolysis₂And (4) gas hydrogenation. The following are exemplary results:

·4gWC+1gMgH₂+1gNaH+0.01molCl₂initiated with UV lamp to remove Cl₂The dissociation is Cl, the Ein is 162.9kJ, the dE is 16.0kJ, the TSC is 23-42 ℃, the Tmax is 85 ℃, the theoretical value is 7.10kJ, and the gain is 2.25 times.

Comprising a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g. NaH, K or Li or hydrides thereof), a reducing agent (e.g. alkali metals or hydrides, preferably Mg, MgH₂Or Al) and an oxidizing agent (e.g. NF)₃) The reactants of (a) may be regenerated by electrolysis. The metal fluoride product is preferably regenerated to metal and fluorine gas by electrolysis. The electrolyte may comprise a eutectic mixture. The mixture may further comprise HF. NF₃Can be prepared by electrolysis of NH in anhydrous HF₄F, regenerating. In another embodiment, NH is reacted₃And F₂In a reactor such as a copper pile-up reactor. F₂By using dimensionally stable anodes or carbon anodes, using a catalyst in favour of F₂The conditions produced are generated by electrolysis. SF₆Can be prepared by mixingS and F₂And reacting to regenerate. Any metal nitride that may be formed in the hydrino reaction may be regenerated by at least one of the following methods: thermal decomposition of H₂Reduction, oxidation to an oxide or hydroxide and reaction to a halide followed by electrolysis, and reaction with a halogen gas during electrolysis of a melt of the metal halide. NCl ₃By reaction of ammonia with chlorine or by reaction with, for example, NH₄And an ammonium salt such as Cl and the like is reacted with chlorine gas. Chlorine gas may result from the electrolysis of chloride salts (e.g., chloride salts from the reaction mixture product). NH (NH)₃Can be formed using a Haber process, wherein hydrogen can come from electrolysis, preferably from water electrolysis. In one embodiment, the NCl₃By NH₃And ammonium salts (e.g. NH)₄Cl) and Cl₂The reaction of the gases is formed in situ in the reactor. In one embodiment, BiF₅Can be prepared by reacting BiF₃With F formed from metal fluoride electrolysis₂And reacting to regenerate.

In embodiments where the oxygen or halogen source optionally serves as a reactant for the exothermic activation reaction, the oxide or halide product is preferably regenerated by electrolysis. The electrolyte may comprise a co-solvent mixture, such as a mixture of: al (Al)₂O₃And Na₃AlF₆；MgF₂NaF and HF; na (Na)₃AlF₆；NaF、SiF₄And HF; AlF₃NaF and HF. SiF₄By electrolysis to Si and F₂Can be carried out from alkali metal fluoride co-solvent mixtures. Mg can be separated in the melt phase because of its low miscibility with Na. Since Al has low miscibility with Na, it can be separated in the melt phase. In another embodiment, the electrolysis product may be separated by distillation. In other embodiments, Ti ₂O₃By reaction with C and Cl₂Reaction to form CO and TiCl₄To regenerate TiCl₄Further reacting with Mg to form Ti and MgCl₂. Mg and Cl₂Regeneration may be by electrolysis. In the case of MgO as product, Mg can be regenerated by the picogold process. In one embodiment, MgO is reacted with Si to form SiO₂And Mg gas, condensing the Mg gas. Product SiO₂Can be prepared by carrying out H at elevated temperature₂Reduction or by reaction with carbon to form Si and CO₂And regenerating to Si. In another embodiment, Si is regenerated by electrolysis using a method such as electrolysis of solid oxides in molten calcium chloride. In one embodiment, chlorate or perchlorate (e.g., alkali metal chlorate or perchlorate) is regenerated by electrolytic oxidation. The brine can be oxidized electrolytically to produce chlorates and perchlorates.

To regenerate the reactants, any oxide coating that may form on the metal support may be removed with a dilute acid after separation from the reactant or product mixture. In another embodiment, the carbides are produced from the oxides by reacting with carbon while releasing carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.

Where the reaction mixture comprises a solvent, the solvent may be separated from other reactants or products for regeneration by removing the solvent using evaporation or filtration or centrifugation to retain solids. In the presence of other volatile components (such as alkali metals), they can be selectively removed by heating to a suitably high temperature to cause them to evaporate. For example, the metal (e.g., Na metal) is collected by distillation, while the support (e.g., carbon) remains. Na can be rehydrogenated to NaH and carbon returned, and solvent added to regenerate the reaction mixture. The separated solids (e.g., R-Ni) can also be regenerated separately. The separated R-Ni may be hydrogenated by exposure to hydrogen gas at a pressure in the range of 0.1atm to 300 atm.

In the case where the solvent decomposes during the reaction of the catalyst to form hydrinos, the solvent may be regenerated. By way of example, the decomposition products of DMF may be dimethylamine, carbon monoxide, formic acid, sodium formate and formaldehyde. In one embodiment, dimethylformamide is produced in the catalytic reaction of dimethylamine with carbon monoxide in methanol or in the reaction of methyl formate with dimethylamine. It can also be prepared by reacting dimethylamine with formic acid.

In one embodiment, the exemplary ether solvent may be regenerated from the product of the reaction mixture. Preferably, the reaction mixture and conditions are selected to minimize the ether reaction rate relative to the rate of formation of hydrinos, so that any ether degradation is negligible relative to the energy generated from the hydrino reaction. Thus, with the removal of the ether degradation products, the ether can be added back if desired. Alternatively, the ether and reaction conditions may be selected such that the ether reaction product may be isolated and the ether regenerated.

One embodiment comprises at least one of: HSA is a fluoride, HSA is a metal, and the solvent is fluorinated. The metal fluoride may be a reaction product. Metals and fluorine gas can be generated by electrolysis. The electrolyte may comprise fluoride (e.g., NaF, MgF) ₂、AlF₃Or LaF₃) And may additionally comprise at least one other species that lowers the melting point of the fluoride (such as HF and other salts), such as those disclosed in U.S. patent No. 5,427,657. Excess HF soluble LaF₃. The electrodes may be carbon (e.g., graphite) and may also form fluorocarbons as desired degradation products. In one embodiment, at least one of the following comprises magnetic particles: carbon coated metals or alloys (preferably nanopowders) such as carbon coated Co, Ni, Fe, other transition metal powders or alloys; metal coated carbon (preferably nanopowders), such as transition metal or alloy coated carbon, preferably at least one of Ni, Co, Fe and Mn coated carbon. The magnetic particles can be separated from the mixture (e.g., a mixture of fluoride (e.g., NaF) and carbon) using a magnet. The collected particles may be recycled as part of the reaction mixture in which the hydrinos are formed.

In embodiments where at least one of the solvent, support or absorbent comprises fluorine, the product may comprise carbon (in the case where the solvent or support is fluorinated organic), and may also comprise, for example, NaHF₂And fluorides of catalyst metals such as NaF. Also included are lower energy hydrogen products, such as molecular fraction hydrogen gas, which can be vented or collected. Using F ₂Carbon can be etched with CF₄Leaving in gaseous form, CF₄The gas may be used as a reactant in another cycle of the power-producing reaction. NaF and NaHF₂Can be electrolyzed into Na and F₂. Can makeReaction of Na with hydrogen to form NaH and F₂Can be used to attack the carbon product. NaH, residual NaF and CF can be added₄And combined to perform another cycle of the power generation reaction to form hydrinos. In other embodiments, Li, K, Rb, or Cs may replace Na.

Other liquid and heterogeneous Fuel embodiments

In the present invention, "liquid-solvent embodiment" includes any reaction mixture and corresponding fuel, including liquid solvents, such as liquid fuels and heterogeneous fuels.

In another embodiment comprising a liquid solvent, one of atomic sodium and molecular NaH is provided by a reaction between Na in metallic, ionic or molecular form and at least one other compound or element. The source of Na or NaH may be at least one of: metallic Na, inorganic compounds containing Na (e.g., NaOH), and other suitable Na compounds (e.g., NaNH)₂、Na₂CO₃And Na₂O, NaX (X is a halide) and NaH(s). The other element may be H, a displacer or a reductant. The reaction mixture may comprise at least one of: (1) solvents, (2) sources of sodium, e.g. Na (m), NaH, NaNH ₂、Na₂CO₃、Na₂At least one of O, NaOH-doped R-Ni, NaX (X is a halide) and NaX-doped R-Ni, (3) a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents and hydrides, (4) displacing agents, such as alkali or alkaline earth metals, preferably Li, and (5) reducing agents, such as at least one of: the metal (e.g., alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, lanthanide, transition metal (e.g., Ti), aluminum, B, metal alloys (e.g., AlHg, NaPb, NaAl, LiAl), and metal sources, either alone or in combination with reducing agents (e.g., alkaline earth metal halides, transition metal halides, lanthanide halides, and aluminum halides)₄、NaBH₄、LiAlH₄、NaAlH₄、RbBH₄、CsBH₄、Mg(BH₄)₂Or Ca (BH)₄)₂. Preferably with a reducing agentReacting with NaOH to form NaH molecules and Na products (e.g., Na, NaH(s) and Na)₂O). The source of NaH may be R-Ni, which includes NaOH and a reactant, such as a reducing agent (e.g., an Al intermetallic compound of an alkali or alkaline earth metal or R-Ni) that forms the NaH catalyst. Other exemplary agents are alkali or alkaline earth metals and oxidizing agents (e.g., AlX)₃、MgX₂、LaX₃、CeX₃And TiX_nWherein X is a halide, preferably Br or I). In addition, the reaction mixture may contain further compounds which contain an absorbent or dispersant, for example Na ₂CO₃、Na₃SO₄And Na₃PO₄May be doped in a dissociating agent (e.g., R-Ni). The reaction mixture may further comprise a support, wherein the support may be doped with at least one reactant of the mixture. The support may preferably have a large surface area, which facilitates production of NaH catalyst from the reaction mixture. The carrier may comprise at least one of the following group: R-Ni, Al, Sn, Al₂O₃(e.g. gamma, beta or alpha alumina), sodium aluminate (beta alumina with other ions present, e.g. Na)⁺And has an idealized composition Na₂O·11Al₂O₃) Lanthanide oxides (e.g., M)₂O₃Preferably M = La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd and Er), Si, silica, silicates, zeolites, lanthanides, transition metals, metal alloys (such as alkali and alkaline earth alloys with Na), rare earth metals, SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or SiO₂Supported Ni and other supported metals (e.g., at least one of platinum, palladium or ruthenium on alumina). The support can have a high surface area and comprise a High Surface Area (HSA) material, such as R-Ni, zeolites, silicates, aluminates, alumina nanoparticles, porous Al₂O₃Pt, Ru or Pd/Al₂O₃Carbon, Pt or Pd/C), inorganic compounds (e.g. Na)₂CO₃) Silica and zeolite materials (preferably zeolite Y powder) and carbon (such as fullerenes or nanotubes). In one embodiment, Al, for example ₂O₃Isocarriers (and dissociation agent Al)₂O₃Support (if present)) and a metal such as a lanthanideThe reactants react to form a surface modified support. In one embodiment, the surface Al is exchanged with a lanthanide to form a lanthanide-substituted support. The support may be doped with a source of NaH molecules such as NaOH and reacted with a reducing agent such as a lanthanide. Subsequent reaction of the lanthanide-substituted support with the lanthanide will not significantly alter it, and the surface-doped NaOH can be reduced to the NaH catalyst by reaction with the reducing agent lanthanide. In other embodiments presented herein, Li, K, Rb, or Cs can replace Na.

In embodiments comprising a liquid solvent, wherein the reaction mixture comprises a source of NaH catalyst, the source of NaH may be a Na alloy and a source of hydrogen. The alloy may comprise at least one alloy known in the art: for example, sodium metal alloyed with one or more other alkali or alkaline earth metals, transition metals, Al, Sn, Bi, Ag, In, Pb, Hg, Si, Zr, B, Pt, Pd or other metals, and the source of H may be H₂Or a hydride.

The reagents such as a source of NaH molecules, a source of sodium, a source of NaH, a source of hydrogen, a displacer and a reductant are in any desired molar ratio. The molar ratio of each is greater than 0 and less than 100%. The molar ratios are preferably similar.

In a liquid-solvent embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least one species from the following group: a solvent, a source of Na or Na, a source of NaH or NaH, a metal hydride or metal hydride source, a reactant or source of reactants to form a metal hydride, a hydrogen dissociating agent, and a source of hydrogen. The reaction mixture may further comprise a carrier. The metal hydride forming reactant may comprise a lanthanide, preferably La or Gd. In one embodiment, La may be reacted reversibly with NaH to form LaH_n(n =1, 2, 3). In one embodiment, the hydride anion exchange reaction forms a NaH catalyst. The overall reaction that is reversible can be given by:

the reaction given by formula (184) applies to the other MH type catalysts given in table 3. The reaction may proceed to form hydrogen that may dissociate to form atomic hydrogen that reacts with Na to form NaH catalyst. The dissociation agent is preferably Pt, Pd or Ru/Al₂O₃At least one of powder, Pt/Ti and R-Ni. Preferably, the debonder carrier (e.g., Al)₂O₃) Comprising La at least in place of Al, or comprising Pt, Pd or Ru/M₂O₃Powder, wherein M is a lanthanide element. The dissociating agent may be separated from the remainder of the reaction mixture, wherein the separator passes the atom H.

Suitable liquid-solvent embodiments include solvent, NaH, La, and Pd/Al ₂O₃A reaction mixture of powders, wherein in one embodiment the reaction mixture may be regenerated by: removal of solvent, addition of H₂Separating NaH from lanthanum hydride by sieving, heating the lanthanum hydride to form La and mixing the La with NaH. Alternatively, regeneration comprises the steps of: separating Na from lanthanum hydride by melting Na and removing the liquid, heating the lanthanum hydride to form La, hydrogenating Na to NaH, mixing La with NaH, and adding a solvent. Mixing La with NaH may be performed by ball milling.

In liquid-solvent embodiments, high surface area materials such as R-Ni are doped with NaX (X = F, Cl, Br, I). Reacting the doped R-Ni with a reagent that will displace halide ions to form at least one of Na and NaH. In one embodiment, the reactant is at least one alkali or alkaline earth metal, preferably at least one of K, Rb, Cs. In another embodiment, the reactant is an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride, preferably KH, RbH, CsH, MgH₂And CaH₂At least one of (1). The reactants may be alkali and alkaline earth metal hydrides. The overall reaction that is reversible can be given by:

D. other MH-type catalysts and reactions

Generally, a fraction hydrogen producing MH-type hydrogen catalyst is provided in table 3A as follows: the M-H bond is broken and the t electrons are each ionized from atom M to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV (where M is an integer). Each MH catalyst is given in the first column and the corresponding M-H bond energy is given in the second column. The atom M of the MH species given in the first column is ionized, together with the bond energy of the second column, to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in the eighth column, where m is given in the ninth column. The electrons participating in ionization are given by an ionization potential (also referred to as ionization energy or binding energy). For example, the bond energy 1.9245eV for NaH is given in the second column. Ionization potential of n-th electron of atom or ion is represented by IP _nDenoted and given by CRC. I.e., Na +5.13908eV → Na, for example⁺+e^-And Na⁺+47.2864eV→Na²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁=5.13908eV and second ionization potential IP₂=47.2864eV is given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for NaH bond cleavage and Na double ionization is 54.35eV as shown in the eighth column, and m ═ 2 in formula (47) as shown in the ninth column. BaH bond energy of 1.98991eV and IP₁、IP₂And IP₃5.2117eV, 10.00390eV and 37.3eV, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for BaH bond cleavage and Ba triple ionization is 54.5eV as shown in the eighth column, and m =2 in formula (47) as shown in the ninth column. SrH bond energy of 1.70eV and IP₁、IP₂、IP₃、IP₄And IP₅5.69484eV, 11.03013eV, 42.89eV, 57eV, and 71.6eV, respectively. SrH bond cleavage and Sr ionization to Sr⁵⁺The net enthalpy of reaction of (a) is 190eV as shown in the eighth column, and m =7 in formula (47) as shown in the ninth column. In addition, H can be reacted with each H (1/p) product of the MH catalysts given in table 3A to form a hydrino that is increased by 1 (formula (10)) relative to the catalyst reaction product quantum number p of the individual MH given by exemplary formula (31).

Table 3a. MH type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of about m.27.2 27.2 eVm.27.2 eV. The unit of energy is eV.

In other embodiments, the hydrino-producing MH provided in table 3B is given as follows ^-type-I hydrogen catalyst: the electron transfer to acceptor A, M-H bond is broken and t electrons are each ionized from atom M to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the poor Electron Affinity (EA) of MH and a, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from the M power is about m.27.2 eV (where M is an integer). Each MH^-The electron affinity of the catalyst, acceptor A, MH, the electron affinity of A, and the M-H bond energy are given in the first, second, third, and fourth columns, respectively. The electrons of the corresponding atom M of the MH participating in the ionization are given in the following column with ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy) and the enthalpy of the catalyst and the corresponding integer M are given in the last column. For example, the electron affinities of OH and H are 1.82765eV and 0.7542eV, respectively, such that the electron transfer energy is 1.07345eV, as shown in the fifth column. The OH bond energy is 4.4556eV, as shown in the sixth column. Ionization potential of n-th electron of atom or ion is represented by IP_nAnd (4) specifying. I.e., O +13.61806eV → O⁺+e^-And O⁺+35.11730eV→O²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁=13.61806eV and second ionization potential IP₂=35.11730eV is given in the seventh and eighth columns, respectively. The net enthalpies of electron transfer reaction, OH cleavage, and O double ionization are 54.27eV as shown in the eleventh column, and m is 2 in formula (47) as shown in the twelfth column. In addition, H can be reacted with each H (1/p) product of the MH catalysts given in table 3B to form a hydrino having an increase of 1 (formula (10)) relative to the catalyst reaction product quantum number p of the individual MH given by exemplary formula (31). In other embodiments, a catalyst for forming hydrino H is provided as follows: the negative ion is ionized such that its sum of EA plus the ionization energy of one or more electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. Alternatively, a first electron of the negative ion can be transferred to the acceptor, followed by ionization of at least one electron, thereby adding an energy to the electron transfer The sum of the ionization energies of the one or more electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The electron acceptor may be H.

TABLE 3B MH capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of about m.27.2 eV^-And (3) a hydrogen catalyst. The unit of energy is eV.

In other embodiments, a hydrino-producing MH is provided as follows⁺type-I hydrogen catalyst: electrons are transferred from donor a, which may be negatively charged, M-H bonds are broken, and t electrons are each ionized from atom M to a continuous energy level, so that the sum of electron transfer energy comprising the difference in ionization energy of MH and a, M-H bond energy, and ionization energy of t electrons from M electric power, where M is an integer, is about M · 27.2 eV.

In one embodiment, a species such as an atom, ion, or molecule acts as a catalyst to cause molecular hydrogen to undergo molecular hydriding to molecular hydriding H₂(1/p) (p is an integer). Similar to the case of H, the catalyst accepts the hydrogen from H₂Which in this case may be about m48.6ev, where m is an integer as given in MillsGUTCP. By direct catalysis of H₂Form H₂Suitable exemplary catalysts of (1/p) are O, V and Cd, which form O during catalytic reactions corresponding to m =1, m =2 and m =4, respectively²⁺、V⁴ ⁺And Cd⁵⁺. Energy may be released as heat or light or as electricity (where the reaction comprises a half-cell reaction).

Hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor

The hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor of the invention are shown in figure 17. The hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor of fig. 17 includes a gas discharge cell 307 comprising a hydrogen filled glow discharge vacuum vessel 315 having a chamber 300. Hydrogen source 322 supplies hydrogen to chamber 300 through hydrogen supply passage 342 via control valve 325. The cell chamber 300 contains a catalyst. A voltage and current source 330 passes current between the cathode 305 and the anode 320. The current may be reversible.

In one embodiment, the material of cathode 305 may Be a source of catalyst, such as Fe, Dy, Be, or Pd. In another embodiment of a hydrogen discharge power and plasma cell and reactor, the walls of the container 313 are conductive and act as a cathode in place of the electrode 305, and the anode 320 may be hollow, such as a stainless steel hollow anode. The discharge may vaporize the catalyst source into the catalyst. Molecular hydrogen can be dissociated by electrical discharge to form hydrogen atoms to produce fractional hydrogen and energy. Other dissociation may be provided by a hydrogen dissociation agent in the chamber.

Another embodiment of hydrogen discharge power and plasma cells and reactors, where catalysis occurs in the gas phase, utilizes a controllable gas catalyst. The discharge of molecular hydrogen provides gaseous hydrogen atoms to convert to hydrinos. Gas discharge cell 307 has catalyst supply channel 341 for gaseous catalyst 350 to pass from catalyst reservoir 395 to reaction chamber 300. Catalyst reservoir 395 is heated by catalyst reservoir heater 392 with power supply 372 to provide gaseous catalyst to reaction chamber 300. The catalyst vapor pressure was controlled as follows: heater 392 is regulated by power supply 372 of heater 392 to control the temperature of catalyst reservoir 395. The reactor further comprises a selective vent valve 301. Chemically resistant open containers (e.g., stainless steel, tungsten, or ceramic dishes) located within the gas discharge cell may contain a catalyst. The catalyst in the catalyst boat may be heated using a boat heater and an associated power supply to provide gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber. Alternatively, the glow gas discharge cell is operated at high temperatures, causing the catalyst in the boat to sublimate, boil, or volatilize into the gas phase. The catalyst vapor pressure was controlled as follows: the heater is regulated by a power supply of the heater, thereby controlling the temperature of the boat or the discharge battery. To prevent condensation of catalyst in the cell, the temperature is maintained above the temperature of the catalyst source, catalyst reservoir 395, or catalyst boat.

In one embodiment, the catalysis occurs in the gas phase, lithium is the catalyst, and the atomic lithium source (e.g., lithium metal or lithium compound, such as LiNH)₂) And becomes a gas by maintaining the cell temperature in the range of about 300 c to 1000 c. Most preferably, the cell is maintained in the range of about 500 ℃ to 750 ℃. The atomic and/or molecular hydrogen reactant may be maintained at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. Most preferably, the pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of lithium metal and lithium hydride in the cell that maintains the desired operating temperature. The operating temperature range is preferably from about 300 deg.c to 1000 deg.c, and the pressure is most preferably that achieved by the cell at an operating temperature of about 300 deg.c to 750 deg.c. The battery may be controlled at a desired operating temperature by a heating coil (e.g., 380 of fig. 17) powered by a power supply 385. The cell may further comprise an internal reaction chamber 300 and an external hydrogen reservoir 390 such that hydrogen may be supplied to the cell by diffusion through the wall 313 separating the two chambers. The temperature of the wall can be controlled with a heater to control the rate of diffusion. The diffusion rate may be further controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure in the hydrogen reservoir.

In the presence of a catalyst containing Li and LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、LiNO₃、LiX、NH₄X (X is a halide), NH₃、LiBH₄、LiAlH₄And H₂In another embodiment of the system of reaction mixtures of species in group (b), at least one reactant is regenerated by adding one or more reagents and by plasma regeneration. The plasma may be a gas, such as NH₃And H₂The gas of (2). The plasma may be maintained in situ (in the reaction cell) or in an external cell in communication with the reaction cell. In other embodiments, K, Cs and Na replace Li, where the catalyst is atomic K, atomic Cs, and molecular NaH.

In one embodiment, SrH can act as an MH-type hydrogen catalyst that produces a fraction of hydrogen provided in the following manner: the Sr-H bond is broken and 6 electrons are each ionized from the atom Sr to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the 6 electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is 7, as given in table 3A. SrH can be formed in a plasma or gas cell.

In another embodiment, OH can act as a MH-type hydrogen catalyst that produces a fraction of hydrogen provided in the following manner: the O-H bond is broken and 2 or 3 electrons are each ionized from the atom O to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of 2 or 3 electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is 2 or 4, respectively, as given in table 3A. In another embodiment, by plasma species (e.g., OH) ^-And H, OH^-And H⁺Or OH⁺And H^-) In a plasma reaction to form H₂O, so that H₂O acts as a catalyst. OH and H₂At least one of O may be formed by electrical discharge in water vapor, or the plasma may contain OH and H₂A source of O, such as glow discharge, microwave or RF plasma of a gas comprising H and O. The plasma power may be applied intermittently, for example in the form of pulsed power as disclosed in previous publications by Mills.

In order to maintain the pressure of the catalyst at the desired level, the cell with the permeate as a source of hydrogen can be sealed. Alternatively, the cell further comprises a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet, such that the valve contacting the reactant gas mixture is maintained at a desired temperature.

By insulating the cell and by applying supplemental heater power with heater 380, the plasma cell temperature can be independently controlled over a wide range. Thus, the catalyst vapor pressure can be controlled independently of the plasma dynamics.

The discharge voltage may be in the range of about 100 volts to 10,000 volts. The current may be in any desired range at the desired voltage. Further, the plasma may be pulsed at any desired frequency range, offset voltage, peak power, and waveform.

In another embodiment, the plasma may occur in a liquid medium (e.g., a catalyst solvent or a solvent of reactants of the species from which the catalyst is derived).

IX. Fuel cell

Fig. 18 shows an embodiment of a fuel cell 400. The fractional hydrogen reactant comprising the solid fuel or heterogeneous catalyst comprises the reactants for the corresponding cell half-reaction. The unique properties of the catalyzed hydrino transition enable catalyst-induced hydrino transition (CIHT) cells. The CIHT cell of the present invention is a hydrogen fuel cell that generates an electromotive force (EMF) from a hydrogen-catalyzed reaction that forms a lower energy (hydrino) state. It therefore acts as a fuel cell that directly converts the energy released from the hydrino reaction into electricity.

Due to the redox cell half-reaction, the hydrino-producing reaction mixture is constituted with electron transport via an external circuit and ion mass transport via a separate path forming a complete circuit. The total reaction to produce hydrinos given by the sum of the half cell reactions and the corresponding reaction mixture may comprise the type of reaction considered for the thermodynamic production given in this invention. The free energy Δ G from the hydrino reaction creates a potential, which may be an oxidation potential or a reduction potential depending on the redox chemistry that makes up the hydrino-producing reaction mixture. The electrical potential may be used to generate a voltage in the fuel cell. The potential V can be expressed in terms of free energy Δ G:

Where F is the Faraday constant. Assuming a free energy of about-20 megajoules per mole H for the transition to H (1/4), the voltage may be higher depending on other cell components such as chemistry, electrolyte, and electrodes. In embodiments where the voltage is limited by the oxidation-reduction potential of the various components, the energy may be manifested as a higher current and corresponding power contribution from the formation of hydrinos. As shown in equations (6-9), the energy of the hydrino transition can be released as continuous radiation. Specifically, energy is transferred to the catalyst in a non-radiative manner to form a metastable intermediate that decays while emitting continuous radiation in the plasma system as electrons move from an initial radius to a final radius. In condensed matter (e.g., CIHT cells), this energy is converted internally into energetic electrons, which are represented by cell current and power contributions at potentials similar to the chemical potentials of the cell reactants. Thus, power may be represented as a higher current at a lower voltage than that given by equation (186). The voltage will also be limited by the reaction kinetics; thus, the high kinetics of hydrinos formation is beneficial for increasing power by increasing at least one of current and voltage. Because the cell reaction can be driven by the more exothermic reaction of H (with the catalyst forming hydrinos), the free energy of a conventional redox cell reaction forming these hydrinos forming reactants can be any possible value in one embodiment. Suitable ranges are from about +1000 kj/mole to-1000 kj/mole, from about +1000 kj/mole to-100 kj/mole, from about +1000 kj/mole to-10 kj/mole, and from about +1000 kj/mole to 0 kj/mole. Due to the negative free energy of forming hydrinos, at least one of the cell current, voltage, and power is high compared to free energy that may contribute to non-fractional hydrogen reactions of the current, voltage, and power. This applies to open circuit voltages and those with a load. Thus, in one embodiment, a CIHT cell differs from any prior art in at least one of the following: the voltage is higher than that predicted by the Nernst equation of non-fractional hydrogen-related chemistry (including voltage correction due to any polarization voltage when the cell is loaded); the current is higher than that driven by conventional chemistry; the power is higher than that driven by conventional chemistry.

With respect to fig. 18, a fuel or CIHT cell 400 includes: a cathode compartment 401 having a cathode 405, an anode compartment 402 having an anode 410, a salt bridge 420, reactants that constitute a hydrino reactant under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation, and a hydrogen source. In a general embodiment, a CIHT cell is a hydrogen fuel cell that generates an electromotive force (EMF) from a hydrogen-catalyzed reaction that creates a lower energy (hydrino) state. It therefore acts as a fuel cell for directly converting the energy released from the hydrino reaction into electricity. In another embodiment, the CIHT cell produces at least one of an electrokinetic and thermodynamic gain relative to the application of electrolytic power through the electrodes 405 and 410. The cell consumes hydrogen, and requires the addition of hydrogen, in the formation of hydrinos; in addition, in one embodiment, the hydrino-forming reactant is at least one of a thermal regeneration reactant or an electrolytic regeneration reactant. In different cell compartments, connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to form a complete electrical circuit between the compartments, different reactants or the same reactant in different states or conditions (e.g. at least one of different temperatures, pressures and concentrations) are provided. Due to the dependence of the hydrino reaction on the mass flow from one compartment to another, a potential and power gain between the electrodes of the individual compartments is produced, or a thermal gain of the system is produced. The mass flow provides for the formation of at least one of: the reaction produces a reaction mixture of hydrinos, and conditions that allow the hydrino reaction to occur at a significant rate. Mass flow further requires transport of electrons and ions in separate conduits connecting the compartments. The electrons may be generated from at least one of the following processes: ionization of the catalyst during reaction of atomic hydrogen with the catalyst, and oxidation or reduction of reactive species (e.g., atoms, molecules, compounds, or metals). Ionization of species in a compartment (e.g., the anode compartment 402) may occur due to at least one of the following changes: (1) favorable free energy changes from oxidation thereof, reduction of reactive species in the individual compartment (e.g., cathode 401), and reactions of mobile ions that balance the charge in the compartment to charge neutrality, and (2) free energy changes resulting from the formation of hydrinos by oxidation of species, reduction of species in the individual compartment, and reactions of mobile ions that cause reactions that form hydrinos. The migration of ions may be through a salt bridge 420. In another embodiment, the oxidation of the species, the reduction of the species in the separate compartment, and the reaction of the mobile ions may not be spontaneous or may occur at a low rate. Applying an electrolytic potential to drive the reaction, wherein the mass flow provides for the formation of at least one of: the reaction produces a reaction mixture of hydrinos, and conditions that allow the hydrino reaction to occur at a significant rate. The electrolytic potential may be applied by an external circuit 425. The reactants of each half cell may undergo at least one of supply, hold, and regeneration (regeneration by adding reactants or removing products via passages 460 and 461) to reservoirs 430 and 431 for reactant sources or for product storage and regeneration.

In one embodiment, at least one of atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst may be formed by reaction of a reaction mixture, and one reactant activates catalysis as it undergoes a reaction. The reaction to initiate the hydrino reaction may be at least one of the following reactions: exothermic reactions, coupling reactions, free radical reactions, redox reactions, exchange reactions, and catalytic reactions assisted by absorbents, carriers, or substrates. In one embodiment, the reaction to form hydrinos provides electrochemical power. The reaction mixture and reactions that initiate the hydrino reaction (e.g., the exchange reaction of the present invention) form the basis of a fuel cell that generates power by reacting hydrogen to form hydrinos. Due to the redox cell half-reaction, the hydrino-producing reaction mixture is constituted with electron transport via an external circuit and ion mass transport via a separate path forming a complete circuit. The overall reaction given by the sum of the half-cell reactions and the corresponding reaction mixture to produce hydrinos may comprise the thermodynamic and hydrinos chemically generated reaction types of the invention. Thus, ideally, the hydrino reaction does not occur or does not occur at an appreciable rate in the presence of the electron-free stream and ion mass transport.

The cell comprises at least a source of catalyst or catalyst and a source of hydrogen or hydrogen. Suitable catalysts or catalyst sources and hydrogen sources are selected from the group of: li, LiH, Na, NaH, K, KH, Rb, RbH, Cs, CsH, Ba, BaH, Ca, CaH, Mg, MgH₂、MgX₂(X is a halide) and H₂. Other suitable catalysts are given in table 3. In one implementationIn this way, the positive ions may undergo reduction at the cathode. The ions may become the source of catalyst by at least one of reduction and reaction at the cathode. In one embodiment, the oxidant undergoes reaction to form the hydrino reactant, followed by reaction of the hydrino reactant to form hydrino. Alternatively, the final electron-acceptor reactant comprises an oxidizing agent. An oxidant or cathode-cell reaction mixture may be located in the cathode compartment 401 with the cathode 405. Alternatively, the cathode-cell reaction mixture is built up in the cathode compartment from ion and electron transport. In one embodiment of the fuel cell, the cathode compartment 401 functions as a cathode. During operation, positive ions may migrate from the anode to the cathode compartment. In certain embodiments, this migration occurs through salt bridge 420. Alternatively, negative ions may migrate from the cathode to the anode compartment through the salt bridge 420. The mobile ion may be at least one of: catalyst or catalyst source ion, hydrogen ion (e.g. H) ⁺、H^-Or H^-(1/p)), and a counter ion to a compound formed by reaction of the catalyst or catalyst source with an oxidizing agent or oxidizing agent anion. Each cell reaction may undergo at least one of supply, hold, and regeneration (by adding reactants or removing products via passages 460 and 461) to reservoirs 430 and 431 for reactant sources or for product storage and optional regeneration. Generally, suitable oxidizing agents are the disclosed hydrino reactants (e.g., hydrides, halides, sulfides, and oxides). Suitable oxidizing agents are metal hydrides (e.g. hydrides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) and metal halides (e.g. halides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, rare earths, silver and indium metals) and oxygen or a source of oxygen, a halogen (preferably F)₂Or Cl₂) Or a halogen source, CF₄、SF₆And NF₃. Other suitable oxidizing agents include free radicals or sources thereof, and sources of positively charged counter ions, which are components of the cathode-cell reaction mixture that ultimately scavenge electrons released from the hydrino-forming catalyst reaction.

In one embodiment, the chemistry produces active hydrino reactants in the cathode compartment of the fuel cell, where the reduction potential may include a large contribution from H catalysis to hydrino. The catalyst or catalyst source may comprise neutral atoms or molecules, such as alkali metal atoms or hydrides, which may be formed by the reduction of positively charged species, such as the corresponding alkali metal ions. Based on the reaction Δ G, the reduction of the catalyst ion to catalyst and the potential for the H electron to transition to a lower electronic state contribute to the potential given by equation (186). In one embodiment, the cathode half-cell reduction reaction and any other reactions include the formation of a catalyst and atomic hydrogen and the catalytic reaction of H to form hydrinos. The anode half-cell reaction may involve ionization of a metal (e.g., a catalyst metal). The ions may migrate to the cathode and be reduced, or the ions of the electrolyte may be reduced to form a catalyst. The catalyst may be formed in the presence of H. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode half-cell reaction:

wherein E_RIs Cat^q+The reduction energy of (1).

Anode half-cell reaction:

Cat+E_R→Cat^q++qe^-(188)

other suitable reducing agents are metals, such as transition metals.

And (3) battery reaction:

in case the catalyst cations migrate through suitable salt bridges or electrolytes, the catalyst can be regenerated in the cathode compartment and replaced at the anode. The fuel cell reaction can then be maintained by displacing the hydrogen of the cathode compartment that has reacted to form hydrinos. The hydrogen may come from water electrolysis. The product from the cell may be molecular hydrinos formed by reaction of hydrino atoms. In the case where H (1/4) is the product, the energy of these reactions is

2H(1/4)→H₂(1/4)+87.31eV(190)

H₂O+2.962eV→H₂+0.5O₂(191)

The equilibrium fuel cell reaction of LiH given by formula (187-191) in units of kilojoules per mole is

Li⁺+e^-+ H → Li + H (1/4) +19,683 KJ/mol + E_R(192)

Li+E_R→Li⁺+e^-(193)

0.5(2H(1/4)→H₂(1/4) +8424 KJ/mol) (194)

0.5(H ₂ O+285 _. 8 KJ/mol → H ₂ +0.5O ₂)(195)

0.5H₂O→0.5O+0.5H₂(1/4) +23,752 KJ/mol (196)

In other embodiments, Li, K, Rb, or Cs is substituted for Li.

During operation, the catalyst is reacted with atomic hydrogen, and non-radiative energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to an integer multiple of 27.2eV of the catalyst causes ionization of the catalyst, with the transient release of free electrons and the formation of hydrino atoms with the massive release of energy. In one embodiment, this reaction may occur in the anode compartment 402 such that the anode 410 eventually receives a flow of ionized electrons. This flow may also come from the oxidation of the reducing agent in the anode compartment. In one embodiment of the fuel cell, the anode compartment 402 functions as the anode. At least one of Li, K, and NaH may serve as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. Supports (e.g. carbon powder, carbides, e.g. TiC, WC, YC) ₂Or Cr₃C₂Or boride) can serve as a conductor for electrons that are in electrical contact with an electrode (e.g., an anode that can act as a current collector). The electrons conducted may come from a catalystIonization or oxidation of the reducing agent. Alternatively, the carrier may comprise at least one of an anode and a cathode electrically connected to a load with a wire. The anode lead and cathode lead connected to the load may be any conductor, such as a metal.

Where the chemistry produces active hydrino reactants in the anode compartment of the fuel cell, the oxidation potential and electrons may have contributions from the catalyst mechanism. As shown in equations (6-9), the catalyst may contain species that accept energy from atomic hydrogen by ionization. Based on Δ G of the reaction, the potential at which the catalyst ionizes and the H-electrons transition to a lower electron state contributes to the potential given by equation (186). Because NaH is ionized with Na to Na²⁺(as given by formulas (28-30)) to form hydrinos, so formula (186) should be particularly effective in this case. In one embodiment, the anode half-cell oxidation reaction comprises a catalytic ionization reaction. The cathode half-cell reaction may include the reduction of H to a hydride. An exemplary reaction is

Anode half-cell reaction:

Cathode half-cell reaction:

wherein E_RBeing metal hydrides MH₂The reduction energy of (1). Suitable oxidizers are hydrides (e.g. rare earth metal hydrides, titanium hydride, zirconium hydride, yttrium hydride, LiH, NaH, KH and BaH), chalcogenides and compounds of the M-N-H system (e.g. the Li-N-H system). In the case where the catalyst cation or hydride migrates through a suitable salt bridge or electrolyte, the catalyst and hydrogen may be regenerated in the anode compartment. In the case where the stable oxidation state of the catalyst is Cat, the salt bridge or electrolyte reaction is

Salt bridge or electrolyte reaction:

wherein 0.754eV is hydride ionization energy and 4.478eVH₂Bond energy. The catalyst or catalyst source may be a hydride which may also serve as a source of H. Followed by a salt bridge reaction of

Salt bridge or electrolyte reaction:

wherein E_LIs the lattice energy of CatH. The fuel cell reaction may then be sustained by displacing hydrogen in the cathode compartment, or may react CatH in the electrolyte with M to form MH₂. An exemplary reaction of M = La is given by:

La+H₂→LaH₂+2.09eV(201)

in the former case, hydrogen can be derived from Cat^r+Recycling of excess hydrogen from the anode compartment formed in the reduction. For displacement depletion to form H (1/4), followed by H₂The hydrogen of (1/4) may be from water electrolysis.

Suitable reactants as catalyst sources are LiH, NaH, KH and BaH. The equilibrium fuel cell reaction (as LaH) of KH given by the formulas (197-201) and (190-191) with unit of kilojoule/mole (kJ/mole)₂As a source of H) is

7873kJ/mole+KH→K³⁺+3e^-+H(1/4)+19,683kJ/mole(202)

1.5(LaH₂+2e^-+E_R→La+2H^-)(203)

K³⁺+3H^-→KH+H₂+7873kJ/mole+213.8kJ/mole+E_L(204)

1.5(La+H₂→LaH₂+201.25kJ/mole)(205)

0.5(2H(1/4)→H₂(1/4)+8424kJ/mole)(205)

0.5(H ₂ O+285.8kJ/mole→H ₂ +0.5O ₂ )(207)

0.5H₂O→0.5O+0.5H₂(1/4)-1.5E_R+E_L+24,268kJ/mole(208)

To a good approximation, the net reaction is given by:

0.5H₂O→0.5O+0.5H₂(1/4)+24,000kJ/mole(209)

the equilibrium fuel cell reaction of NaH given by the formulas (197-201) and (190-191) is

5248kJ/mole+NaH→Na²⁺+2e^-+H(1/3)+10,497kJ/mole(210)

1(LaH₂+2e^-+E_R→La+2H^-)(211)

Na²⁺+2H^-→NaH+0.5H₂+5248kJ/mole+70.5kJ/mole(212)

1(La+H₂→LaH₂+201.25kJ/mole)(213)

0.5(H ₂ O+285.8kJ/mole→H ₂ +0.5O ₂ )(214)

0.5H₂O→0.5O+H(1/3)-E_R+10,626kJ/mole(215)

Wherein the term "5248 kJ/mole" of formula (212) includes E_L. To a good approximation, the net reaction is given by:

0.5H₂O→0.5O+H(1/3)+10,626kJ/mole(216)

the transition from H (1/3) to H (1/4) (equation (31)) then forms H₂(1/4) additional energy is given off as a final product.

In embodiments comprising a metal anode half-cell reactant (e.g., alkali metal M), the anode reaction is matched to the cathode reaction such that the energy change due to M migration is substantially zero. M can then act as a hydrino catalyst for H at the cathode because the catalyst enthalpy is well matched to m27.2ev. In embodiments where the source of M is an alloy (e.g., at the anode), M at the cathode⁺The reduction of (a) forms an M alloy that is identical to the other reactions in which M and H form hydrinos. Alternatively, the anodic alloy has substantially the same oxidation potential as M. In one embodiment, the electron affinity determines the hydrino reaction contribution to the voltage of the CIHT cell because the hydrino intermediate transitions from the initial state to the final state and the final radius are continuous transitions. Cell materials such as electrode materials and half-cell reactants are selected to achieve the desired voltage based on the limiting electron affinity of the material.

The high energy release and scalability of the CIHT cell stack makes power applications in micro-distributed, and central power feasible. In addition, CIHT battery technology makes a transformative motive force source possible, particularly because the system is a direct electrical system with significant cost and system complexity reduction compared to thermal-based systems. The automotive construction utilizing a CIHT cell stack shown in fig. 19 includes a CIHT cell stack 500, a hydrogen source (e.g., an electrolysis cell and water tank or hydrogen tank 501), at least one electric motor 502, an electronic control system 503, and a gear train or gear drive 504. In general, applications include thermal applications, such as resistive heating applications, electrical applications, automotive applications, and aerospace applications, among others known to those skilled in the art. In the latter case, an electric motor driven external turbine may replace the jet engine and an electric motor driven propeller may replace the respective internal combustion engine.

In one embodiment, the principle of operation of the base cell includes ionic transport of hydrogen through a hydride anion (H)^-) A conductive molten electrolyte and reacts with a catalyst such as an alkali metal to form at least one of a hydride and a hydrido. An exemplary electrolyte is LiH dissolved in eutectic molten salt LiCl-KCl. In the cell, molten H ^-The conductive electrolyte may Be confined in a chamber formed between two hydrogen permeable solid metal foil electrodes (e.g., one of V, Nb, Fe — Mo alloy, W, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, and Th foils, which also act as current collectors). The foil may further comprise alloys and coatings (e.g., silver-palladium alloys) having surfaces in contact with electrolytes coated with iron (e.g., sputtered iron). H₂The gas first diffuses through the cathode electrode and through the reaction H + e at the cathode-electrolyte interface^-→H^-Forming a hydride ion. H^-The ions then migrate through the electrolyte under a chemical potential gradient. The gradient may be created by a catalyst (such as an alkali metal) in the anode compartment. H^-Reaction H of ions passing at the anode-electrolyte interface^-→H+e^-Releasing electrons to form hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms diffuse through the anode electrode and react with a catalyst, such as an alkali metal, to form at least one of a metal hydride, metal-H molecules, and hydrinos. Ionization of the catalyst may also contribute to the anode current. Other reactants may be present in the anode compartment to cause or increase the rate of the hydrino reaction, such as a support (e.g., TiC) and a reducing agent, a catalyst, and a hydride ion exchange reactant (e.g., Mg or Ca). The released electrons flow through an external circuit to complete charge balancing. In another embodiment, the anode is not significantly permeable to H, such that H is present ₂The gas is preferably released at the anode, specifically after H has permeated through the anode metal to form a metal hydride.

The reactants may be thermally or electrolytically regenerated. The product can be regenerated in the cathode or anode compartment. Alternatively, it may be sent to the regenerator using, for example, a pump, wherein any regeneration chemistry known to those skilled in the art or the present invention may be used to regenerate the initial reactants. The cells undergoing the hydrino reaction can provide heat to the cells undergoing reactant regeneration. Under the condition of raising the temperature of the product to realize regeneration, the product of the CIHT battery and the regenerated reactant can pass through the reheater and are respectively fed into and out of the regenerator at the same time, so that heat is recovered, and the efficiency of the battery and the energy balance of the system are improved.

In embodiments where the metal hydride is formed by ion transport, the metal hydride, such as an alkali metal hydride, is thermally decomposed. Can pass through H₂Permeable solid metal membrane₂The gas separates from the alkali metal and moves it into the cell cathode compartment. The hydrogen-depleted alkali metal can be moved to the cell anode compartment so as to involve the transport of H^-The reaction of (2) can be continued.

The mobile ion may be an ion of the catalyst, e.g. an alkali metal ion, such as Na⁺. The ions may be reduced and optionally reacted with hydrogen to form a catalyst or a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen, such as one of LiH, NaH, KH and BaH, thereby reacting the catalyst and hydrogen to form hydrinos. The energy released upon formation of hydrinos generates EMF and heat. Thus, in other embodiments, a hydrino reaction may occur in the cathode compartment to contribute to the battery EMF. An exemplary battery is [ Na/BASE/Na melt or eutectic salt R-Ni ]Wherein BASE is beta-alumina solid electrolyte. In one embodiment, the cell may comprise [ M/BASE/proton conductor electrolyte]Wherein M is an alkali metal, such as Na. The proton conductor electrolyte may be a molten salt. The molten salt can be reduced to hydrogen at the cathode while the antiparticle forms a compound with M. An exemplary proton conductor electrolyte is a proton conductor electrolyte of the present invention, for example, a protonated cation, such as ammonium. The electrolyte may comprise an ionic liquid. The electrolyte may have a low melting point, for example, 100 ℃ to 200 ℃. Exemplary electrolytes are ethylammonium nitrate, ethylammonium nitrate doped with dihydrogen phosphate (e.g., about 1% doping), hydrazine nitrate, NH₄PO₃-TiP₂O₇And LiNO₃-NH₄NO₃Co-dissolved salts of (a). Other suitable electrolytes may comprise at least one salt from the following group: LiNO₃Ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Tf ═ CF)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium trifluoroacetate (TFAc = CF)₃COO^-) Ammonium tetrafluoroborate (BF)₄ ^-) Ammonium methane sulfonate (CH)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium Nitrate (NO)₃ ^-) Ammonium thiocyanate (SCN)^-) Ammonium Sulfamate (SO)₃NH₂ ^-) Ammonium bifluoride (HF)₂ ^-) Ammonium Hydrogen Sulfate (HSO)₄ ^-) Bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) iminium (TFSI = CF)₃SO₂)₂N^-) Bis (perfluoroethanesulfonyl) imide ammonium (BETI = CF)₃CF₂SO₂)₂N^-) Hydrazine nitrate; and may further comprise a mixture, e.g. further comprising NH ₄NO₃、NH₄Tf and NH₄A co-dissolved mixture of at least one of TFAc. Other suitable solvents include acids such as phosphoric acid.

In one embodiment, the cell comprises an anode that is a mobile ion M⁺(which may be a metal ion, such as an alkali metal ion). The battery may further comprise a pair M⁺With selective salt bridges. The ion selective salt bridge may be BASE. The cathode half-cell reactants can comprise a cation exchanger, such as a cation exchange resin. The cathode half-cell may contain an electrolyte, for example an ionic liquid or an aqueous electrolyte solution, such as an alkali metal halide, nitrate, sulfate, perchlorate, phosphate, carbonate, hydroxide or other similar electrolyte. The cation exchange membrane may be protonated in an oxidized state. During the discharge period, M⁺Replaceable H⁺，H⁺Is reduced to H. The formation of H causes the formation of hydrinos. Exemplary batteries are [ Na, Na alloys or Na chalcogenides/BASE, ionic liquids, eutectic salts, aqueous electrolytes/cation exchange resins]. The cell may be regenerated electrolytically or by exchanging acid with a cation exchanger.

In one embodiment, a pressure or temperature gradient between the two half-cell compartments effects the formation of a hydrino reactant or hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the anode compartment contains an alkali metal at a higher temperature or pressure than the same alkali metal in the cathode compartment. The pressure or temperature differential provides the EMF, causing metal, such as sodium, to oxidize at the anode.

Transporting ions through ion-selective membranes (e.g. beta alumina or para Na)⁺Na having ion selectivity⁺Glass). The mobile ions are reduced at the cathode. For example, Na⁺Na is formed by reduction. The cathode compartment further contains hydrogen, which may be supplied by permeating the membrane or providing a source of hydrogen as a reactant in the formation of hydrinos. Other reactants may be present in the cathode compartment, such as a support (e.g. TiC) and a reducing agent, a catalyst and a hydride ion exchange reactant (e.g. Mg or Ca or hydrides thereof). The source of H can be reacted with an alkali metal to form a hydride. In one embodiment, NaH is formed. A suitable form of NaH is the molecular form that reacts further to form hydrinos. The energy from the formation of the metal hydride and the fractional hydrogen is released as ions (e.g., Na)⁺) Provides another driving force to increase the power output of the battery. Any metal hydride (e.g., NaH) that does not react to form hydrinos from H can be thermally decomposed, allowing hydrogen and metal (e.g., Na) to be recycled. A metal such as Na may be used to increase the pressure in the anode cell compartment by an electromagnetic pump. An exemplary battery is [ Na/beta alumina/MgH ]₂And optionally a carrier (e.g. TiC or WC) ]. Na is oxidized to Na at the anode⁺Migrates through the salt bridge beta alumina, is reduced to Na at the cathode and interacts with MgH in the cathode compartment₂The reaction forms NaH which reacts further to form hydrinos. The hydride or one or more other cathode reactants or species may melt at the cell operating temperature. The battery may comprise an electrolyte. Exemplary electrolytes are molten electrolytes, such as NaH-NaOH, NaOH (MP =323 ℃), NaH-NaI (MP =220 ℃), NaH-NaAlEt₄NaOH-NaBr-NaI, NaCN-NaI-NaF and NaF-NaCl-NaI.

The NaOH may comprise a cathode reactant, wherein the cell may be formed by a reaction that produces H or a hydrideThe component is hydrido. Reaction of NaOH with Na to Na calculated from Heat formation₂O and nah(s) release Δ H ═ 44.7 kJ/molnaoh:

NaOH+2Na→Na₂O+NaH(s)ΔH＝-44.7kJ/moleNaOH.(217)

this exothermic reaction drives the formation of NaH (g) and is used to drive the very exothermic reaction given by formula (28-31).

NaH→Na+H(1/3)ΔH＝-10,500kJ/moleH(218)

And

NaH→Na+H(1/4)ΔH＝-19,700kJ/moleH.(219)

the regeneration reaction in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

Na₂O+H→NaOH+NaΔH＝-11.6kJ/moleNaOH(220)

An exemplary battery is [ M/BASE/M' OH](M and M' are alkali metals, which may be the same), [ Na/BASE/NaOH]、[Na/BASE/NaOHNaI]、[Na/BASE/NaOHNaBr]、[Na/BASE/NaOHNaBrNaI]、[Na/BASE/NaBH₄NaOH]、[K/KBASE/RbOH]、[K/KBASE/CsOH]、[Na/NaBASE/RbOH]And [ Na/NaBASE/CsOH]. Other alkali metals may replace Na. Exemplary batteries are [ K/KBASE/KOH and MNH₂(M = alkali metal) mixtures]And [ Na/NaBASE/NaOHCSI (hydridocarbide)]. The cell may further comprise a conductive matrix material (e.g., carbon, carbide or boride) to enhance the conductivity of the half cell reactants, such as alkali metal hydroxides. The cathode MOH may comprise a eutectic mixture of alkali metal hydroxides (e.g., NaOH and KOH) having a eutectic point of 170 ℃ and 41 wt% NaOH. The anode may comprise K and Na or both.

In one embodiment, the cathode comprises an alkali metal hydroxide (e.g., NaOH), and further comprises a source of atomic H (e.g., hydrogen and dissociation gases), such as R-Ni, PdC (H)₂)、PtC(H₂)、IrC(H₂)). The source of atomic hydrogen may be a hydride, e.g. an intermetallic hydride, such as LaNi₅H₆(ii) a Hydrides of rare earth metals, e.g. CeH₂Or LaH₂(ii) a For treatingTransition metal hydrides, e.g. TiH₂Or NiH₂(ii) a Or internal transition metal hydrides, e.g. ZrH₂. The atomic hydrogen source may be mixed with an alkali metal hydroxide. Exemplary batteries are [ Na/BASE/NaOH and R-Ni, PdC (H)₂)、PtC(H₂)、IrC(H₂)、LaNi₅H₆、CeH₂、LaH₂、TiH₂、NiH₂Or ZrH₂]. H may serve as at least one of a reactant and a catalyst for forming hydrinos. According to the reaction of Table 3, H can also be used to accept two OH groups^-To form H^-And OH, wherein the H transition of OH forms H (1/p).

In one embodiment, ions and electrons migrate internally between the half cells and through an external circuit, respectively, and combine at the cathode. The reduction reaction and potentially at least one other subsequent half-cell reaction cause a local charge change of the H source, thereby reversing from insufficient to excessive relative to neutral. During this change as H is formed from the source, the process of forming hydrinos through a portion of the H occurs. Alternatively, ions and electrons migrate internally between the half cells and through an external circuit, respectively, and electrons from the ions (e.g., H) at the anode ^-) And (4) ionizing. The oxidation reaction and potentially at least one other subsequent half-cell reaction causes a source of H (e.g., H)^-) The local charge of H in (a) is changed, thereby reversing from excess to deficiency with respect to neutral. During this change as H is formed from the source, the process of forming hydrinos through a portion of the H occurs. As an example, consider a battery [ Na/BASE/NaOH]Respective OH functional groups of NaOH and in a battery [ Li ]₃N/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂]The partial positive charge on H of the NH group formed during operation. In the former case, Na⁺At the cathode, Na is reduced to Na, which reacts with NaOH to form NaH, wherein H may be at least partially negatively charged. In the latter case, H^-Oxidized at the anode and reacted with Li₃Reaction of N to form Li₂NH and LiNH₂Whereby the charge on H undergoes a change from excess to deficiency. During these changes, hydrinos are formed. Exemplary conditions that can accelerate the reaction to form hydrinos in the former and latter casesIs otherwise provided withAndin one embodiment, for example, the following states are formed in the modified carbon of the present invention:or

In other embodiments, the NaOH is replaced by another reactant having Na that forms a hydride or H, such as other hydroxides, acid salts, or ammonium salts, such as at least one of the following: alkali metal hydroxides, alkaline earth hydroxides, transition metal hydroxides and oxyhydroxides, and ammonium halides (e.g. NH) ₄Cl、NH₄Br、NiO(OH)、Ni(OH)₂、CoO(OH)、HCoO₂、HCrO₂、GaO(OH)、InOOH、Co(OH)₂、Al(OH)₃、AlO(OH)、NaHCO₃、NaHSO₄、NaH₂PO₄、Na₂HPO₄). Other exemplary suitable oxyhydroxides are those of the groupOne of the following components: hydroxychromite (CrO (OH)), diaspore (AlO (OH)), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), goethite (alpha-Fe)³⁺O (OH), manganese sphene (Mn)³⁺O (OH), andirobromite (CrO (OH)), vanadine ((V, Fe) O (OH)), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH), RhO (OH), InO (OH), GaO (OH), Gaumgallite (GaO (OH), manganite (Mn)³⁺O (OH), Yttrium-tungsten-white- (Y) (YW)₂O₆(OH)₃) Yttrium tungsten white- (Ce) ((Ce, Nd, Y) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) The undesignated (Nd-like yttrium tungsten-white- (Ce) ((Nd, Ce, La) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) Copper tellurium ore (Cu)₂[(OH)₂[TeO₄]]) TelluridelectriteAnd secondary tellurium-lead-copper stoneRelating to Al (OH)₃An exemplary reaction of

3Na+Al(OH)₃→NaOH+NaAlO₂+NaH+1/2H₂(221)

Exemplary corresponding batteries are [ Na/BASE/Al (OH)₃Na eutectic salt]. Other suitable batteries are [ Na/BASE/at least one of the following: alkali metal hydroxides, alkaline earth hydroxides, transition metal hydroxides or oxyhydroxides (e.g. CoO (OH), HCoO₂、HCrO₂、GaO(OH)、InOOH、Co(OH)₂、NiO(OH)、Ni(OH)₂、Al(OH)₃、AlO(OH)、NaHCO₃、NaHSO₄、NaH₂PO₄、Na₂HPO₄) Electrolytes, e.g. eutectic salts]. In other embodiments, other alkali metals are substituted for a given metal. Oxidants of the cathode half-cell, such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, ammonium compounds and acid hydride anionic compounds, may be intercalated in a matrix such as carbon.

Is bonded to another element at H (where H is Acid H) embodiment, mobile ion M⁺Can be exchanged for acidic H with H⁺Form is released and H⁺Can be subsequently reduced to H₂. By adding, for example, high pressure H₂The hydrogen gas of the gas inhibits this reaction, thereby favoring the formation of MH, which favors the formation of hydrinos.

The cathode or anode half-cell reactant comprising the source of H may comprise an acid. For example, the H of the reactant may be bound to oxygen or a halide. Suitable acids are those known in the art, e.g., HF, HBr, HI, H₂S, nitric acid, nitrous acid, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, perchloric acid, chloric acid, chlorous acid, hypochlorous acid, dihydrocarbylboronic acid, metaboric acid, boric acid (e.g., H)₃BO₃Or HBO₂) Silicic acid, metasilicic acid, orthosilicic acid, arsenic acid, arsenous acid, selenic acid, selenious acid, tellurite acid, and telluric acid. Exemplary batteries are [ M or M alloy/BASE or separator and electrolyte, which contain organic solvents and salts/acids, e.g., HF, HBr, HI, H₂S, nitric acid, nitrous acid, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, perchloric acid, chloric acid, chlorous acid, hypochlorous acid, dihydrocarbylboronic acid, metaboric acid, boric acid (e.g., H)₃BO₃Or HBO ₂) Silicic acid, metasilicic acid, orthosilicic acid, arsenic acid, arsenous acid, selenic acid, selenious acid, tellurous acid, and telluroic acid]。

In embodiments, the electrolyte and separator may be an electrolyte and separator of a Li-ion battery, wherein Li may be replaced by another alkali metal (e.g., Na) when the corresponding ion is a mobile ion. The electrolyte may be a Na solid electrolyte or a salt bridge, such as NASICON. Sources of H (e.g. hydroxides (e.g. NaOH), salts of H acids (e.g. NaHSO)₄) Or an oxyhydroxide (e.g. CoO (OH) or HCoO)₂) May be intercalated in carbon. An exemplary cell is [ Na/olefin separator LP40NaPF₆NaOH or NaOH-intercalated C][ Na/Na solid electrolyte or salt bridge (e.g. NASICON)/NaOH or NaOH intercalated C]And [ Li, LiC, Li or Li alloy (e.g. Li)₃Mg)/separator such as olefin film, and organic electrolyte (e.g., LiPF)₆DEC solution or LiBF of electrolyte₄Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution) or co-dissolved salts/alkali metal hydroxides, alkaline earth hydroxides, transition metal hydroxides or oxyhydroxides, acid salts or ammonium salts (e.g. CoO (OH), HCoO₂、HCrO₂、GaO(OH)、InOOH、Co(OH)₂、NiO(OH)、Ni(OH)₂、Al(OH)₃、AlO(OH)、NH₄Cl、NH₄Br、NaHCO₃、NaHSO₄、NaH₂PO₄、Na₂HPO₄) Or these compounds intercalated in C]. A conductive matrix or support (such as carbon, carbide or boride) may be added. A suitable lead for the alkaline electrolyte is Ni.

The battery can be regenerated by the chemical and physical methods of the present invention. For example, it includes [ Na/BASE/NaOHNAI ]、[Na/BASE/NaOH]Or [ Na/BASE/NaOHR-Ni mixture]Can be obtained by mixing H with₂Added to the product Na₂And regenerating in O to form NaOH and at least one of Na and NaH. In one embodiment, Na is performed in an inert container (e.g., Ni, Ag, Co, or alumina container) that is resistant to forming oxides₂And (4) regenerating the O. Such as Na₂O, etc. discharge products may be melted, milled, ground or treated by methods known in the art to increase surface area prior to hydrogenation. The amount of hydrogen can be controlled to form a mixture of Na and NaOH in a stoichiometric manner. The temperature can also be controlled so that Na and NaOH are preferred. At least one of Na and NaH may be removed by distillation or by density-based separation. In one embodiment, the cell is operated at about 330 ℃ and at a temperature that is not significantly higher. Below this temperature the NaOH will solidify and above this temperature Na will dissolve in the molten NaOH. If desired, the lower density Na forms a separate layer on the molten NaOH and in one embodiment is physically separated by methods such as suction. Na was returned to the anode. The NaH can be thermally decomposed to Na and returned to the anode. In one embodiment, in the thermal reactor, the product may be regenerated in the same manner. In an exemplary system, H ₂Added to a battery-containing [ Na/BASE/hydrogen-chalcogenide (e.g. NaOH)]In a closed system of (2). In this case, a mixture of Na and NaH acts as the anode and Na₂O can be connectedAnd (5) continuously regenerating.

Regeneration reaction

Na₂O+H₂→NaOH+NaH(222)

It can be carried out in a pressure vessel (which may be a half cell). Suitable temperatures are from about 25 ℃ to 450 ℃ and from about 150 ℃ to 250 ℃. At higher temperatures (e.g., about 250 ℃), the reaction rate is higher. The hydrogenation may be carried out at lower temperatures, such as about 25 c, with ball milling and a hydrogen pressure of about 0.4 MPa. 50% of the reaction (formula (222)) can be completed at a temperature as low as 60 ℃ for 48 hours at 10MPa, and the reaction is completely completed by raising the temperature to 100 ℃. Suitable pressures are in the range of greater than zero to about 50 MPa. In an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen absorption to 3 wt% (theoretical hydrogen capacity of 3.1 wt%) occurs at 1.8MPa with the temperatures maintained at 175 ℃, 200 ℃, 225 ℃ and 250 ℃ respectively. The absorption isotherms at these temperatures are very similar; however, at 150 ℃, a slightly smaller hydrogen uptake of 2.85 wt% at 1.8MPa was shown. Na (Na)₂The O hydrogenation reaction enables fast kinetics. For example, at a pressure of 0.12MPa, 1.5 wt.% hydrogen may be absorbed at 150 ℃ in 20 minutes, and greater than 2 wt.% hydrogen may be absorbed at 175 ℃ to 250 ℃ in 5 minutes. NaH is separated from NaOH by physical and evaporative methods known in the art. In the latter case, the system comprises an evaporation or sublimation system and at least one of the evaporated or sublimated Na and NaH is collected and returned to the anode half cell. The evaporation or sublimation separation may be under a hydrogen atmosphere. The separated NaH can be separately decomposed using at least one of heat and reduced pressure. Such as TiCl ₃And SiO₂Etc. certain catalysts may be used to hydrogenate Na at the desired temperature₂O, which is known in the art in similar systems.

Based on Na, NaOH and NaHNa₂In another embodiment of the O-phase diagram, regeneration may be achieved by controlling cell temperature and hydrogen pressure to shift the equilibrium of the reaction

Which occurs in the range of about 412+2 c and 182+10 torr. The liquid forms a detachable layer, wherein the Na layer is removed. The solution may be cooled to form molten Na and solid NaOH, which allows other Na to be removed.

Hydrogen from the reaction of M with MOH (M is an alkali metal) may be stored in a hydrogen storage material, which may be heated by a heater such as an electric heater during regeneration to supply hydrogen. The M (e.g., Na) layer is pumped or can flow to the anode by a pump such as an electromagnetic pump.

Referring to FIG. 18, in an exemplary cell [ Na/BASE/NaOH]In an embodiment of (a), molten salt comprising a mixture of product and reactant is regenerated in the cathode compartment 420 by supplying hydrogen at controlled pressure via inlet 460 using a hydrogen source and pump 430. The molten salt temperature is maintained by heater 411 so that a Na layer is formed on top and pumped by pump 440 to anode compartment 402. In another embodiment, also shown in fig. 18, molten salt comprising a mixture of product and reactant is flowed from cathode compartment 401 through passage 419 and through 416 and 418 (each comprising at least one of a valve and a pump) into regenerative cell 412. Hydrogen is supplied and pressure controlled by a hydrogen source and pump 413 connected to the regeneration cell 412 via line 415, and flow rate is controlled by control valve 414. The molten salt temperature is maintained with heater 411. Hydrogenation causes the Na to form a separate layer that is pumped from the top of the regenerative cell 412 through channels 421 to 422 and 423 (each containing at least one of a valve and a pump) to the cathode compartment 402. In one embodiment, for example in an embodiment comprising a continuous cathode salt flow pattern, the channels 419 extend below the Na layer to supply flowing salt from the cathode compartment to comprise at least Na ₂O and NaOH. Either the cathode or anode compartments or the regenerative cell may further comprise an agitator to mix the contents at a desired time in the kinetic or regenerative reaction.

In one embodiment, the battery has at least the cathode reaction product Li₂O, which is converted to at leastLiOH, wherein LiOH is a cathode reactant. The regeneration of LiOH may be by addition of H₂. LiH may also be formed. LiH and LiOH can form two separate layers due to density differences. Temperature and hydrogen pressure conditions may be adjusted to achieve separation. LiH can be physically moved to the anode half-cell. LiH can be thermally decomposed to Li or used directly as an anode reactant. The anode may further comprise other compounds or elements that react with and store hydrogen, for example a hydrogen storage material such as Mg. During operation of the battery, at least one reaction occurs to form Li⁺So that LiH can be balanced with ionized Li, and LiH can be directly ionized into Li⁺Also LiH can undergo hydride exchange reaction with H storage material (such as Mg) and Li ionizes. The battery may have an electrolyte, such as a solid electrolyte, which may be BASE. In another embodiment, Li is added₂O is converted to LiOH and LiH, and Li is returned to the anode by electrolysis, so that LiOH remains as a cathode reactant. In embodiments comprising another alkali metal as the anode (e.g., Na or K), the cathode half-cell reaction product mixture may comprise some Li ₂O and MOH and optionally M₂O (M = alkali metal). Li₂O and M₂O through with H₂Reacted to LiOH and LiH and optionally MH and MOH, followed by spontaneous reaction of LiH and MOH to LiOH and MH. M can be removed dynamically, driving the reaction in non-equilibrium mode. This removal can be achieved by distillation such that M condenses in separate chambers or different parts of the reactor. MH or M is separated and returned to the anode.

The reactants may be continuously fed through the half-cell to cause the hydrino reaction and may further be flowed or transported to other areas, compartments, reactors or systems, where regeneration may occur in batches, intermittently, or continuously, where the products in the regeneration may be stationary or moving.

In one embodiment, the reverse of the metal hydride metal chalcogenide reaction is the basis for the half cell reaction to form hydrinos. The half-cell reactant may be a dehydrochalcogenide such as Na₂O、Na₂S、Na₂Se、Na₂Te and other such chalcogenides. In the presence of mobile ions ofH⁺In the case of (a), the metal chalcogenide reactant is in the cathode half cell. An exemplary reaction is

Anode

H₂→2H⁺+2e^-(224)

Cathode electrode

Na₂O+2H⁺+2e^-→NaOH+NaH

General reaction

Na₂O+H₂→NaOH+NaH(225)

In a similar cell, H⁺Replacing Na in NaY. An exemplary cell is a [ proton source (e.g., PtC (H) ]₂) Proton conductor (such as Nafion, ionic liquid or electrolyte aqueous solution)/NaY (with H) ⁺Sodium zeolite (protonated zeolite)) CB reacted to form HY]And [ proton source (e.g. PtC (H))₂) Proton conductor (e.g. HCl-LiCl-KCl/NaY (with H))⁺Sodium zeolite (protonated zeolite)) reacted to form HY) CB]. Such as in an exemplary cell [ proton source (e.g., PtC (H))₂) Proton conductors (e.g. HCl-LiCl-KCl/HY (and H))⁺Hydrogen zeolite reacted to form hydrogen gas)) CB]In the case of (1), H⁺Can also replace H⁺. In other embodiments, the cell reactant comprises a dopant doped with H⁺Or Na⁺Such as a nickel-coated zeolite.

In the mobile ion being H^-In the case of (a), the metal chalcogenide reactant is in the anode half cell. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode electrode

CeH₂+2e^-→Ce+2H^-(226)

Anode

Na₂O+2H^-→NaOH+NaH+2e^-

General reaction

Na₂O+CeH₂→NaOH+NaH+Ce(227)

An exemplary cell is a [ proton source (e.g., PtC (H) ]₂) Proton conductor (e.g., Nafion/chalcogenide, such as Na)₂O)]And [ chalcogenides (e.g. Na)₂O)/hydride conductor (e.g. co-soluble salts, such as mixtures or alkali metal halides, such as LiCl-KCl)/hydride source (e.g. metal hydrides, such as hydrides of transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, alkali metals or alkaline earth metals, such as TiH₂、ZrH₂Or CeH₂)]。

In another embodiment, the half-cell reactant can be at least one of: oxides, e.g. M₂O, wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li ₂O、Na₂O and K₂O; peroxides, e.g. M₂O₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂And K₂O₂(ii) a Superoxides, e.g. MO₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂And K₂O₂. The ionic peroxide may further comprise ionic peroxides of Ca, Sr or Ba. Suitable solvents are co-soluble salts, solid electrolytes or organic or ionic solvents.

In a general embodiment, a metal chalcogenide is reacted with a metal atom formed by reducing the corresponding cation at the cathode. The reaction of the metal M with the hydrosulfide XH is given by the formula:

MXH+2M→M₂X+MH(s)(228)

this exothermic reaction drives the formation of MH (g), and thus the very exothermic reaction given by formula (28-31). The chalcogenide may be at least one of O, S, Se and Te. The metal M may be at least one of Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs. Other exemplary chalcogenide reactions involve S in addition to O. Na formation from heat formation calculated NaSH and Na₂Reaction of S with nah (S) releases Δ H ═ -91.2 kJ/molna:

NaSH+2Na→Na₂S+NaH(s)ΔH＝-91.2kJ/moleNa.(229)

this exothermic reaction drives the formation of NaH (g), which in turn drives the very exothermic reaction given by formula (28-31). Exemplary batteries are [ Na/BASE/NaHS (MP =350 ℃) ], [ Na/BASE/NaHSe ], and [ Na/BASE/NaHTe ]. In other embodiments, other alkali metals are substituted for a given metal.

Other suitable hydrosulfides are those with a layered structure of absent H, such as hydrogenated alkaline earth chalcogenides and hydrogenated MoS₂And WS₂、TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、VSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、WSe₂、MoTe₂And Litis₂. Generally, the cathode half-cell reactants can comprise a compound containing a metal, hydrogen, and a chalcogenide.

Generally, the cathode half-cell reactant may comprise acidic H, which undergoes reduction, but also with mobile ions (e.g., M)⁺) Balancing the charge. The reaction of metal M with HX '(X' is the corresponding anion of the acid) is given by the following formula:

MX'H+2M→M₂X'+MH(s)(230)

wherein M may be an alkali metal. This exothermic reaction drives the formation of MH (g), and thus the very exemplary exothermic reactions given in formulas (6-9) and (28-31). Exemplary acid reactions include the inclusion of metal halides (e.g., alkali or alkaline earth gold)A halide) and an acid (e.g., a hydrogen halide). KHF calculated from heat formation₂Reaction with K to form 2KF and KH releases Δ H ═ 132.3 kJ/moleK:

KHF₂+2K→2KF+KHΔH＝-132.3kJ/moleK.(231)

an exemplary battery is [ K/BASE/KHF ]₂(MP=238.9℃)]. In the case of Na replacing K, the change in enthalpy is-144.6 kj/mole Na. An exemplary cell is a [ Na/olefin separator NaPF₆LP40/NaHF₂(MP=>160dec℃)]. The acid H can be an acid H of: salts of polyprotic acids (e.g. NaHSO)₄、NaHSO₃、NaHCO₃、NaH₂PO₄、Na₂HPO₄、NaHCrO₄、NaHCr₂O₇、NaHC₂O₄、NaHSeO₃、NaHSeO₄、Na₂HAsO₄、NaHMoO₄、NaHB₄O₇、NaHWO₄、NaHTiO₃、NaHGeO₃、Na₃HSiO₄、Na₂H₂SiO₄、NaH₃SiO₄、NaHSiO₃) And metals (e.g. alkali metals) and hydroxide anions, hydroxide anions of strong acids and ammonium compounds (e.g. NH) ₄X, wherein X is an anion, such as a halide or nitrate). An exemplary battery is [ Na/BASE/NaHSO₄(MP =350 ℃) or NaHSO₃(MP=315℃)]And [ Na/olefin separator NaPF₆LP40/NaHCO₃、NaH₂PO₄、Na₂HPO₄、NaHCrO₄、NaHCr₂O₇、NaHC₂O₄、NaHSeO₃、NaHSeO₄、Na₂HAsO₄、NaHMoO₄、NaHB₄O₇NaHWO₄、NaHTiO₃、NaHGeO₃、Na₃HSiO₄、Na₂H₂SiO₄、NaH₃SiO₄、NaHSiO₃And metal (e.g. alkali metal) and hydroxide anion, hydroxide anion of strong acid and ammonium compound (e.g. NH)₄X, wherein X is an anion, such as a halide or nitrate)]. OthersAlkali metals may be substituted for Na. In an embodiment, the electrolyte may be a saline solution that migrates ions.

Other suitable oxidizing agents are those which can be synthesized by methods known in the art (e.g., oxidation of metal oxides in alkaline solutions), which is WO₂(OH)、WO₂(OH)₂、VO(OH)、VO(OH)₂、VO(OH)₃、V₂O₂(OH)₂、V₂O₂(OH)₄、V₂O₂(OH)₆、V₂O₃(OH)₂、V₂O₃(OH)₄、V₂O₄(OH)₂、FeO(OH)、MnO(OH)、MnO(OH)₂、Mn₂O₃(OH)、Mn₂O₂(OH)₃、Mn₂O(OH)₅、MnO₃(OH)、MnO₂(OH)₃、MnO(OH)₅、Mn₂O₂(OH)₂、Mn₂O₆(OH)₂、Mn₂O₄(OH)₆、NiO(OH)、TiO(OH)、TiO(OH)₂、Ti₂O₃(OH)、Ti₂O₃(OH)₂、Ti₂O₂(OH)₃、Ti₂O₂(OH)₄And NiO (OH). Generally, the oxidizing agent can be M_xO_yH_z(where x, y and z are integers and M is a metal (such as a transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal)), for example a metal oxyhydroxide. The mobile ion in the battery is Li⁺In the case of reduction at the cathode, the reaction to form hydrinos may be

CoO (OH) or HCoO₂+2Li→LiH+LiCoO₂(232)

LiH→H(1/p)+Li(233)

In one embodiment, CoO (OH) or HCoO is added₂Is intercalated in CoO₂Between the planes. The reaction with lithium causes H in at least one Li-substitutional structure, LiH being an intercalation product (in the present invention, intercalation may also be used instead of intercalation), LiH being a separate product.At least one result is obtained during which some of the H reacts to form hydrinos, or hydrinos are formed from the product. Exemplary batteries are [ Li, Na, K, Li alloys (e.g., Li) ₃Mg, LiC or modified carbon (e.g. C)_xKH_yE.g. C₈KH_0.6BASE)) or olefin separator Li, Na or KPF₆LP40/CoO(OH)、HCoO₂、HCrO₂、GaO(OH)、InOOH、WO₂(OH)、WO₂(OH)₂、VO(OH)、VO(OH)₂、VO(OH)₃、V₂O₂(OH)₂、V₂O₂(OH)₄、V₂O₂(OH)₆、V₂O₃(OH)₂、V₂O₃(OH)₄、V₂O₄(OH)₂、FeO(OH)、MnO(OH)、MnO(OH)₂、Mn₂O₃(OH)、Mn₂O₂(OH)₃、Mn₂O(OH)₅、MnO₃(OH)、MnO₂(OH)₃、MnO(OH)₅、Mn₂O₂(OH)₂、Mn₂O₆(OH)₂、Mn₂O₄(OH)₆、NiO(OH)、TiO(OH)、TiO(OH)₂、Ti₂O₃(OH)、Ti₂O₃(OH)₂、Ti₂O₂(OH)₃、Ti₂O₂(OH)₄NiO (OH) and M_xO_yH_z(wherein x, y and z are integers and M is a metal, e.g. a transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal)]. In other embodiments, the alkali metal may be substituted with another.

In one embodiment, the H of the reactant (e.g., oxyhydroxide or base, such as NaOH) forms a hydrogen bond. In one embodiment, the O-H … H distance may be about 2 toAnd preferably about 2.2 toA metal (e.g., an alkali metal) containing the reduced mobile ion is reacted with H of the hydrogen bond to form hydrinos. H bonding may include H bonding to atoms such as O and N, where H bonding may be formed with another functional group such as carbonyl (C = O), C-O, S = O, S-O, N = O, N-O, and other such groups known in the art. Exemplary cathode reactants may be hydroxides or oxyhydroxides mixed with compounds having carbonyl groups (e.g., ketones or carbonates, such as alkali metal carbonates, DEC, EC or DMC) or compounds having other H-bond forming groups (e.g., C-O, S = O, S-O, N = O or N-O). Exemplary suitable compounds are ethers, sulfides, disulfides, sulfoxides, sulfones, sulfites, sulfates, sulfonates, nitrates, nitrites, and nitro and nitroso compounds. In one embodiment, the H-bonded cathode reactant further comprises some water that participates in H-bond formation and increases the rate of hydrino formation. Water may be intercalated in the carbon to form another modified carbon of the present invention. The carbon may be activated with electronegative groups that can form hydrogen bonds with added hydrogen (e.g., C-O, C = O and carboxylate groups). The carbon can be air or O ₂Or HNO₃By treatment with oxidative activation, or by treatment with water and/or CO₂Activating by treating at 800-1000 deg.C. The carbon may contain a dissociating agent such as activated Pt/C or Pd/C. The atom H is formed by a dissociating agent forming an H bond in the carbon matrix. The activation may be performed by a method such as steam treatment or steam activation. In another embodiment, hydride materials such as R-Ni are activated by water or steam. Activation may be carried out by heating to a temperature of about 25 ℃ to 200 ℃ while flowing a mixture of steam or water vapor and an inert gas such as argon. Other suitable activating materials include intercalation materials such as hBN, chalcogenides, carbon, carbides and borides, e.g. TiB₂It is functionalized with H-bonded electronegative groups. The H-bonding reactant may also comprise a protonated zeolite (HY). Hydrogen bonding is temperature sensitive; thus, in one embodiment, the temperature of the H-bonded reactants is controlled to control the hydrino reaction rate and, thus, one of the voltage, current, and power of the CIHT cell. FTIR can be recorded for oxyhydroxides and other similar cathode materials to study H-bondingSpecies (e.g., O-H and H hydrogen bonded to O).

In embodiments of the cell comprising alkali metal hydroxide cathode half cell reactants, a solvent may be added to at least the cathode half cell to at least partially dissolve the alkali metal hydroxide. The solvent may be capable of forming H bonds, for example water or an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol. The battery may include an electrolyte containing an organic solvent. An exemplary battery is a [ Na/CelgardLP30/NaOH + H bonding matrix or solvent (e.g., alcohol) ][ Li/CelgardLP30/LiOH + H bonding matrix or solvent (e.g., alcohol)]And [ K/CelgardLP30/KOH + H bonding matrix or solvent (e.g., alcohol)]And [ Na/CelgardLP30/NaOH + methanol or ethanol]"[ Li/CelgardLP30/LiOH + methanol or ethanol]And [ K/CelgardLP30/KOH + methanol or ethanol]. The solvent of the battery having an organic solvent as part of the electrolyte may be selected to partially dissolve the alkali metal hydroxide. The cell may include a salt bridge to separate the dissolved alkali metal hydroxide of one half cell from the other. The solvent added to at least partially dissolve the alkali metal hydroxide may be water. Alternatively, the alkali metal hydroxide may be formed from water or from a solute such as a carbonate during discharge. An exemplary battery is [ LiLP30/Li⁺Glass/water]、[LiLP30/Li⁺Glass/aqueous base (e.g. LiOH or Li)₂CO₃)]"[ LiLP30/Whatman GF/D glass fiber sheet/water][ LiLP30/Whatman GF/D glass fiber pieces/aqueous base (e.g. LiOH or Li)₂CO₃)]、[NaLP30/Na⁺Glass/water]、[NaLP30/Na⁺Glass/aqueous alkali (e.g. NaOH or Na)₂CO₃)]、[KLP30/K⁺Glass/water]、[KLP30/K⁺Glass/aqueous base (e.g. KOH or K)₂CO₃)]. Exemplary type [ Na/CG2400+ Na-LP40/NaOH]The performance of the alkali metal hydroxide cathode cell of (a) may also be enhanced by heating, wherein a thermally stable solvent is used.

In one embodiment, the at least one half-cell reactant (e.g., cathode half-cell reactant) may comprise an aqueous acid. An exemplary cell is [ LiLP30/Whatman GF/Dg glass fiber sheet/acid in water (e.g., HCl)]、[NaLP30/Na⁺Glass/acid aqueous solution (e.g. HCl)]And [ KLP30/K⁺Glass/acid aqueous solution (e.g. HCl)]. The pH of neutral, basic and acidic electrolytes or solvents can be adjusted by adding acid or base to optimize the rate of hydrino formation.

In another embodiment, the high surface area carrier/hydride is used to wick away Na formed on the surface without the electrolyte from the surface⁺Reduced Na metal. Suitable supports are, for example, R-Ni and TiC. Optionally, the cathode reactant comprises a molten hydride, such as MgH₂(MP327 ℃ C.), wherein an atmosphere of hydrogen can be supplied to maintain the hydride. In other embodiments, M (an alkali metal, such as Li or K) replaces Na, with an exemplary battery being [ K/K-BASE/KIKOH][K/K-BASE/KOH](K-BASE is potassium beta alumina), [ LiLi-BASE or Al₂O₃/LiILiOH][ Li/Li-BASE or Al₂O₃/LiOH](Li-BASE is lithium beta alumina). A suitable exemplary molten hydride forming the mixture is a eutectic mixture of: about 43+57mol% NaH-KBH having a melting temperature of about 503 deg.C ₄KH-KBH of about 66+34mol% with a melting temperature of about 390 ℃₄About 21+79mol% NaH-NaBH having a melting temperature of about 395 DEG C₄KBH of about 53+47mol% having a melting temperature of about 103 DEG C₄-LiBH₄About 41.3+58.7mol% NaBH having a melting temperature of about 213 ℃₄-LiBH₄KBH of about 31.8+68.2mol% having a melting temperature of about 453 DEG C₄-NaBH₄Wherein the mixture may further comprise an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride, such as LiH, NaH or KH. Other exemplary hydrides are Mg (BH)₄)₂(MP260 ℃ C.) and Ca (BH)₄)₂(367℃)。

In a general embodiment, the reaction that forms H and forms a catalyst (e.g., Li, NaH, K, or H as a catalyst) whereby hydrinos are formed includes the reaction of H-containing reactants. The H of the reactant may be bound to any element. Suitable sources of H include H in combination with another element, wherein the bond has a large dipole moment. The bonding may be covalent, ionic, metallic, coordinate, three-centered, van der Waals, physisorption, chemisorption, electrostatic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic or known in the artOr other form of bonding. Suitable elements are group III, IV, V, VI and VII atoms, such as boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, halogen, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium and tellurium. The reaction may comprise an exchange reaction or an extraction reaction of H. The reaction may include a reduction reaction of the H-containing reactant. The reaction may include direct cathodic reduction or reduction by intermediates that are first reduced at the cathode. For example, H bound to an atom of an inorganic or organic compound (e.g., B, C, N, O or X (X = halogen)) can react with an alkali metal atom M to form H, H ₂And MH, wherein the reaction further results in the formation of hydrinos. M may be selected from M in the cathode half-cell⁺Is formed in the migration. The bonding of the H-containing reactant can be in any form, such as van der Waals forces, physical adsorption, and chemisorption. An exemplary compound comprising H bound to another atom is B_xH_y(x and y are integers), H intercalated carbon, alkyne (e.g. acetylene, 1-nonyne or phenylacetylene), compound having a BN-H group (e.g. NH)₃BH₃)、NH₃Primary or secondary amines, amides, phthalimides, phthalhydrazide, polyamides (e.g. proteins, ureas or similar compounds or salts), imides, aminals or aminoacetals, hemiaminals, guanidines or similar compounds (e.g. arginine derivatives or salts thereof, such as guanidinium chloride), triazabicyclodecenes, MNH₂、M₂NH、MNH₂BH₃MNHR (M is a metal such as an alkali metal) (R is an organic group), diphenylbenzidine sulfonate, M (OH)_xOr MO (OH) (M is a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal or an internal transition metal), H₂O、H₂O₂And ROH (R is an organic group of alcohol) (e.g., ethanol, erythritol (C)₄H₁₀O₄) Galactitol (Dulcitol), (2R,3S,4R,5S) -hexane-1, 2,3,4,5, 6-hexaol or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)) or similar compounds (for example at least one of the group comprising: compounds having SiOH groups, such as silanol and silicic acid; compounds having BOH groups, e.g. dihydrocarbylboronic acids, alkyldihydrocarbylboronic acids and boronic acids, e.g. H ₃BO₃Or HBO₂). Other exemplary reactant comprising H is RMH (where M is the thGroup III, IV, V or VI elements, R being an organic radical, e.g. alkyl), RSH (e.g. thiol), H₂S、H₂S₂、H₂Se、H₂Te, HX (X is halogen), MSH, MHSe, MHTe, M_xH_yX_z(X is an acid anion, M is a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal or a rare earth metal, and X, y, z are integers), AlH₃、SiH₄、Si_xH_y、Si_xH_yX_z(X is halogen), PH₃、P₂H₄、GeH₄、Ge_xH_y、Ge_xH_yX_z(X is halogen) and AsH₃、As₂H₄、SnH₄、SbH₃And BiH₃. Exemplary batteries are [ M, M alloy or M intercalation compound/BASE, or olefin separator, organic solvent and salt, or aqueous salt electrolyte solution/B_xH_y(x and y are integers), H intercalated carbon, alkyne (e.g. acetylene, 1-nonyne or phenylacetylene), NH₃BH₃、NH₃Primary or secondary amines, amides, polyamides (e.g. proteins, ureas), imides, aminals or aminoacetals, hemiaminals, guanidines or similar compounds (e.g. arginine derivatives or salts thereof, such as guanidinium chloride), triazabicyclodecene, MNH₂、M₂NH、MNH₂BH₃MNHR (M is a metal such as an alkali metal) (R is an organic group), diphenylbenzidine sulfonate, M (OH)_xOr MO (OH) (M is a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal or an internal transition metal), H₂O、H₂O₂And ROH (R is an organic group of an alcohol) (e.g., ethanol or polyvinyl alcohol) or the like (e.g., at least one member of the group consisting of a compound having an SiOH group such as silanol and silicic acid, a compound having a BOH group such as dihydrocarbylboronic acid, alkyldihydrocarbylboronic acid and boric acid such as H) ₃BO₃Or HBO₂)、H₂S、H₂S₂、H₂Se、H₂Te, HX (X is halogen), MSH, MHSe, MHTe, M_xH_yX_z(X is an acid anion and M is a metal, e.g. alkali gold)Metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal, and x, y and z are integers), AlH₃、SiH₄、Si_xH_y、Si_xH_yX_z(X is halogen), PH₃、P₂H₄、GeH₄、Ge_xH_y、Ge_xH_yX_z(X is halogen) and AsH₃、As₂H₄、SnH₄、SbH₃And BiH₃][ Na/BASE/polyvinyl alcohol ]]A [ Na or K/olefin separator and an organic solvent and a salt/phenylacetylene][ Li/CelgardLP 30/phthalimide]And [ Li/CelgardLP 30/phthalhydrazide]。

In one embodiment, the OH groups may be more like basic inorganic groups, such as hydroxide ions (OH), than organic OH groups, such as organic OH groups of alcohol or acid groups^-). The central atom bonded to O is more metallic.

In one embodiment, the half-cell reactant comprises a compound having an internal H bond (such as aspirin or o-methoxyphenol). An exemplary battery is [ Li/CelgardLP 30/o-methoxyphenol]. In one embodiment, at least one of the half-cell reactants is a periodically H-bonded compound, e.g., having H⁺And possibly some alkali metal ions containing positive ions, such as HY. Other periodic H-bonded compounds include proteins (e.g., serine, threonine, and arginine containing proteins), DNA, polyphosphates, and ice. In one embodiment, the cell is operated below the melting point of water, such that the ice contains proton conductors. An exemplary cell is [ Pt/C (H) ₂) Nafion/glacial methylene blue]、[Pt/C(H₂) Nafion/glacial anthraquinone]And [ Pt/C (H)₂) Nafion/Ice Polythiophene or polypyrrole]. (the symbol "/" is used to designate a cell compartment and, where appropriate, also to designate "supported", e.g., Pt/C is carbon supported Pt.. accordingly, in the present invention, this designation of "supported" may also be without symbol/, where it is known per se to those skilled in the art, e.g., PtC means carbon supported Pt.)

The H of the reactant may be combined with a metal (e.g., a rare earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, an alkali metal, or an alkaline earth metal). The H reactant may comprise a hydride. The hydride may be a metal hydride. In one exemplary reaction, H is extracted from a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride) to form M⁺H^-Wherein M is⁺Is a counter ion, e.g. of an electrolyte, and H^-Migrate to the anode, oxidize to H, and react with a receptor (e.g., a receptor of the present invention).

The H of the H reactant may be exchanged with other reactants comprising an ionic metal compound (e.g., a metal salt, such as a metal halide). The reaction may comprise a hydride-halide exchange reaction. Exemplary hydride-halide exchange reactions are given in the present invention. The cell may contain a halide source (e.g., a halogen gas, liquid, or solid) in the cathode half-cell, a halide salt bridge, and a hydride (e.g., metal halide) in the anode half-cell. Halides of metals and H atoms and H formed by the formation of halides in the cathode half-cell, migration through the salt bridge and oxidation in the anode half-cell and reaction with the metal hydride ₂A gas in which hydrino is formed during halide-hydride anion exchange. An exemplary battery is [ halogen (e.g., I)₂(s))/halide salt bridge (e.g., AgI)/metal hydride (e.g., MnH)₂)]、[Br₂(l) /AgBr/metal hydride (e.g. EuH)₂)]And [ Cl₂(g)/AgCl/SrH₂]。

In one embodiment, the battery comprises Na⁺Ion source, selective transport of Na⁺Ionic medium and Na⁺A receiver of ions and a source of H that forms NaH catalyst and hydrino. The source of H may be a hydride, such as a metal hydride. Suitable metal hydrides are hydrides of rare earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, and hydrides of other elements such as B and Al. The battery may include: an Na source anode (such as Na intercalation, nitride, or chalcogenide), at least one of an electrolyte, a separator, and a salt bridge, and a cathode comprising at least one of: metal hydrides (e.g. rare earth hydrides, transition metalsHydrides (e.g. R-Ni or TiH)₂) Or internal transition metal hydrides (e.g. ZrH)₂) Hydrogenated matrix materials (e.g., hydrogenated carbon, such as activated carbon), Na intercalation compounds (e.g., metal oxides or metal oxyanions, such as NaCoO)₂Or NaFePO₄) Or other chalcogenides. An exemplary sodium cathode material is a cathode material comprising an oxide (e.g., Na) _xWO₃、Na_xV₂O₅、NaCoO₂、NaFePO₄、NaMn₂O₄、NaNiO₂、Na₂FePO₄F、NaV₂O₅、Na₂Fe_1-xMn_xPO₄F、Na_x[Na_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Na₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g., Ni-Mn-Co oxides (e.g., NaNi)_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O₂And Na (Na)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And NaTi₂O₄) Na acceptor of (iv). An exemplary sodium anode material is a source of Na, such as graphite (NaC)₆) Hard carbon (NaC)₆) Titanate (Na)₄Ti₅O₁₂)、Si(Na_4.4Si) and Ge (Na)_4.4Ge). An exemplary cell is [ NaC/1M NaPF in dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate 1:1₆Electrolyte solution impregnated polypropylene membrane/NaCoO₂R-Ni]. The electrolyte may be a low melting point salt, preferably a Na salt, such as at least one of the following: NaI (660 ℃), NaAlCl₄(160℃)、NaAlF₄And with NaMX₄(where M is a metal and X is a halide) are the same class of compounds having a metal halide (e.g., a metal halide that is more stable than NaX). The at least one half-cell reaction mixture may further comprise a support, such as, for example, R-Ni or a carbide, such as TiC. An exemplary battery is [ Na/Na beta alumina/NaAlCl₄TiCMH₂(e.g., TiH)₂、ZrH₂Or LaH₂)]. In other embodiments, K replaces Na. In one embodiment, the alkali metal M (e.g., Na) is formed by reducing M in a porous material (e.g., a porous metal hydride)⁺So as to prevent M from contacting any reactive electricityElectrolytes (e.g. MALCl)₄) In the manner of (a).

In other embodiments of the invention, the alkali metals may be substituted for each other. For example, the anode comprising an alkali metal may be an alloy, such as Li ₃Mg、K₃Mg and Na₃Mg, wherein different alkali metals are suitable half-cell reactants.

In another embodiment, a Na-based CIHT cell comprises a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte, wherein at least one component comprises hydrogen or a hydrogen source. In one embodiment, the cathode contains an electrochemically active sodium-based material, such as a reversibly intercalated de-intercalated material. The material may also include species that act as capacitor materials during charging and discharging. Suitable Na reversible intercalation de-intercalation materials include transition metal oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and fluorides. The material may contain alkali metals, such as Na or Li, which may de-intercalate during charging and may be further exchanged by methods such as electrolysis. The electrochemically active sodium-based material of U.S. patent No. US7,759,008B2 (7/20 2010) is incorporated herein by reference. The sodium-based active substance is essentially a sodium metal phosphate selected from compounds of the general formula:

A_aM_b(XY₄)_cZ_dwherein

i.A is selected from the group consisting of sodium and mixtures of sodium with other alkali metals, and 0< a ≦ 9;

iiM contains one or more metals that contain at least one metal capable of being oxidized to a higher valence state, and 1. ltoreq. b.ltoreq.3;

iii.XY₄Selected from the group consisting of: x' O_4-xY'_x、X'O_4-yY'_2y、X″S₄And mixtures thereof, wherein X' is P, As, Sb, Si, Ge, S, and mixtures thereof; x' is P, As, Sb, Si, Ge, and mixtures thereof; y is halogen; x is more than or equal to 0<3; and 0<y<4; and 0<c≤3；

Z is OH, halogen or a mixture thereof, and d is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 6; and wherein M, X, Y, Z, a, b, c, d, X and Y are selected so as to maintain electroneutrality of the compound.

Non-limiting examples of preferred sodium-containing actives include NaVPO₄F、Na_1+yVPO₄F_1+y、NaVOPO₄、Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃、Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃、NaFePO₄、NaFe_xMg_1-xPO₄、Na₂FePO₄F and combinations thereof, wherein 0<x is less than 1 and y is more than or equal to-0.2 and less than or equal to 0.5. Another preferred active material has the formula Li_1-zNa_zVPO₄F, wherein 0<z<1. In addition to vanadium (V), various transition metal and non-transition metal elements may be used alone or in combination to prepare the sodium-based active material. In an embodiment, H partially replaces Na or Li in the electrochemically active sodium based material. At least one of the cathode, anode or electrolyte further comprises H or a source of H. The battery design may be that of a CIHT battery having electrochemically active lithium-based materials (Na replacing Li), and may further include these electrochemically active sodium-based materials replacing the lithium-based battery's counterparts. In other embodiments, other alkali metals such as Li or K may be substituted for Na.

The anode may comprise Na/carbon, wherein the electrolyte may comprise an inorganic Na compound (e.g., NaClO)₄) And organic solvents (e.g., EC: DEC, PC: DMC or PC: VC). The electrolyte may comprise NASICON (Na) as a solid electrolyte₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂). The sodium CIHT cell can comprise [ Na or NaC/Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂/Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃]And [ Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂/Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃]。

In one embodiment, Na can serve as an anode reactant and as an electrolyte for the cathode half-cell, where the Na concentrationThe gradient may exist for mixtures containing other molten elements or compounds of the cathode half cell. The cell further comprises a source of H (e.g., a hydride cathode reactant) and may further comprise a carrier. Having Na accessible through salt bridges, e.g. Beta Alumina Solid Electrolyte (BASE)⁺An exemplary concentration cell As mobile ion is [ Na/BASE/Na, H source (e.g., hydride) and optionally a carrier at a concentration lower than that of the anode half-cell (because of other molten elements or compounds, e.g., at least one of In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, S, I, Se, Bi and As)]。

In other embodiments, the cathode material is an intercalation compound that intercalates species (e.g., alkali metals or ions, such as Na or Na)⁺) By H or H⁺And (4) replacement. The compound may comprise intercalated H. The compound may comprise a layered oxide, such as NaCoO ₂In which at least some of the Na is replaced by H, e.g. as CoO (OH) (also denoted HCoO)₂). The cathode half-cell compound can be a layered compound, e.g., a layered chalcogenide, e.g., a layered oxide, e.g., NaCoO₂Or NaNiO₂Wherein at least some of the intercalated alkali metal (e.g., Na) is replaced with intercalated H. In one embodiment, at least some H and possibly some Na are intercalation species of the charged cathode material, and Na forms intercalation during discharge. Suitable intercalation compounds that replace at least some of the Na with H are intercalation compounds that make up the anode or cathode of a Li or Na ion battery, such as the Li or Na ion battery of the invention. Comprising H_xNa_ySuitable exemplary intercalation compounds for H in place of Na are Na graphite, Na_xWO₃、Na_xV₂O₅、NaCoO₂、NaFePO₄、NaMn₂O₄、NaNiO₂、Na₂FePO₄F、NaMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, NaV₂O₅、NaMgSO₄F、NaMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), NaMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Na_x[Na_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Na₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides,such as NaNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Na (Na)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And NaTi₂O₄And other Na-layered chalcogenides and intercalation materials of the invention (e.g., Na reversible intercalation de-intercalation materials comprising transition metal oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and fluorides). Other suitable intercalation compounds include oxyhydroxides, such as from the following group: AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), and manganese Oxide (OH) _1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O (OH). Exemplary batteries are [ Na sources (e.g., Na alloys, such as NaC or Na)₃Mg)/co-soluble salt, organic electrolyte (e.g. containing NaPF)₆LP40), ionic liquid or solid sodium electrolyte (such as BASE or NASICON)/contains H_xNa_yOr an intercalation compound of substituted H: na graphite, Na_xWO₃、Na_xV₂O₅、NaCoO₂、NaFePO₄、NaMn₂O₄、NaNiO₂、Na₂FePO₄F、NaMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, NaV₂O₅、NaMgSO₄F、NaMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), NaMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Na_x[Na_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Na₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as NaNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Na (Na)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And NaTi₂O₄And other Na-layered chalcogenides and intercalation materials of the invention (e.g., Na reversible intercalation de-intercalation materials comprising transition metal oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and fluorides)]And [ Na source (e.g. Na, Na alloy, such as NaC or Na)₃Mg)/co-soluble salt, organic electrolyte (e.g. containing NaPF)₆LP40) ionic liquid or solid sodium electrolyte (e.g., BASE or NASICO)N)/at least one of the following group: AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), and manganese Oxide (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH)]. Other alkali metals may be substituted for Na, such as K.

In one embodiment, the cathode product formed from the reduction of the mobile ions and any possible further reaction with the cathode reactant may be regenerated by non-electrolytic and electrolytic techniques. The product can be regenerated as anode starting material by the process of the invention for the reaction mixture. For example, the product of the element comprising the mobile ions may be physically or thermally separated and regenerated and returned to the anode. The separation can be carried out by thermal decomposition of the hydride and evaporation of the metal as a reduced mobile ion. The cathode product of the mobile ions may also be separated and reacted with the anode product to form the starting reactant. The hydride of the cathode reactant can be regenerated by the addition of hydrogen, or the hydride can be formed in a separate reaction chamber after separation of the corresponding cathode reaction product necessary to form the starting hydride. Similarly, any other cathode starting reactant can be regenerated by separation and chemical synthesis steps performed in situ or in a separate vessel in which the reactants are formed.

In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, other cations replace Na⁺As mobile ions. The mobile ions can be reduced at the cathode to form a catalyst or catalyst source, such as NaH, K, Li, Sr⁺Or BaH. The electrolyte may comprise beta "-alumina (beta prime-prime alumina) or beta alumina that is also complexed with corresponding mobile ions. Thus, the solid electrolyte may contain Na⁺、K⁺、Li⁺、Sr²⁺And Ba²⁺At least one of Al compounded₂O₃And may also be combined with H⁺、Ag⁺Or Pb²⁺At least one of them is compounded. The electrolyte or salt bridge may be ion-implanted glass, e.g. K⁺And (3) glass. At H⁺In the embodiment as mobile ions, H⁺Reduced to H at the cathode to serve as a source of atomic hydrogen for catalysis to hydrinos. In a general embodiment, the anode compartment contains an alkali metal, the solid electrolyte contains the corresponding mobile metal ions complexed with beta alumina, and the cathode compartment contains a source of hydrogen, such as a hydride or H₂. The mobile metal ions may be reduced to metal at the cathode. The metal or hydride formed from the metal can be a catalyst or a source of catalyst. Hydrinos are formed by reaction of a catalyst with hydrogen. The battery may operate in a temperature range that provides favorable conductivity. Suitable working temperatures range from 250 ℃ to 300 ℃. Other exemplary sodium ion conducting salt bridge is NASICON (Na) ₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂) And Na_xWO₃. In other embodiments, other metals (such as Li or K) may be substituted for Na. In one embodiment, at least one battery component (e.g., the salt bridge and cathode and anode reactants) comprises a coating that is selectively permeable to a given species. Examples are p-OH^-A selectively permeable zirconia coating. The reactant may comprise particles encapsulated in this coating such that it reacts selectively with the selectively permeable species. The lithium solid electrolyte or salt bridge may be a halide-stabilized LiBH₄(e.g., LiBH₄-LiX (X = halide)), Li⁺Injected Al₂O₃(Li-. beta. -alumina), based on Li₂Glass of S, Li_0.29+dLa_0.57TiO₃(d=0～0.14)、La_0.51Li_0.34TiO_2.94、Li₉AlSiO₈、Li₁₄ZnGe₄O₁₆(LISICON)、Li_xM_1-yM'_yS₄(M = Si, Ge and M' ═ P, Al, Zn, Ga, Sb) (mercapto-LISICON), Li_2.68PO_3.73N_0.14(LIPON)、Li₅La₃Ta₂O₁₂、Li_1.3Al_0.3Ti_1.7(PO₄)₃、LiM₂(PO₄)₃、M^IV= Ge, Ti, Hf, Zr, Li_1+xTi₂(PO₄)₃(0≤x≤2)、LiNbO₃Lithium silicate, lithium aluminate, lithium aluminosilicate, solid polymer or gel, dioxideSilicon (SiO)₂) Alumina (Al)₂O₃) Lithium oxide (Li)₂O)、Li₃N、Li₃P, gallium oxide (Ga)₂O₃) Phosphorus oxide (P)₂O₅) Silica alumina and solid solutions thereof, and others known in the art. An exemplary battery is [ Li/Li solid electrolyte/R-Ni]。

In one type of hydride exchange reaction, the hydride exchange reaction may involve the reduction of a hydride other than a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., an alkali metal hydride such as LiH, KH or NaH or BaH). The hydrogen anion stabilizes the highly ionized catalyst cation in a transition state. The purpose of the different hydrides is to drive the reaction to a greater extent in the forward direction where transition states and hydrinos form. Suitable different hydrides are alkaline earth metal hydrides, such as BaH and MgH ₂(ii) a Different alkali metal hydrides, such as LiH with KH or NaH; transition metal hydrides, e.g. TiH₂(ii) a Rare earth metal hydrides, e.g. EuH₂、GdH₂And LaH₂。

In one embodiment, the electrons recombine with the catalyst ion system in a transition state such that no catalytic reaction occurs. Providing counter ions (e.g., hydride anions) to the ionized catalyst from the outside contributes to the catalysis and ionization of the catalyst (e.g., Na)²⁺Or K³⁺) Is performed. This is further aided by a conductive carrier (e.g., TiC) and optionally a reducing agent (e.g., an alkaline earth metal or hydride thereof (e.g., MgH)₂) Or other source of hydride anions). Thus, a CIHT cell can function as a battery and can power a variable load as needed that completes the electrical circuit of the flow of electrons from the anode compartment and the flow of counter-ions from the cathode compartment. Further, in one embodiment, this circuit for at least one of electrons and counter ions increases the hydrino reaction rate.

With respect to fig. 18, a fuel cell 400 comprises a cathode compartment 401 having a cathode 405, an anode compartment 402 having an anode 410, a salt bridge 420, a hydrino reactant, and a hydrogen source. Anodic compartment reactionThe material may comprise a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen or hydrogen source, such as LiH, NaH, BaH or KH, and may further comprise a carrier (such as TiC) and a reducing agent (such as at least one of alkaline earth metals and hydrides thereof, such as Mg and MgH) ₂(ii) a Alkali metals and hydrides thereof, such as Li and LiH). The cathode compartment reactants may comprise a source of exchangeable species, such as anions, for example halides or hydrides. Suitable reactants are metal hydrides, e.g. alkaline earth or alkali metal hydrides, such as MgH₂BaH and LiH. The corresponding metals (such as Mg and Li) may be present in the cathode compartment.

The salt bridge may comprise an anion conducting membrane and/or an anion conductor. The salt bridges conduct cations. The salt bridges may be formed from zeolites or aluminas, e.g. zeolites or aluminas saturated with cations containing the catalyst, e.g. sodium aluminate, lanthanide borides (such as MB)₆Where M is a lanthanide) or an alkaline earth metal boride (such as MB)₆Wherein M is an alkaline earth metal). The reactant or cell component may be an oxide. The electrochemical species in the oxide may be an oxyanion or a proton. The salt bridge conducts oxygen anions. Common examples of oxide conductors are Yttria Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ), gadolinia doped Ceria (CGO), lanthanum gallate and bismuth copper vanadium oxides (e.g., BiCuVO)_x). Some perovskite materials (e.g., La)_1-xSr_xCo_yO_3-d) Mixed oxides and electronic conductivity are also shown. The salt bridge conducts protons. Doped barium cerates and zirconates are good proton conductors or conductors of protonated oxygen anions. H ⁺The conductor may be SrCeO₃Proton conductors of the type, such as strontium cerium yttrium niobium oxide. H_xWO₃Is another suitable proton conductor. Nafion, similar membranes and related compounds are also suitable proton conductors, and may further act as cation conductors, such as Na⁺Or Li⁺A conductor. The proton conductor may comprise a solid film of HCl-LiCl-KCl molten salt electrolyte on a metal mesh (e.g., SS), which may act as a proton conductor salt bridge for cells with organic electrolyte. The cationic electrolyte may undergo exchange with Nafion to form a corresponding ion conductor. The proton conductor may be anhydrousPolymers (e.g. composite membranes based on ionic liquids, such as Nafion and ionic liquids (e.g. 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate)) or proton donor and acceptor groups (e.g. groups having a benzimidazole moiety, such as poly [ (1- (4,4' -diphenyl ether) -5-oxybenzimidazole) -benzimidazole)]It may also be doped with Nafion and further doped with a polymer such as an inorganic electron deficient compound (e.g., BN nanoparticles).

In other embodiments, one or more of many other ions known to those skilled in the art may move within the solid, such as Li ⁺、Na⁺、Ag⁺、F^-、Cl^-And N^3-. The corresponding good electrolyte material using any of these ions is Li₃N、Na-β-Al₂O₃、AgI、PbF₂And SrCl₂. Alkali metal salt doped polyethylene oxide or similar polymers can act as mobile alkali metal ions (e.g., Li)⁺) The electrolyte/separator of (a). In one embodiment, the salt bridge comprises solidified molten electrolyte of the cell formed by cooling at a specific location (e.g., at a separation plane). Cooling may be performed by using a heat radiating body (e.g., a heat conductive body such as an expanded metal plate). In addition, the hydrides, halides and mixtures of alkali and alkaline earth metals are hydride anions H^-A good conductor of (2). Suitable mixtures comprise eutectic molten salts. The salt bridge may comprise a hydride and may selectively conduct hydride anions. The hydride may be extremely thermally stable. Due to their high melting points and thermal decomposition temperatures, suitable hydrides are salt water hydrides (e.g., salt water hydrides of lithium, calcium, strontium, and barium) and metal hydrides (e.g., hydrides of rare earth metals such as Eu, Gd, and La). In the latter case, H or protons may diffuse through the metal while self-H at the surface^-Conversion or conversion to H^-. The salt bridge may be a solid-electrolyte of hydrogen anion conductivity, such as CaCl₂-CaH₂. A suitable solid electrolyte for hydrogen anion conduction is CaCl ₂-CaH₂(5 to 7.5mol%) and CaCl₂-LiCl-CaH₂. Comprising H^-An exemplary battery for a conductive salt bridge is [ Li +Eutectic salt (e.g. LiCl-KClLiH/CaCl)₂-CaH₂) Eutectic salt (e.g. LiCl-KClLiH/Fe (H)₂))]And [ Li or Li alloy/CaCl₂-CaH₂Eutectic salt (e.g. LiCl-KClLiH/Fe (H)₂))]。

The cathode and anode may be electrical conductors. The conductor may be a carrier and further include a wire so that each of the cathode and anode is individually connected to a load. The conductive lines are also conductors. Suitable conductors are metals, carbon, carbides or borides. Suitable metals are transition metals, stainless steel, noble metals, internal transition metals (e.g., Ag), alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and Te.

The battery may comprise a solid, molten or liquid battery. The latter may comprise a solvent. The operating conditions may be controlled to achieve a desired state or property of at least one reactant or cell component, such as a desired state or property of the cathode cell reactant, the anode cell reactant, the salt bridge, and the cell compartment. Suitable states are solids, liquids and gases, and suitable properties are ionic and electronic conductivity, physical properties, miscibility, diffusion rate and reactivity. With the one or more reactants maintained in a molten state, the compartment temperature can be controlled above the melting point of the reactants. Mg, MgH ₂Exemplary melting points for K, KH, Na, NaH, Li and LiH are 650 deg.C, 327 deg.C, 63.5 deg.C, 619 deg.C, 97.8 deg.C, 425 deg.C (dec), 180.5 deg.C and 688.7 deg.C, respectively. The heat may come from the catalysis of hydrogen to form hydrinos. Alternatively, the oxidant and/or reductant reactants are melted by heat supplied by the internal resistance of the fuel cell or by external heater 450. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell is surrounded by insulation comprising a double-walled hollow jacket, such as a sheet metal jacket filled with insulation, for conductive and radioactive heat loss, as known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the configuration is a thermodynamically efficient heat retention body, such as a correct cylindrical stack, that provides an optimal volume to surface area ratio to retain heat. In one embodiment, the reactants of at least one of the cathode and anode compartments are at least partially solvated by the solvent. Solvent-soluble catalyst or catalyst source, e.g.Alkali metals and hydrides, such as LiH, Li, NaH, Na, KH, K, BaH and Ba. Suitable solvents are those disclosed in the "organic solvent" section and the "inorganic solvent" section. A suitable solvent for dissolving the alkali metal is hexamethylphosphoramide (OP (N (CH) ₃)₂)₃) Ammonia, amines, ethers, complexing solvents, crown ethers and cryptands and solvents such as ethers or amides (e.g. THF with added crown ether or cryptand).

The fuel cell may further comprise at least one hydrogen system 460, 461, 430 and 431 for measuring, transferring and controlling hydrogen to at least one compartment. The hydrogen system may comprise a pump, at least one valve, one manometer and a reader and a control system for supplying hydrogen to at least one of the cathode and anode compartments. The hydrogen system may circulate hydrogen from one compartment to another. In one embodiment, the hydrogen system will H₂The gas is recirculated from the anode compartment to the cathode compartment. The recirculation may be active or passive. In the former case, H may be added during operation₂Is pumped from the anode to the cathode compartment, while in the latter case H is due to the pressure build-up in the anode compartment during operation according to the reaction, e.g. the reaction of formula (199) -200)₂Can diffuse or flow from the anode to the cathode compartment.

The product can be regenerated in the cathode or anode compartment. The product may be sent to a regenerator where any of the regeneration chemistries of the present invention may be used to regenerate the initial reactants. The cells undergoing the hydrino reaction may provide heat to the cells undergoing reactant regeneration.

In one embodiment, the fuel cell comprises an anode compartment and a cathode compartment, each containing an anode and a cathode, a respective reaction mixture and salt bridges between the compartments. The compartment may comprise an inert non-conductive cell wall. Suitable container materials are carbides and nitrides (e.g. SiC, B)₄C、BC₃Or TiN) or internally coated with carbides and nitrides (e.g. SiC, B)₄C or BC₃Or TiN). Alternatively, the cell may be lined with an inert insulator, such as MgO, SiC, B₄C、BC₃Or TiN. The battery can be electrically conductiveThe material is made of insulating partition board. Suitable battery materials are stainless steel, transition metals, noble metals, refractory metals, rare earth metals, Al and Ag. The cells may each have an inert insulating feedthrough. Suitable insulating spacers and materials for the electrical feed-through are MgO and carbides and nitrides, e.g. SiC, B₄C、BC₃Or TiN. Other cells, separators, and feedthroughs known to those skilled in the art can be used. Exemplary cathodes and anodes each comprise stainless steel wool with stainless steel leads connected to the cell feed-through with silver solder. Exemplary anode reaction mixtures comprise (i) a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen source from Li, LiH, Na, NaH, K, KH, Rb, RbH, Cs, CsH, Ba, BaH, Ca, CaH, Mg, MgH ₂、MgX₂(X is a halide) and H₂Optionally (ii) a reducing agent from the group of Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Li, and (ii) a carrier from the group of C, Pd/C, Pt/C, TiC and YC₂The group (2). An exemplary cathode reaction mixture comprises (i) an oxidant from MX₂(M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X = H, F, Cl, Br, I) and LiX (X = H, Cl, Br), optionally (ii) a reducing agent from the group Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Li, and optionally (iii) a carrier from the group C, Pd/C, Pt/C, TiC and YC₂The group (2). Exemplary salt bridges comprise metal hydrides extruded or formed into slabs having high temperature stability. The salt bridge can be from LiH and CaH₂、SrH₂、BaH₂、LaH₂、GdH₂And EuH₂The group of metal hydrides of (1). Hydrogen or hydride may be added to either cell compartment which may further contain a hydrogen dissociating agent (such as Pd or Pt/C). In the presence of Mg²⁺In embodiments where the catalyst is a mixed metal hydride, the source of the catalyst can be a Mg_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₂Is a metal. In one embodiment, the hybrid hydride comprises an alkali metal and Mg (e.g., KMgH)₃、K₂MgH₄、NaMgH₃、Na₂MgH₄) And a hybrid hydride with a dopant that enhances H mobility. Doping can increase the H mobility by increasing the H-vacancy concentration. Suitable doping is doping with a small number of substituents, which may be as a single group The valence cations are present to replace the usual divalent B-type cations in the perovskite structure. For example in Na (Mg)_x-1Li_x)H_3-xIn the case of (b), an example is Li doping to create x vacancies.

In one embodiment, the mixed hydride is formed from an alloy during discharge, e.g., a mixed hydride comprising an alkali metal and an alkaline earth metal, such as M₃Mg (M = alkali metal). The anode can be an alloy and the cathode can include a source of H (e.g., a hydride or H from a H-permeable cathode and H)₂Gases, e.g. Fe (H)₂) Or H₂Gas) and dissociation agent (e.g. PtC (H)₂)). The cell can contain an electrolyte, for example, a hydride conductor, such as a molten eutectic salt, such as an alkali metal halide mixture, such as LiCl-KCl. An exemplary battery is [ Li ]₃Mg、Na₃Mg or K₃Mg/LiCl-KClLiH/TiH₂、CeH₂、LaH₂Or ZrH₂]。

In one embodiment, the anode reaction and the cathode reaction contain different reactants to form hydrinos or the same reactant maintained at different concentrations, different amounts, or different conditions, such that a voltage is generated between the two half-cells, which can be powered to an external load through the anode and cathode leads. In one embodiment, the anode reaction mixture comprises (i) a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen source, e.g., Li, LiH, Na, NaH, K, KH, Rb, RbH, Cs, CsH, Ba, BaH, Ca, CaH, Mg, MgH ₂、MgX₂(X is a halide) and H₂Optionally (ii) a reducing agent, e.g. at least one of the group of Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Li, and (iii) a carrier, e.g. C, Pd/C, Pt/C, TiC and YC₂At least one of the group of (1). The cathode reaction mixture comprises (i) a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen source, e.g., Li, LiH, Na, NaH, K, KH, Rb, RbH, Cs, CsH, Ba, BaH, Ca, CaH, Mg, MgH₂、MgX₂(X is a halide) and H₂At least one of the group of (i), optionally (ii) a reducing agent, e.g. Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Li and H₂At least one member of the group of (a), and (ii) a carrier, e.g., CPd/C, Pt/C, TiC and YC₂At least one of the group of (1). Optionally, each half-cell reaction mixture may contain an oxidant, such as MX₂(M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X = H, F, Cl, Br, I) and LiX (X = H, Cl, Br). In one exemplary embodiment, the anode reaction mixture comprises KHMgTiC and the cathode reaction mixture comprises nahmgttic. In other exemplary embodiments, the battery comprises MgMgH₂TiC//NaHH₂、KHTiCMg//NaHTiC、KHTiCLi//NaHTiC、MgTiCH₂//NaHTiC、KHMgH₂TiCLi//KHMgTiCLiBr、KHMgTiC//KHMgTiCMX₂(MX₂Is an alkaline earth metal halide), NaHMgTiC// KHMgTiCMx₂Where// represents a salt bridge which may be a hydride. Hydrogen or hydride may be added to either cell compartment which may further contain a hydrogen dissociating agent (such as Pd or Pt/C).

The reactant for at least one half-cell may comprise a hydrogen storage material, such as a metal hydride, a species of the M-N-H system (e.g., LiNH)₂、Li₂NH or Li₃N), and an alkali metal hydride further comprising boron or aluminum, such as a borohydride or an aluminum hydride. Other suitable hydrogen storage materials are: metal hydrides, e.g. alkaline earth metal hydrides, e.g. MgH₂(ii) a Metal alloy hydrides, e.g. BaReH₉、LaNi₅H₆、FeTiH_1.7And MgNiH₄(ii) a Metal borohydrides, e.g. Be (BH)₄)₂、Mg(BH₄)₂、Ca(BH₄)₂、Zn(BH₄)₂、Sc(BH₄)₃、Ti(BH₄)₃、Mn(BH₄)₂、Zr(BH₄)₄、NaBH₄、LiBH₄、KBH₄And Al (BH)₄)₃；AlH₃、NaAlH₄、Na₃AlH₆、LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiH、LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆And TiFeH₂；NH₃BH₃(ii) a A polyaminoborane; amine borane complexes, e.g. amine boranes, borane ammonia compoundsHydrazine-borane complexes, diborane diamides, borazoles and ammonium octahydrotriborate or tetrahydroborate; imidazolium ionic liquids, such as alkyl (aryl) -3-methylimidazolium N-bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide salts; a phosphonium borate; and oxalate materials. Other exemplary compounds are ammonia borane, alkali metal ammonia borane (e.g., lithium ammonia borane) and borane alkyl amine complexes (e.g., borane dimethylamine complex, borane trimethylamine complex), and amino borane and borane amines (e.g., amino diborane, n-dimethylamino diborane, tris (dimethylamino) borane, di-n-butylborane, dimethylamino borane, trimethylamino borane, ammonia-trimethylborane, and triethylamino borane). Other suitable hydrogen storage materials are organic liquids that absorb hydrogen, such as carbazoles and derivatives, such as 9- (2-ethylhexyl) carbazole, 9-ethylcarbazole, 9-phenylcarbazole, 9-methylcarbazole and 4,4 '-bis (N-carbazolyl) -1,1' -biphenyl.

In one embodiment, the at least one battery further comprises an electrolyte. The electrolyte may comprise a molten hydride. The molten hydride can comprise a metal hydride, such as an alkali metal hydride or an alkaline earth metal hydride. The molten hydride may be dissolved in the salt. The salt can have a low melting point, e.g., a co-soluble salt in which the cation can be the same as the cation of the metal hydride. The salt may comprise a solution in a LiCl/KCl mixture or a solution such as LiF/MgF₂LiH in the mixture of (a). The salt may comprise one or more halides having the same cation as the cation of the catalyst, or a more stable compound than can be formed from the reaction of the catalyst with a halide of the salt (e.g., a mixture of LiH and LiCl/KCl). The eutectic salt may comprise an alkaline earth metal fluoride (e.g., MgF)₂) And fluorides of catalyst metals (e.g., alkali metal fluorides). The catalyst or catalyst source and the hydrogen source may comprise an alkali metal hydride, such as LiH, NaH or KH or BaH. Alternatively, the salt mixture comprises a mixed halide having the same alkali metal as the catalyst metal, since the halide-hydride exchange reaction with the catalyst hydride will not produce a net reaction. Suitable mixtures of mixed halides and catalyst hydrides are at least two of the following: KF. KCl, KBr and KI with KH and Li or Na replacing K. The salt is preferably a hydrogen anion An ion conductor. Other suitable molten salt electrolytes which, in addition to the halide, conduct hydride ions are hydroxides (e.g. KH-containing KOH or NaH-containing NaOH) and organometallic systems (e.g. NaH-containing NaAl (Et))₄). The cell may be made of metal (e.g., Al, stainless steel, Fe, Ni, Ta), or contain graphite, boron nitride, MgO, alumina, or quartz crucibles.

The electrolyte may comprise eutectic salts of two or more fluorides, for example at least two compounds of the group of alkali metal halides and alkaline earth metal halides. Exemplary salt mixtures include LiF-MgF₂、NaF-MgF₂、KF-MgF₂And NaF-CaF₂. An exemplary reaction mixture comprises NaHNaFMgF₂TiC、NaHNaFMgF₂MgTiC、KHKFMgF₂TiC、KHKFMgF₂MgTiC、NaHNaFCaF₂TiC、NaHNaFCaF₂MgTiC、KHNaFCaF₂TiC and KHNaFCaF₂MgTiC. Other suitable solvents are organic chloroaluminate molten salts and systems based on metal borohydrides and metal alanates. Other suitable electrolytes that can be molten mixtures (e.g., molten eutectic mixtures) are given in table 4.

Table 4. molten salt electrolyte.

The molten salt electrolyte of the exemplary salt mixture as given in table 4 is H^-An ion conductor. In embodiments, the present invention implies the use of H, such as an alkali metal hydride (e.g., LiH, NaH, or KH)^-Source addition to molten salt electrolyte to modify H^-Ion conductivity. In other embodiments, the molten electrolyte may be an alkali metal ion conductor or a proton conductor.

At one isIn an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a hydride H supported as a mobile counter-ion^-Wherein the counter ion balances the positive ion generated during the hydrino reaction by the catalyst ionization. The heat formation for KCl and LiCl was-436.50 kJ/mol and-408.60 kJ/mol, respectively. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a molten salt electrolyte, such as a mixture of alkali metal halide salts (e.g., KCl and LiCl). The mixture may be a co-solvent mixture. The cell temperature was maintained above the melting point of the salt. The reaction mixture further comprises a source of hydride, for example an alkali metal hydride, such as LiH, KH or NaH. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of: a carrier (e.g. TiC or C) and a reducing agent (e.g. an alkaline earth metal or hydride thereof, such as Mg or MgH)₂)。

The reaction mixture may comprise (1) a catalyst or a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen, such as one of LiH, NaH, KH, RbH, CsH, BaH, and at least one H, (2) a eutectic salt mixture that may act as an electrolyte, which may have high ionic conductivity and may selectively pass hydrogen anions, which comprises at least two cations from the group of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba and at least one halide from the group of F, Cl, Br, and I, (3) an electrically conductive support, such as a carbide, such as TiC, and (4) optionally a reducing agent and a hydride exchange reactant, such as an alkaline earth metal or an alkaline earth metal hydride.

Exemplary CIHT cells include (i) a reducing agent or source of reducing agent, such as an element or compound comprising an element from the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, calcium, carbon (graphite), cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, osmium, palladium, phosphorus, platinum, potassium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, rhenium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfur, tantalum, technetium, terbium, thulium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium; (ii) an electrolyte, such as one of the electrolytes given in table 4, (iii) an oxidant, such as a compound given in table 4, (iv) a conductive electrode,for example, metals, metal carbides (e.g., TiC), metal borides (e.g., TiB)₂And MgB₂) Metal nitrides (such as titanium nitride), and those elements or materials comprising the elements in the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, calcium, carbon (graphite), cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, osmium, palladium, phosphorus, platinum, potassium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, rhenium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfur, tantalum, technetium, terbium, thulium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium. The metals may be from the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, bismuth, cadmium, calcium, cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, osmium, palladium, platinum, potassium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, rhenium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, tantalum, technetium, tellurium, terbium, thulium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium, and (v) a hydrogen or hydrogen source (e.g., a hydride, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride) and a catalyst source or catalyst source (e.g., Li, NaH, K, Rb) and (ii) a catalyst source or catalyst source (e.g., a hydride, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride) ⁺Cs and at least one H). In one embodiment, the battery further comprises a system for regenerating the reactants or battery chemicals to species and concentrations that restore the battery to the following states: the reaction to form the hydrino reactant and subsequent hydrino proceeds at a faster rate than before regeneration. In one embodiment, the regeneration system comprises an electrolysis system. In one embodiment, the electrodes do not suffer significant corrosion during regeneration. For example, the electrolytic anode does not suffer from significant oxidation. In one embodiment, the electrolyte contains a hydride, such as MH (M is an alkali metal) or MH₂(M is an alkaline earth metal), wherein the hydride is oxidized during electrolysis. In one embodiment, the electrolysis voltage is lower than the voltage at which the electrolysis is anodized. Relative to Li⁺The voltage suitable for the/Li reference electrode, Cu, Fe or Ni electrolysis anode is below 1.5V. In another embodiment, a battery includes battery components, reactants, and systems to maintain formation of hydrinosReactants and subsequent hydrino conditions. In one embodiment, a metal hydride, such as LiH, is electrolyzed to regenerate the corresponding metal, such as Li, and hydrogen. Regenerated metal can form in the half-cell compartment containing the salt bridge, confining the metal such as Li to the half-cell. Alternatively, the electrolytic cathode (CIHT cell anode) may comprise a metal that forms an alloy with the electrolytic metal. For example, during electrolytic regeneration, Li may form alloys, such as Li ₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiSn, LiBi, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiZn, LiSb and LiPb.

Each cell contains reactants that form hydrinos by transporting electrons through an external circuit and transporting ions through an electrolyte or salt bridge. The hydrino reactant comprises at least atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen and a catalyst or a source of catalyst, e.g. Li, NaH, K, Rb⁺Cs and at least one H. A specific exemplary cell is [ LiAl/LiCl-LiClLiCH/Ni (H)₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH/Ni(H₂)]、[Li/LiOHLi₂SO₄/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/LiCl-KClLiH/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/LiCl-LiF/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/NaCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/NaCl-NaF/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/NaBr-NaI/Nb(H₂)]、[Na/NaBr-NaI/Fe(H₂)]、[Na/NaI-NaNO₃/Nb(H₂)]、[K/LiCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[K/LiCl-LiF/Nb(H₂)]、[K/NaCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]And [ K/KCl-KF/Nb (H)₂)]. Other exemplary cells are [ Pt/C (H)₂)/HCl-LiCl-KCl/CB]、[Pt/C(H₂)/HCl-LiCl-KCl/Pt/Ti]、[R-Ni/CelgardLP30/CoO(OH)]、[Mg/CelgardLP30/CoO(OH)][ PdLi alloy/CelgardLP 30/hydride (e.g., ZrH)₂)]And [ PdLi alloy/LiCl-KCl/hydride (e.g. ZrH)₂)]And [ PtC (H)₂)/LiNO₃/HNO₃Intercalated Carbon Graphite (CG) aqueous solution]。

Other exemplary cells include a hydrogen source, such as H₂Or hydrides and components of the group: [ LiAl/LiCl-KCl/Al]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Al]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/Al]、[LiSi/LiCl-KCl/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiCl-KCl/Al]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl/Al]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/Al]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Al]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl/Al]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/Al]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/LiSi]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl/LiSi]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/LiSi]、[LiC/LiCl-KCl/LiAl]、[LiC/LiCl-KCl/Al]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/LiAl]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/Al]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/LiAl]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/Al]、[LiC/LiCl-KCl/LiSi]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/LiSi]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBr/LiSi]、[BiNa/NaCl-NaF/Bi]、[Na/NaF-NaCl-NaI/NaBi]、[BiK/KCl-KF/Bi]、[BiNa/NaCl-NaFNaH(0.02mol%)/Bi]、[Na/NaF-NaCl-NaINaH(0.02mol%)/NaBi]、[BiK/KCl-KFKH(0.02mol%)/Bi]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiAl/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiSi/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiSi/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiSi/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiPb/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiPb/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiPb/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]、[LiPb/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]、[LiPb/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]、[LiC/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiC/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/LiAl]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/Al]、[LiC/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl-LiBrLiH(0.02mol%)/LiSi]And [ K/KHKOH/K-containing graphite]A graphite solvent (e.g., eutectic salt) solution of [ K/K-beta-alumina/KH]Graphite solvent (such as eutectic salt) solution of [ K/K-glass/KH]And [ Na/NaHNaOH/Na-containing graphite]A solution of [ Na/Na-beta-alumina/NaH in a graphite solvent (e.g., a eutectic salt)]A solution of [ Na/Na-glass/NaH in a graphite solvent (e.g. a eutectic salt)]、[Na/NaHNaAlEt₄Na-containing graphite][ Li/LiHLiOH/Li-containing graphite]Graphite solvent (e.g., eutectic salt) solution of [ Li/Li-beta-alumina/LiH ]、[Graphite solvent (e.g. eutectic salt) solution of Li/Li-glass/LiH]、[Na/NaHNaAlEt₄/NaNH₂]、[Na/NaHNaOH/NaNH₂][ Na/Na-beta alumina/NaNH ]₂][ Na/Na-glass/NaNH ]₂]、[K/KHKOH/KNH₂][ K/K-beta-alumina/KNH ]₂]And [ K/K-glass/KNH₂]. Other batteries contain (i) Li₃At least one electrode of the group of Mg, LiAl, Al, LiSi, Si, LiC, C, LiPb, Pb, LiTe, Te, LiCd, Cd, LiBi, Bi, LiPd, Pd, LiSn, Sn, Sb, LiSb, LiZn, Zn, Ni, Ti and Fe, (ii) a co-solvent electrolyte comprising a mixture of at least two of LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI and KCl, and (iii) a hydrogen source, such as H₂Gases or hydrides, such as LiH, with suitable LiH concentrations of about 0.001 to 0.1 mole percent. In the presence of metal amides (e.g. NaNH)₂Or LiNH₂) Or metal imides (e.g. Li)₂NH), the system may be applied to NH of a half cell₃The gas is closed to maintain equilibrium with the corresponding metal and amide.

Other exemplary cells may contain carriers that can support atoms H, where the consumed atoms H are replaced by adding H to a cell such as: [ LiAl/LiCl-LiLiLiLiLiLiFeH (0.2mol%)/NbC ]; [ Li/LiCl-LiLiLiLiLiLiF (0.2mol%)/NbC ], [ Li/LiCl-LiF/NbC ], [ LiAl/LiCl-KClLiH (0.2mol%)/NbC ]; [ Li/LiCl-KClLiH (0.2mol%)/NbC ], [ Li/LiCl-KCl/NbC ], [ LiAl/LiCl-LiLiLiLiLiFeLiH (0.2mol%)/TiC ]; [ Li/LiCl-LiLiLiLiLiLiLiF (0.2mol%)/TiC ], [ Li/LiCl-LiF/TiC ], [ LiAl/LiCl-KClLiH (0.2mol%)/TiC ]; [ Li/LiCl-KClLiH (0.2mol%)/TiC ] and [ Li/LiCl-KCl/NbC ].

The battery further includes current collectors for the anode and cathode, where the current collectors may comprise a solid foil or mesh material. Suitable uncoated current collector materials for the anode half-cell may be selected from the group of stainless steel, Ni-Cr alloys, Al, Ti, Cu, Pb and Pb alloys, refractory metals and precious metals. Suitable uncoated current collector materials for the cathode half-cell may be selected from stainless steel, Ni-Cr alloys, Ti, Pb oxides (PbO)_x) And noble metals. Alternatively, the current collector may comprise a suitable metal foil, such as Al, which has the property of not corrodingBut will protect the thin passivation layer of the foil on which it is deposited. Exemplary erosion resistant layers that can be used in either half cell are TiN, CrN, C, CN, NiZr, NiCr, Mo, Ti, Ta, Pt, Pd, Zr, W, FeN, and CoN. In one embodiment, the cathode current collector comprises an Al foil coated with TiN, FeN, C, CN. The coating may be achieved by any method known in the art. Exemplary methods are physical vapor deposition (e.g., sputtering), chemical vapor deposition, electrodeposition, spray deposition, and lamination.

Such as a catalyst, a source of catalyst, or a source of H (e.g., Li)⁺、Li、LiH、H⁺Or H^-) The chemical potential or activity of the species can be changed by changing the electrode or electrolyte, adding hydride or H ₂To cause hydrogenation and to add other chemicals that interact with the species. For example, the cathode may be a metal or metal hydride, such as titanium hydride or niobium hydride, which may be resistant to deactivation by excessive Li or LiH activity. In another embodiment where LiH in the electrolyte lowers the voltage, the cathode is a metal hydride that is more stable than LiH. LiH present in the electrolyte can react with the corresponding metal to reform hydride and Li. An exemplary hydride is lanthanum hydride. An exemplary battery is [ Li/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂Or LaH_2-x]. Other suitable hydrides are rare earth metal hydrides (e.g., hydrides of La, Ce, Eu and Gd), yttrium hydride and zirconium hydride. Other suitable exemplary hydrides exhibiting high electrical conductivity are CeH₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂One or more of the group (b). In one embodiment, the surface area of at least one of the hydride and the corresponding metal is increased to cause a faster reaction rate during operation of the cell. Hydrogen may be added to one or more of the cathode or anode compartments. The addition may be in the form of hydrogen gas, or hydrogen may be transported through the membrane. The film may comprise a metal of hydride. For example, a rare earth metal tube (e.g., a lanthanum tube) may constitute the cathode, wherein the tube is sealed such that H ₂Can only be supplied by seeping through the tube. Lanthanum hydride is formed on the surface in contact with the electrolyte.

The metal hydride comprising at least one of the cathode reactant and the anode reactant is preferably an electrical conductor. Exemplary conductive hydrides are titanium hydride and lanthanum hydride. Other suitable conductive hydrides are TiH₂、VH、VH_1.6、LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2、CrH、CrH₂、NiH、CuH、YH₂、YH₃、ZrH₂、NbH、NbH₂、PdH_0.7、LaH₂、LaH₃TaH, lanthanide hydrides: MH₂(fluorite) M = Ce, Pr, Nb, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Lu; MH₃(cube) M = Ce, Pr, Nd, Yb; MH₃(hexagonal) M = Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Lu; hydride of actinide: MH₂(fluorite) M = Th, Np, Pu, Am; MH₃(hexagonal) M = Np, Pu, Am and MH₃(cubic, complex structure) M = Pa, U. In one embodiment, the battery anode reactant comprises a source of Li and the cathode reactant comprises a conductive hydride that is about as thermally stable or more stable than LiH. The half-cell reactants may further comprise any kind of support or electrically conductive support, for example carbides (such as TiC), borides (such as TiB)₂Or MgB₂) Carbon or other support (e.g., TiCN). Suitable exemplary lithium sources are Li metal, lithium alloys or lithium compounds.

An exemplary battery is [ Li/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/EuH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/GdH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/YH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/YH₃]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/EuH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/GdH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/YH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/YH₃TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂TiC]And [ Li/molten alkali metal carbonate electrolyte/hydride (e.g. ZrH) ₂、TiH₂、CeH₂Or LaH₂)]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/EuH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/GdH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/YH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/YH₃]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂TiC]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂TiC]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/EuH₂TiC]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/GdH₂TiC]And [ MLi/LiCl-KCl/YH₂TiC]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/YH₃TiC]、[MLi/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂TiC](M is one or more elements (e.g., metals) that form alloys or compounds with Li and act as a source of Li). A suitable exemplary alloy MLi is Li₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe (e.g. Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (e.g., oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides), and mixed metal-Li alloys. A suitable exemplary compound MLi is LiNH₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、Li₂S、Li₂Te、Li₂Se, lithium intercalated carbon and lithium intercalated chalcogenide.

The electrolyte can provide advantageous activity to the catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Li or LiH) that prevents the deactivation of the hydrino reaction, where deactivation can be caused by excessive activity of the catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Li or LiH). In one embodiment, the ratio of two or more salts of the mixture may be varied to reduce the activity of the first hydride (e.g., LiH). Alternatively, another metal or a compound of another metal may be added which forms a second hydride to reduce the activity of the first hydride. For example, an alkali metal such as K or a salt thereof (e.g., an alkali metal halide such as KCl, which has a corresponding second hydride with a lower thermal decomposition temperature such as KH) may be added to shift the equilibrium from the first hydride to the second hydride. The second hydride may thermally decompose to release hydrogen. The hydrogen may be recycled by suction. In another embodiment, a hydroxide of the same or another metal, such as LiOH or KOH, may be added, which may catalyze the elimination of the first hydride (e.g., LiH). An exemplary reaction is

LiH+K→Li+KH→K+1/2H₂(234)

LiH + KOH → LiOH + KH (-30.1 KJ/mol) → K +1/2H₂(235)

K + LiOH → KOH + Li (+62.9 KJ/mol) (236)

In another embodiment, the cell temperature may be varied to change the activity of a species such as a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Li or LiH) to control the hydrino reaction and cell power. The temperature may be controlled such that one electrode is at a higher temperature than the other. For example, the cathode may be selectively heated to increase its temperature relative to the anode, thereby advantageously affecting the activity of species such as Li or LiH to propagate the hydrino reaction at a high rate.

In one embodiment, the activity of a catalyst or catalyst source, such as Li or LiH, may be controlled by using a cathode that forms an alloy or compound with the catalyst or catalyst source. For example, the cathode may comprise Sn or Sb alloyed with Li. The anode can be a source of Li, such as Li, or a different alloy (e.g., LiAl) with a higher oxidation potential than the cathode. An exemplary battery is Li/LiCl-KClLiH/LiSn.

In one embodiment, the activity of the species to be limited (e.g., LiH) decreases with temperature, and its activity is lower by lowering the temperature of the electrolyte. This lower activity may result from the solubility of species in the co-dissolved salt decreasing with temperature. The salt may be maintained at about its melting point. In one embodiment, the species whose activity is to be controlled is a metal such as Li, and its activity is reduced by reacting it with hydrogen to form a hydride (e.g., LiH) that has limited solubility and precipitates from the electrolyte. Thus, metals such as Li can be partially removed by hydrogen sparging. The reaction can be reversed by electrolysis to regenerate the metal (e.g., Li) and hydrogen. The activity of metals such as Li can be enhanced by selecting metals with lower Li solubility (e.g., co-solvent) Electrolyte LiF — LiCl compared to LiCl-KCl). In one embodiment, the cathode is preferably vanadium and iron, and the anode may be an open Li metal anode. The hydrogen pressure may be higher to reduce the Li concentration. The cathode may have H applied₂Or hydrogenated, followed by contact with Li dissolved in the electrolyte. Excess Li can be converted to LiH by reaction with hydrogen supplied to the cell.

In one embodiment, the activity of a species such as a metal or hydride is controlled by using a metal or hydride buffer system. In embodiments where the metal is Li, the hydride is LiH and at least one of the metal activity or the hydride activity is controlled by a buffer comprising at least one of an amide, an imide, or a nitride. The reaction mixture may contain Li, LiH, LiNH of controlled activity₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N、H₂And NH₃One or more of the group (b). The system may comprise a mixture of: metals, such as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, such as Li, Na and K; simple substances or compounds which react with Li or form compounds, e.g. boron, Mg, Ca, aluminium, Bi, Sn, Sb, Si, S, Pb, Pd, Cd, Pd, Zn, Ga, In, Se and Te, LiBH₄And LiAlH₄(ii) a Hydrides, e.g. alkali metal hydrides and alkaline earth metal hydrides, e.g. LiH, NaH, KH and MgH ₂(ii) a Amides, imides, and nitrides; or comprises at least one of the following: amides, imines, or nitrides of another metal, e.g. NaNH₂、KNH₂、Mg(NH₂)₂、Mg₃N₂(ii) a And an element that reacts with Li to form a Li metal-metalloid alloy (such as oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides) or a mixed metal-Li alloy. The system may further comprise LiAlH₄And Li₃AlH₆Or similar hydrides, such as Na and K aluminum hydrides and alkali metal borohydrides. An exemplary suitable hydride is LiAlH₄、LiBH₄、Al(BH₄)₃、LiAlH₂(BH₄)₂、Mg(AlH₄)₂、Mg(BH₄)₂、Ca(AlH₄)₂、Ca(BH₄)₂、NaAlH₄、NaBH₄、Ti(BH₄)₃、Ti(AlH₄)₄、Zr(BH₄)₃And Fe (BH)₄)₃. The reaction mixture may contain a mixture of hydrides to control activity. An exemplary mixture is LiH with another alkali metal hydride, such as NaH or KH. The mixture may comprise an alkaline earth metal or a hydride. An exemplary hybrid hydride is LiMgH₃、NaMgH₃And KMgH₃. The reaction may comprise reactants and species (e.g., to form a hydride (e.g., LiBH)₄) The reactant of (a), wherein the reactant can be boron. The activity may be controlled by controlling at least one of the temperature and pressure of the cell. In one embodiment, the cell is operated at a temperature and pressure where the activity is controlled by controlling the mole percentage of hydride relative to metal. The decomposition temperature and pressure of the hydride can be varied by using a hybrid hydride. The activity can be controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure. The hydrogen pressure in the electrolyte, any half-cell compartment, and any permeable membrane source or other cell components can be controlled. An exemplary battery is [ LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH ] ₂/Ti]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH₂/Nb]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH₂/Fe]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₂NH/Ti]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₂NH/Nb]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₂NH/Fe]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₃N/Ti]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₃N/Nb]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLi₃N/Fe]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH₂Li₂NH/Ti]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH₂Li₂NH/Nb]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClLiHLiNH₂Li₂NH/Fe]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClMgH₂LiHLiNH₂/Ti]、[LiAl/LiCl-KClMgH₂LiHLiNH₂/Nb]And [ LiAl/LiCl-KClMgH ]₂LiHLiNH₂/Fe]. The cathode may comprise a metal, element, alloy or compound that forms an alloy with Li. The cathode may be a source of hydrogen by permeation. The cathode reactant may comprise a metal, element, alloy or compound that forms an alloy with Li. The reactants may comprise powders. Exemplary cathode reactants are powders of Al, Pb, Si, Bi, Sb, Sn, C, and B that can be alloyed with Li. At one endIn one embodiment, the at least one source of H may be a metal hydride, which is soluble in the electrolyte and may be a species whose activity needs to be controlled. The hydride may be LiH, which may react with the cathode or cathode reactant to form an alloy, and may also liberate H at the cathode or cathode reactant.

In addition to adding amides, imines, and nitrides to the electrolyte, the activity of the reactants or species may also be altered by: at least one compound from the group of phosphides, borides, oxides, hydroxides, silicides, nitrides, arsenides, selenides, tellurides, antimonides, carbides, sulfides and hydrides is added. In one embodiment, the activity of a species such as Li or LiH or other catalyst source or catalyst (e.g., K, KH, Na, NaH) is controlled by using a buffer containing anions that can bind to the species. The buffer may comprise a counter ion. The counter ion may be at least one of the following group: halide, oxide, phosphate, boron, hydroxide, silicon, nitrogen, arsenic, selenium, tellurium, antimony, carbon, sulfide, hydrogen, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, permanganate, chlorate, perchlorate, chlorite, perchlorate (perchlorate), hypochlorite, bromate, perbromate, bromite, perbromite, iodate, periodate (periodate), chromate, dichromate, tellurate, selenate, arsenate, silicate, borate, cobalt oxide, tellurium oxide and other oxyanions, such as the following oxyanions: halogen, P, B, Si, N, As, S, Te, Sb, C, S, P, Mn, Cr, Co and Te. At least one of the CIHT half-cell compartments may contain a compound for a counter ion, the cell may include a salt bridge, and the salt bridge may be selective for the counter ion.

In the case where a species such as LiH inhibits the hydrino reaction, its activity can be reduced by using a component of the reaction mixture that reduces its activity (e.g., a carrier). The activity may be reduced by one or more of a variety of actions. Which can be removed by reactions that consume the species. For example, the carbon support may intercalate Li to consume one or more of Li or LiH forming the intercalation compound. Species may be physically or thermodynamically driven out of the hydrino reactant. For example, Li or LiH may be distributed in the electrolyte relative to the support (e.g., carbon or carbide) because solubility in the electrolyte is more favorable than adsorption, intercalation, or presence in the support. In one exemplary embodiment, LiH may not readily intercalate or adsorb on carbon, such that it is not present to inhibit the hydrino reaction.

Alternatively, the salt bridge may be selective for the cation of the counterion, which may be a source of species such as a catalyst. Li⁺、Na⁺And K⁺Suitable salt bridges, i.e. sources of the catalysts Li, NaH and K, respectively, are with Li, respectively⁺、Na⁺And K⁺Composite beta alumina. Li⁺The salt bridge or solid electrolyte may be a halide-stabilized LiBH ₄(e.g., LiBH₄-LiX (X = halide)), Li⁺Injected Al₂O₃(Li, beta-alumina) based on Li₂Glass of S, Li_0.29+dLa_0.57TiO₃(d =0 to 0.14), La_0.51Li_0.34TiO_2.94、Li₉AlSiO₈、Li₁₄ZnGe₄O₁₆(LISICON)、Li_xM_1-yM'_yS₄(M = Si, Ge and M' ═ P, Al, Zn, Ga, Sb) (mercapto-LISICON), Li_2.68PO_3.73N_0.14(LIPON)、Li₅La₃Ta₂O₁₂、Li_1.3Al_0.3Ti_1.7(PO₄)₃、LiM₂(PO₄)₃、M^IVGe, Ti, Hf, Zr and Li_1+xTi₂(PO₄)₃(0≤x≤2)LiNbO₃Lithium silicate, lithium aluminate, lithium aluminosilicate, solid polymers or gels, Silica (SiO)₂) Alumina (Al)₂O₃) Lithium oxide (Li)₂O)、Li₃N、Li₃P, gallium oxide (Ga)₂O₃) Phosphorus oxide (P)₂O₅) Silica alumina and solid solutions thereof, and others known in the art. An exemplary battery is [ Li/Li solid electrolyte/R-Ni]. Conductivity can be measured using, for example, Li₃PO₄Or Li₃BO₃And Li salts. Li glass can also serve as Li⁺Salt bridges. For example, using 1MLiPF₆1:1 dimethyl carbonate (DMC)/Ethylene Carbonate (EC) solution (also known as LP30) or 1MLiPF of electrolyte₆Whatman GF/D borosilicate glass-fiber sheets impregnated with a 1:1 diethyl carbonate (DEC)/Ethylene Carbonate (EC) solution (also known as LP40) can serve as a separator/electrolyte. Halide stabilized LiBH₄Can act as fast Li even at room temperature⁺An ion conductor. The halide may be LiF, LiCl, LiBr or LiI. The separator may be a film, such as a single or multiple layer of polyolefin or aramid. The film may provide a barrier between the anode and cathode and may further enable the exchange of lithium ions from one side of the cell to the other. Suitable membrane separators are polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE) or triple layer (PP/PE/PP) electrolyte membranes. A specific exemplary membrane is a Celgard2400 polypropylene membrane (Charlotte, NC) with a thickness of 25 μm and a porosity of 0.37. The electrolyte can be 1MLiPF ₆1:1 dimethyl carbonate (DMC)/Ethylene Carbonate (EC) solution of electrolyte. Another suitable separator/electrolyte is Celgard2300 and 1MLiPF₆30:5:35:30v/vEC-PC-EMC-DEC solvent solution of electrolyte. Other suitable solvents and electrolytes are lithium-chelated borate anionic electrolytes, such as lithium [ bis (oxalato) borate]Dioxane, tetrahydrofuran derivatives, Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), Dimethoxyethane (DME), 1, 4-Benzodioxan (BDO), Tetrahydrofuran (THF), and lithium perchlorate in a solution of dioxolane (e.g., 1, 3-dioxolane). Other solvents known to those skilled in the art to be suitable for operating Li-based anodes are suitable. These solvents range from organic (e.g., propylene carbonate) to inorganic (e.g., thionyl chloride and sulfur dioxide) and typically have polar groups such as at least one of carbonyl, nitrile, sulfonyl, and ether groups. The solvent may further comprise additives to increase the stability of the solvent or to increase the extent and rate of the hydrino reactionAnd (4) at least one item.

In embodiments, organic carbonates and esters may constitute the electrolyte solvent. Suitable solvents are Ethylene Carbonate (EC), Propylene Carbonate (PC), Butylene Carbonate (BC), gamma-butyrolactone (γ BL), -Valerolactone (VL), N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMO), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), methylethyl carbonate (EMC), Ethyl Acetate (EA), Methyl Butyrate (MB) and Ethyl Butyrate (EB). In embodiments, the organic ether may constitute an electrolyte solvent. Suitable solvents are Dimethoxymethane (DMM), 1, 2-Dimethoxyethane (DME), 1, 2-Diethoxyethane (DEE), Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran (2-Me-THF), 1, 3-dioxolane (1,3-DL), 4-methyl-1, 3-dioxolane (4-Me-1,3-DL), 2-methyl-1, 3-dioxolane (2-Me-1, 3-DL). The lithium salt may constitute an electrolyte solute. A suitable solute is lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF) ₄) Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF)₆) Lithium hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF)₆) Lithium perchlorate (LiClO)₄) Lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Li)⁺CF₃SO₃ ^-) Lithium imide (Li)⁺[N(SO₂CF₃)₂]^-) And lithium bis (perfluoroethanesulfonyl) imide (lithium) (Li)⁺[N(SO₂CF₂CF₃)₂]^-). In embodiments, performance enhancing additives such as 12-crown-4, 15-crown-5, aza ethers, borates, boranes, and hydrocarbyl borates are added for overall performance. In embodiments, the electrolyte may further comprise an anode Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) additive, such as CO₂、SO₂12-crown-4, 18-crown-6, Catechol Carbonate (CC), Vinylene Carbonate (VC), vinyl sulfite (ES), alpha-bromo-gamma-butyrolactone, methyl chloroformate, 2-acetoxy-4, 4-dimethyl-4-butyrolactone, succinimide, N-benzyloxycarbonyloxy succinimide and methyl cinnamate. In embodiments, the electrolyte may further comprise a cathode surface layer additive, such as I^-/I₂N-butylferrocene, 1' -dimethylferrocene, ferrocene derivatives, salts such as Na salts of 1,2, 4-triazole, salts such as Na salts of imidazole, 1,2, 5-tricyanoBenzene (TCB), Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), substituted benzenes, pyrocarbonates, and cyclohexylbenzene. In embodiments, the electrolyte may further comprise novel non-aqueous solvents such as cyclic carbonates, γ BL, linear esters, fluorinated carbonates, fluorinated carbamates, fluorinated ethers, glycol Borates (BEG), sulfones, and sulfonamides. In embodiments, the electrolyte may further comprise novel lithium salts, such as aromatic lithium borates, non-aromatic lithium borates, chelated lithium phosphates, LiFAP, lithium azoate (Liazolate), and lithium imidazolide (Liimidazolide). In one embodiment, the fractional hydrogen product, such as molecular hydrino, is soluble in a solvent such as DMF. An exemplary battery is [ Li/comprising at least some DMFLiPF ₆Solvent of/CoO (OH)]。

Can be applied to a catalyst, a catalyst source or a H source (such as Li)⁺、Li、LiH、H⁺Or H^-) The chemical potential or activity of the species is adjusted to promote at least one of an electrochemical reaction, electron transport, and ion transport that forms the hydrino reactant and hydrino. The modulation may be an external potential change caused by at least one internal reactant or species present within the conducting chamber that is in contact with an external reactant of the at least one half cell. The conductive chamber may be an electrode of a battery, such as a cathode or an anode. The internal reactant or species may be a hydride, for example: alkali metal hydrides such as KH; alkaline earth metal hydrides, e.g. MgH₂(ii) a Transition metal hydrides, e.g. TiH₂(ii) a Hydrides of internal transition elements, e.g. NbH₂(ii) a Or noble metal hydrides, such as hydrides of Pd or Pt. The conductive chamber containing the cathode or anode can contain a metal hydride. The internal reactant or species may be a metal, for example: alkali metals, such as K; alkaline earth metals, such as Mg or Ca; transition metals, such as Ti or V; internal transition element metals, such as Nb; noble metals, such as Pt or Pd, Ag; a compound or a metalloid. Exemplary compounds are metal halides, oxides, phosphides, borides, hydroxides, silicides, nitrides, arsenides, selenides, tellurides, antimonides, carbides, sulfides, hydrides, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, bisulfates, phosphates, phosphorus Hydrogen acid salts, dihydrogen phosphate salts, nitrate salts, nitrite salts, permanganate salts, chlorate salts, perchlorate salts, chlorite salts, perchlorate salts, hypochlorite salts, bromate salts, perbromate salts, iodate salts, periodate salts, chromate salts, dichromate salts, tellurate salts, selenate salts, arsenate salts, silicate salts, borate esters, cobalt oxide, tellurium oxide, and with other oxyanions, such As oxyanions of halogens, P, B, Si, N, As, S, Sb, C, S, P, Mn, Cr, Co, and Te. The internal reactant or species may be at least one of: metals, such as In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, or Hg; compounds such as hydroxides or nitrates; simple substances such as P, S and I; metalloids, such As Se, Bi and As, which may be liquid at cell temperature. The molten metal may provide electrical contact with the chamber. Other conductors may be associated with internal reactants or species (e.g., metal powder or matrix, molten metal, carbides (e.g., TiC), borides (e.g., MgB)₂) Or carbon (e.g., carbon black) in combination: . An exemplary cell is [ Li clock (bell)/LiF-LiCl/Fe (Pd) (H)₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Fe(Pd)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ni (Pd)) (H ₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ni(Pd)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ni (Cd)) (H₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ni(Cd)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ni (Se)) (H₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ni(Se)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ti (Pd)) (H₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ti(Pd)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ti (Cd) ((H))₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ti(Cd)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ti (Se) ((H))₂)]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ti(Se)(H₂)]And [ Li clock/LiF-LiCl/Ti (TiCbi)) (H₂)]And [ LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Ti (TiCbi)) (H₂)]Where () represents inside a tube or chamber.

The conductive chamber containing the anode can contain a metal. In one embodiment, the potential of the internal hydride (e.g., at least one of KH, TiH, and NbH) within the cathode is matched to the Li activity of LiH at 8mol% saturation to allow the hydrino reaction. The potential of the internal hydride can be controlled by controlling the degree of hydrogenation. The latter can be controlled by controlling the hydrogen appliedIs controlled by the pressure of the pressure. In addition, the chemical potential or activity of the external species can be adjusted to a desired value by the selection of metals or other conductive materials containing internal reactants or species. The desired potential or activity achieves a high rate of fractional hydrogen reaction. In one embodiment, the desired potential corresponds to a theoretical cell voltage of about zero based on chemistry that does not include hydrino formation. The range of about zero may be within 1V. The metal or conductive material may be selected from the group: metals, metal carbides (e.g. TiC), metal borides (e.g. TiB) ₂And MgB₂) Metal nitrides (such as titanium nitride) and those elements or materials comprising elements from the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, calcium, carbon (graphite), cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, osmium, palladium, phosphorus, platinum, potassium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, rhenium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfur, tantalum, technetium, terbium, thulium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium. The metals may be from the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, bismuth, cadmium, calcium, cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, osmium, palladium, platinum, potassium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, rhenium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, selenium, silicon, silver, sodium, strontium, tantalum, technetium, tellurium, terbium, thulium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium. In one embodiment, the hydride in the conductive compartment (e.g., hollow H-permeable cathode or anode) diffuses through the wall into the half-cell or electrolyte. The hydride may be regenerated by pumping unreacted hydrogen into the compartment. Alternatively, the chamber may be cooled or naturally cooled to allow the hydride to form spontaneously. Hydrogen can be flowed through the gas line to an internal reactant or species (e.g., the corresponding metal), i.e., from at least one half-cell compartment through a valve into the conduction chamber where it is reacted to regenerate the hydride.

The electrolyte may additionally contain a metal or hydride, e.g. an alkali metal or alkaline earth metalOr a hydride. Suitable alkaline earth metals and hydrides are Mg and MgH, respectively₂. At least one of the electrodes may comprise a carrier, such as TiC, YC₂、Ti₃SiC₂And WC, and the half-cell may further comprise a catalyst (e.g., K, NaH) or may be from Li⁺Mobile Li, reducing agent (such as Mg or Ca), carrier (such as TiC, YC)₂、Ti₃SiC₂Or WC), oxidizing agents (e.g. LiCl, SrBr)₂、SrCl₂Or BaCl₂) And a source of H (e.g. hydride, such as R-Ni, TiH)₂、MgH₂NaH, KH or LiH). Hydrogen can permeate through the walls of the half cell compartment to form a catalyst or serve as a source of H. The source of permeate H can be from H^-And (4) oxidizing.

In one embodiment, Mg²⁺Acting as a catalyst for the reaction given in table 1. Mg (magnesium)²⁺The source may be a cathode or anode reactant or an electrolyte. The electrolyte may be a molten salt, for example a hydrogen anion conductor, such as a eutectic mixture comprising at least one magnesium salt (e.g. a halide, such as an iodide). The electrolyte may be an aqueous solution, such as an aqueous solution of magnesium halide or other soluble magnesium salt. An exemplary battery is [ Li ]₃Mg/MgI₂Or MgX₂-MX 'or MX'₂(X, X' ═ halide, M = alkali or alkaline earth metal)/CeH₂、TiH₂Or LaH₂]And [ R-Ni, LaNi ]₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2At least one magnesium salt (e.g. MgI) ₂、MgSO₄And Mg (NO)₃)₂) And MOH (M = alkali metal)/carbon (e.g. CB, PtC, pdcs)]。

In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, a bulk catalyst such as Mg, Ca or Mg is combined with a support, or C is combined with a support, (where a suitable support is selected from TiC, Ti₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、B₄C. SiC and YC₂) Comprising the reducing agent of the anode compartment. The electrolyte may comprise a hydrogen-conducting anionSalts of ions (e.g., co-solvent mixtures). The cathode compartment may comprise a hydrogen permeable membrane and the anode compartment optionally comprises a hydrogen permeable membrane. Hydrogen may be supplied to the cathode compartment such that it permeates the membrane and forms a hydride which migrates through the electrolyte into the anode compartment where it may be oxidized to H. H can diffuse through the anodic membrane and react with the bulk catalyst to form hydrinos. In another embodiment of a CIHT cell, the alkali metal or alkali metal hydride comprises a catalyst or catalyst source, and the anode reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of: reducing agents, for example alkaline earth metals, such as Mg or Ca; support, wherein suitable support is selected from TiC, Ti₃SiC₂、WC、TiCN、MgB₂、B₄C. SiC and YC₂. The reaction mixture may comprise the reducing agent of the anode compartment. The electrolyte may comprise a hydride-conducting salt (e.g., a co-solvent mixture). In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprises a molten alkali metal hydroxide, such as KOH, that conducts hydride ions. The cathode compartment may comprise a hydrogen permeable membrane and the anode compartment optionally comprises a hydrogen permeable membrane. Hydrogen may be supplied to the cathode compartment such that it permeates the membrane and forms a hydride which migrates through the electrolyte into the anode compartment where it may be oxidized to H. H can diffuse through the anodic membrane and react with the catalyst to form hydrinos. Alternatively, the H may be reacted with a catalyst formed or present in the cathode or anode membrane or electrolyte.

In one embodiment, the salt bridge comprises a solid that is highly conductive to hydrogen anions. Salt bridges may also serve as electrolytes. At least one of the salt bridge and the electrolyte may comprise a mixture of: hydrides, e.g. of alkali or alkaline earth metals, e.g. MgH₂Or CaH₂(ii) a Halides, for example alkali or alkaline earth halides, such as LiF; and matrix materials, e.g. Al₂O₃And (3) pulverizing. The mixture may be sintered, wherein the sintering may be in H₂And (3) performing in an atmosphere. Alternatively, the salt bridge may be a liquid and the electrolyte optionally a liquid, such as a molten salt, wherein at least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactants is insoluble in the salt bridge or the electrolyte. Of molten hydride conductor salt bridgesAn example is LiCl/KCl eutectic molten salt containing LiH. Exemplary hydrino reactants are a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen (e.g., NaH or KH), a support (e.g., TiC, C, Pd/C, and Pt/C), and an alkaline earth metal hydride (e.g., MgH)₂) Or other thermally regenerating hydrides (e.g. LiH, MBH)₄And MALH₄(M = at least one of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs). The half-cell compartments may be separated and connected by an electrically insulating separator. The separator may also serve as a carrier for the salt bridge. The salt bridge may comprise a molten salt carried by the separator. The separator may be MgO or BN fiber. The latter may be woven or non-woven felt. In one embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source and the hydrogen source (e.g., NaH or KH) are substantially insoluble in the salt bridges. Each half-cell reaction mixture may be extruded into a plaque (paste) and attached to the current collectors of the anode and cathode. The plaque may be secured by at least one perforated sheet (e.g., a metal plate). Alternatively, the separator may be H permeable, wherein H is ^-H is formed at the cathode half cell interface by reaction, H passes through the separator and H is formed at the anode half cell interface^-. Transporting H by forming H^-Suitable separators of (a) are refractory alkali metals such as V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloys, W, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th and rare earth metals and noble metals and alloys such as Pd and Pd/Ag alloys. The metal comprising the H film may be biased to increase H at the interface^-The activity of conversion of H. The activity can also be increased by using a concentration gradient.

In one embodiment, a CIHT cell comprises a cathode compartment and an anode compartment, where both compartments may contain at least one of the same reactants, but the anode compartment has unique one or more of the selective reactants needed to maintain the hydrino reaction at a favorable rate to generate a voltage between the cells. The anode and cathode compartments are connected by a salt bridge, which is an ionic conductor but essentially an electronic insulator. In one embodiment, the salt bridge is selective to hydrogen anion conductivity. In one embodiment, the salt bridge allows migration or exchange of reactant materials (other than the selective reactant) in the compartment. In one embodiment, the anode compartment contains: a catalyst or catalyst source and a hydrogen source, such as NaH, KH or at least one H; optionally reducing agents, e.g. bases Earth metals or hydrides, e.g. Mg and MgH₂(ii) a And one or more selective reactants, such as at least one carrier, which may also act as a hydrogen dissociating agent. The support may comprise carbon, carbides or borides. Suitable carbon, carbide and boride are carbon black, TiC and Ti₃SiC₂、TiCN、SiC、YC₂、TaC、Mo₂C、WC、C、HfC、Cr₃C₂、ZrC、VC、NbC、B₄C、CrB₂、ZrB₂、GdB₂、MgB₂And TiB₂. Suitable carriers which may also act as hydrogen dissociators are Pd/C, Pt/C, Pd/MgO, Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/MgO and Pt/Al₂O₃. The half-cell compartments may be separated and connected by electrically insulating separators that may also serve as salt bridge carriers. The salt bridge may comprise a molten salt carried by the separator. The molten salt may be at least one of an electrolyte, an electrolyte containing a hydride, and a hydride dissolved in the electrolyte. Alternatively, the salt bridges are replaced by a separator that is impermeable to the selective reactant. The separator may be permeable to one or more ions or compounds of the reaction mixture in either the anode compartment or the cathode compartment and impermeable to the selective reactant. In one embodiment, the separator is impermeable to the support. The separator may be MgO or BN fiber. The latter may be woven or non-woven felt. The hydrino reaction forming ionized catalyst is selectively formed in the anode compartment due to the selective reactant being unique to the anode compartment reactant and the separator or salt bridge being impermeable to the selective reactant.

In one embodiment, the transport of electrons of the ions is such that the hydrino reactant is formed in a region that is not at least one of the cathode or anode compartments. A fractional hydrogen reactant may be formed in the electrolyte such that a fractional hydrogen reaction occurs at least one of the electrolyte, the salt bridge, the interface of the electrolyte and the salt bridge, the electrolyte-cathode interface, and the anode-electrolyte interface. The cathode may comprise a hydrogen permeable membrane, such as a nickel foil or tube or a porous nickel electrode, and the electrolyte may comprise a co-soluble salt that transports hydrogen anions (e.g., LiH dissolved in LiCl-KCl). Hydrogen can permeate through the membrane, and such as Li⁺Or K⁺Plasma catalyst ionThe proton can be reduced to a catalyst such as Li or K at the electrolyte interface, such that Li or K and H are formed at the interface and further react to form hydrinos. In this case, the reduction potential increases. In one embodiment, the LiCl-KCl concentration is about 58.5+41.2mol%, the melting temperature is about 450 ℃, and the LiH concentration is about 0.1mol% or less. In other embodiments, the LiH concentration can be any desired mole percent up to the saturation limit of about 8.5%. In another exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise LiH + LiF + KF or NaF and optionally a carrier (such as TiC). Other suitable electrolytes are mixtures of alkali metal hydrides and alkali and alkaline earth metal borohydrides, wherein the cell reaction may be a metal exchange. A suitable mixture is a eutectic mixture of: about 43+57mol% NaH-KBH having a melting temperature of about 503 deg.C ₄KH-KBH of about 66+34mol% with a melting temperature of about 390 ℃₄About 21+79mol% NaH-NaBH having a melting temperature of about 395 DEG C₄KBH of about 53+47mol% having a melting temperature of about 103 DEG C₄-LiBH₄About 41.3+58.7mol% NaBH having a melting temperature of about 213 ℃₄-LiBH₄And about 31.8+68.2mol% of KBH having a melting temperature of about 453 DEG C₄-NaBH₄Wherein the mixture may further comprise an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride, such as LiH, NaH or KH. Suitable hydride concentrations are from 0.001 to 10 mol%. An exemplary battery is [ K/KHKBH ]₄-NaBH₄/Ni]、[Na/NaHNaBH₄-LiBH₄/Ni]、[LiAl/LiHKBH₄-LiBH₄/Ni]、[K/KBH₄-NaBH₄/Ni]、[Na/NaBH₄-LiBH₄/Ni]And [ LiAl/KBH₄-LiBH₄/Ni]. The aluminum hydride may replace the borohydride.

The electrolyte may comprise a catalyst or source of catalyst other than LiH and other suitable electrolytes, such as KH or NaH with NaBr + NaI, KOH + KBr, KOH + KI, NaH + NaAlEt₄、NaH+NaAlCl₄、NaH+NaAlCl₄+NaCl、NaH+NaCl+NaAlEt₄And other salts (e.g., halides). The cation of the at least one salt may be a catalyst or catalyst source cation. In one embodiment, the catalyst and source of H may be byCl^-Or HCl formed by oxidation of H. Cl^-May be derived from the electrolyte.

One embodiment of the thermal battery includes a reaction mixture distribution that causes localized regions of catalytic reaction to locally generate ions and electrons. The reactants are distributed such that the first region in the cell is uniquely addressed with one or more selective reactants required to maintain the hydrino reaction at a favorable rate to generate a voltage between the at least one first region and the at least one second region of the cell. The battery may comprise a conductive wall in one embodiment, or may comprise a conductive circuit. The electron flow may be through a cell wall or circuit due to the voltage. The electrons reduce the reactant (e.g., hydride) in the second zone to produce an anion (e.g., hydride). The anion can migrate from the second region to the first region to form an electrical circuit. The migration may be through a solvent or molten salt. The molten salt may be at least one of an electrolyte, an electrolyte containing a hydride, and a hydride dissolved in the electrolyte. The partition or salt bridge may maintain the selective reactant in the first zone. The spacers or salt bridges may also maintain separation of other reactants that require separation. The separator or salt bridge may be selective for hydride.

In one exemplary embodiment, the anode and cathode reactants are the same, but the anode compartment or region has a unique carrier. No salt bridge is required and a physical separator and ion conductor may optionally confine the carrier in the cathode compartment or region. For example, the anode and cathode reaction mixtures comprise NaH or KH and Mg, and the anode reaction mixture further comprises TiC. In other exemplary embodiments, the reaction mixture of both cells comprises one or more of the following: catalyst, catalyst source, and hydrogen source (e.g., at least one of Li, LiH, Na, NaH, K, KH, Rb, RbH, Cs, CsH, Mg, MgH)₂And at least one H) and at least one of a reducing agent or hydride (e.g., alkaline earth metal or hydride, such as Mg, LiH, MBH)₄、MAlH₄(M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) and M₂(BH₄)₂(M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)). The carrier is only positioned in the anode compartment or region. Can also be used for hydrogen dissociationSuitable supports for the agent include carbon, carbides or borides. Suitable carbon, carbide and boride compounds include carbon black, TiC, Ti₃SiC₂、YC₂、TiCN、MgB₂、SiC、TaC、Mo₂C、WC、C、B₄C、HfC、Cr₃C₂、ZrC、CrB₂、VC、ZrB₂NbC and TiB₂. Suitable carriers that may also act as hydrogen dissociators include Pd/C, Pt/C, Pd/MgO, Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/MgO and Pt/Al ₂O₃. Suitable anodic reaction mixtures include NaHPd/Al₂O₃TiC+H₂、NaHNaBH₄TiC、NaHKBH₄TiC、NaHNaBH₄MgTiC、NaHKBH₄MgTiC、KHNaBH₄TiC、KHKBH₄TiC、KHNaBH₄MgTiC、KHKBH₄MgTiC、NaHRbBH₄MgTiC、NaHCsBH₄MgTiC、KHRbBH₄MgTiC、KHCsBH₄MgTiC、NaHMgTiCMg(BH₄)₂、NaHMgTiCCa(BH₄)₂、KHMgTiCMg(BH₄)₂、KHMgTiCCa(BH₄)₂NaHMgTiC, KHMgTiC, LiHMgTiC, NaHMgPd/C, KHMgPd/C, LiHMgPd/C, NaHMgPt/C, KHMgPt/C, NaHMgLiCl, KHMgLiCl, KHKOHTiC, and LiHMgPt/C. In one embodiment, the cathode reactants may be the same, with no support present. Alternatively, in one embodiment, the anode reactants may be the same, with no support present.

Fractional hydrogen chemistry can be located at one of two electrodes comprising different metals. The selectivity of hydrino formation at one electrode can result from a particular preferred chemical reaction that produces hydrino reactants, such as a catalyst or atomic hydrogen. For example, one electrode may be H₂Disassociates into H so that a hydrino reaction can occur. The reaction mixture can comprise an alkali metal hydride, such as a hydride-conducting eutectic salt comprising LiH (e.g., a mixture of compounds comprising at least one of different alkali metals and halides, such as a mixture of LiCl and KCl). For containing H relative to less dissociative active electrode (e.g. Cu or Fe)₂One electrode of a dissociating agent (such as Ni, Ti or Nb), the half-cell reaction may be

Cathodic reaction (H)₂Dissociating agent)

M⁺+e^-+H→M+H(1/p)(237)

Anodic reaction

H^-→1/2H₂+e^-(238)

Net reaction

MH→M+H(1/p)(239)

Wherein M is a catalyst metal, such as Li, Na or K.

In one embodiment, the redox reaction that forms the fractional hydrogen comprises a cathodic reaction of formula (237), wherein M is an alkali metal, such as Li. Suitable cathodic disbondant metals are Nb, Fe, Ni, V, Fe-Mo alloys, W, Rh, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti and Th foils. An exemplary reaction is

Cathodic reaction (e.g. Nb foil)

Li⁺+e^-+H→Li+H(1/4)(240)

Anodic reaction

Li→Li⁺+e^-(241)

Net reaction

H→H(1/4)+19.7MJ(242)

The Li metal anode may comprise an inverted bell or cup in electrolyte, where the Li is held in the cup by its buoyancy in the electrolyte, porous electrode, Li alloy (e.g., LiAl alloy), or Li metal of the chamber (e.g., metal tube, such as Ni tube). The salt may be a eutectic salt, such as, for example, 79-21 wt% LiCl-LiF or 51.9-47.6 wt% LiCl-KCl. The operating temperature may exceed the melting point of the salt electrolyte, for example, by about 485 c for LiF/LiCl co-solvent or about 350 c for LiCl/KCl co-solvent. Other suitable cosolvents and melting points are LiCl-CsCl (59.3+40.7mol%, mp =200 ℃) and LiCl-KCl-CsCl (57.5+13.3+29.2mol%, mp =150 ℃). In one embodiment, the result is a via (240-241) Given the reaction, the Li and Li consumed and formed⁺Reverse diffusion of, Li and Li⁺The concentration remains substantially constant over time. Hydrogen may be supplied by diffusion from the chamber through a diaphragm or through a tube containing an electrode, such as a cathode. In cells containing a metal anode (such as a Li metal anode that further contains an inverted bell or cup in the electrolyte to hold the metal), hydrogen can be supplied from a diaphragm located below the cup, and the diaphragm can be oriented horizontally with respect to the electrolyte surface and the cup. The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas or a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride, such as an alkali metal hydride), or at least one of the electrodes may comprise a metal hydride. A suitable metal hydride is MH, where M is an alkali metal. Suitable concentrations are 0.001 to 1% by weight. The concentration of at least one of Li or LiH may be maintained below a concentration that reduces the catalyst reaction that forms hydrinos. For example, the concentration in the LiCl-KCl co-dissolved electrolyte may be maintained below 1 wt%, preferably below 0.1 wt%, and most preferably below 0.05 wt%. The Li and LiH concentrations can be monitored with detectors or sensors. The sensor may be an optical sensor, such as an optical absorption sensor. The sensor of LiH may be an infrared absorption sensor. The assay may comprise a reporter or indicator substance, such as a binding species. The sensor may be a selective electrode. The sensor may include electrodes responsive to Li or LiH concentrations according to the nernst return equation, where the concentration is determined from the voltage. Suitable electrodes do not significantly support H catalysis to hydrino. The sensor may be a calibrated device for voltammetry (e.g. cyclic voltammetry), polarography or amperometry. The concentration may be increased or decreased to maintain an optimum concentration to allow the hydrino reaction. The addition or elimination of Li or LiH can be achieved by applying electrolysis to the cell. The Li or LiH concentration can be controlled by using an electrode that adsorbs Li or LiH. A suitable exemplary metal is copper.

In one embodiment, the battery comprises electrodes comprising two metals. Suitable metals are metals selected from the group consisting of transition metals, internal transition metals, Al, Sn, In and rare earth metals. The cell can further comprise a co-dissolved salt electrolyte (e.g., at least two metal halides, such as LiCl-KCl or LiCl-LiF) and can additionally comprise a source of hydride (e.g., 0.01 wt% LiH).

In another embodiment, one electrode (anode) may comprise a more positive electrical metal that provides electrons to reduce the catalyst ion source or H⁺Thereby forming H of the catalyst or catalyst mixture at the cathode. In an exemplary reaction, M_aIs an anode metal, which has a more favorable reductive coupling potential than the cathode, and M is a catalyst metal, such as Li, Na, or K:

cathode reaction

M⁺+e^-+H→M+H(1/p)(243)

Anodic reaction

M_a→M_a ⁺+e^-(244)

And in solution

M_a ⁺+M→M_a+M⁺(245)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + at least part of the energy (246) as electricity

In one embodiment, the redox reaction that forms a fractional hydrogen comprises an anodic reaction of formula (244), wherein M is_aIs an anode metal having a more favorable reductive coupling potential than the cathode. Suitable anode and cathode and catalyst metals are V, Zr, Ti or Fe and Li. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

Li⁺+e^-+H→Li+H(1/4)(247)

Anodic reaction

V→V⁺+e^-(248)

And in solution

V⁺+Li→Li⁺+V(249)

Net reaction

H→H(1/4)+19.7MJ(250)

In one embodiment, the metal M may be_a(e.g., V) is separated from the salt mixture and added to the anode to rejuvenate it. A suitable method of restoring the anode is to use paramagnetic or ferromagnetic anode metals and collect the metal particles using a magnetic field. In one embodiment, the anode is magnetized such that reduced species are collected at the anode. Suitable ferromagnetic anode metals are Ni and Fe. In another embodiment, the anode is located at the bottom of the cell and may be composed of dense metal so that any reduced metal formed in the electrolyte can precipitate and redeposit on the anode surface to rejuvenate it. Suitable electropositive metals for the anode are one or more of the following group: alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Se, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn and Pb. The anode material may be a decomposed hydride such that the metal is free of an oxide coating and is active for oxidation. An exemplary positive electrode cell is [ Ti/LiF-LiCl/LiAl-H_x]、[V/LiF-LiCl/LiAl-H_x]、[Zr/LiF-LiCl/LiAl-H_x]、[V/LiF-LiCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Zr/LiF-LiCl/Zr(H₂)]、[Ti/LiF-LiCl/Ti(H₂)]、[V/LiF-LiCl-LiH(0.02mol%)/Nb(H₂)]、[Zr/LiF-LiCl-LiH(0.02mol%)/Zr(H₂)]、[Ti/LiF-LiCl-LiH(0.02mol%)/Ti(H₂)]And [ V/LiCl-KCl/Fe (H)₂)]. The power can be optimized as follows: changing the temperature, subjecting the electrolyte to H₂Spraying, electrically purifying the electrolyte, adding H₂By adding anodic metal hydrides (e.g. TiH) ₂、VH₂Or ZrH₂) Cathodic metal hydrides (e.g. LiH) or addition of H₂The gas will hydrogenate or change the amount of hydride in either half cell.

In one embodiment, suitable metals are selected from the following list: aluminum, antimony, barium, carbon (graphite), cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, germanium, hafnium, holmium, iron, lanthanum, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, samarium, scandium, silver, strontium, tantalum, technetium, tellurium, terbium, thulium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, and zirconium. The battery may further comprise a eutectic salt, and may further comprise at least one of a hydride (e.g., an alkali metal hydride) and hydrogen. At least one of the metal electrodes may be hydrogenated or hydrogen may be passed through the metal from a hydrogen supply. In one embodiment, the metal may comprise an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. The metal may be a source of catalyst. Electrodes such as anodes may comprise open or porous electrodes or closed electrodes. In the former case, a metal such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal is in contact with the electrolyte, and in the latter case it is enclosed in a conductive chamber in contact with the electrolyte. Suitable chambers are constructed of aluminum, antimony, barium, carbon (graphite), cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, germanium, hafnium, holmium, iron, lanthanum, lutetium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, niobium, praseodymium, promethium, protactinium, samarium, scandium, silver, strontium, tantalum, technetium, tellurium, terbium, thulium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, and zirconium. When the electrode is open, metals such as Li, Na or K can go into solution. The metal may enter as an ion. In one embodiment, a battery may include an anode and a cathode and an electrolyte. Suitable electrolytes include mixtures of metal hydrides and at least one of metal halides and metal halide mixtures (e.g., combinations of MH, M ' X, M "X" where M, M ' and M "are alkali metals and X ' are halides). Exemplary electrolytes are a mixture of NaHLiClKCl, LiClNaCl, LiHLiClNaCl, and the like. In one embodiment, the CIHT cathode metal may be hydrogenated or contain hydrogen before the metal from the open or porous anode contacts it. Suitable exemplary cathode hydrides are niobium hydride and titanium hydride. In one embodiment, the anodic metal can be bonded to the cathode surface and can be removed by electrolysis. Hydrogen may be reacted with metal (e.g., Li) from the anode and may precipitate out of the electrolyte. Precipitates such as LiH can be regenerated into the anode metal by methods such as electrolysis and thermal regeneration.

In one embodiment, the redox reaction that forms a fraction of hydrogen comprises H^-As the mobile ion. The cathodic reaction may include forming a hydride into H^-And the anodic reaction may comprise reacting H^-Oxidation to H. According to catalysis containing HThe agent, when present, can form hydrinos at either electrode. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

MH₂+e^-→M+H^-+H(1/p)(251)

Anodic reaction

H^-→H+e^-(252)

After diffusion of H in the electrolyte

M+2H→MH₂(253)

Net reaction

MH₂→ M +2H (1/p) + energy (254) at least partially in the form of electricity

MH₂Can be prepared by reacting H₂Added to M to reform. The metal hydride may be formed at the anode and in the step given by formula (252). The hydride may at least partially thermally decompose at the operating temperature of the battery.

In one embodiment, the redox reaction that forms a fraction of hydrogen comprises H⁺As the mobile ion. The cathodic reaction may comprise reacting H⁺A reduction reaction to form H, and an anodic reaction may include oxidation of H to H⁺Oxidation reaction of (3). Depending on the presence of the H-containing catalyst, hydrino can be formed at either electrode. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

MH→M+H⁺+e-(255)

Anodic reaction

H⁺+e-→H→H(1/p)(256)

Net reaction

MH → M + H (1/p) + energy (257) at least partially in the form of electricity

MH can be obtained by reacting H with₂Added to M to reform. In another exemplary embodiment In the reaction of

Cathode reaction

MH₂→M+e-+H⁺+H(1/p)(258)

Anodic reaction

H⁺+e-→H(259)

After diffusion of H in the electrolyte

M+2H→MH₂(260)

Net reaction

MH₂→ M +2H (1/p) + energy (261) at least partially in the form of electricity

MH₂Can be prepared by reacting H₂Added to M to reform. The metal hydride may be formed at the anode and in the step given by formula (259). The hydride may at least partially thermally decompose at the operating temperature of the battery.

In another embodiment, the anode half cell comprises H⁺A source, such as a hydride, is at least one of: alkali or alkaline earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrides (e.g., Ti hydrides), internal transition metal hydrides (e.g., Nb, Zr, or Ta hydrides), palladium or platinum hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides. Or, H⁺The source may be from hydrogen and a catalyst. The catalyst may be a metal, such as a noble metal. The catalyst may be an alloy, e.g. an alloy comprising at least one noble metal and another metal, such as Pt₃And (3) Ni. The catalyst may comprise a support, such as carbon, one example being Pt/C. The catalyst may comprise a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, a phosphoric acid fuel cell, or a catalyst of a similar fuel cell (such as a fuel cell known to those skilled in the art) comprising mobile protons formed by the catalyst. H ⁺The source may be from a hydrogen permeable anode and a hydrogen source, such as Pt (H)₂)、Pd(H₂)、Ir(H₂)、Rh(H₂)、Ru(H₂) Noble metal (H)₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂) Or V (H)₂) Anode ((H)₂) Represents hydrogenA source such as hydrogen gas that permeates the anode). H⁺The source may be from hydrogen in contact with the anode half cell reactants (e.g., Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C and Ru/C). Form H⁺H of (A) to (B)₂The source can be a hydride, such as an alkali metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydride (e.g., MgH)₂) Transition metal hydrides, internal transition metal hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides that can contact the anode half-cell reactants (e.g., Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C and Ru/C). The catalyst metal may be supported by a substance such as carbon, carbide or boride. H⁺Migrating to the cathode half-cell compartment. The migration may be through a salt bridge, which is a proton conductor, such as beta alumina or a non-aqueous proton exchange membrane. The battery may further comprise an electrolyte. In another embodiment, the salt bridge may be replaced by an electrolyte such as a molten eutectic salt electrolyte. In the cathode half-cell compartment, H⁺Reducing the reaction product into H. H may act as a reactant to form hydrinos with the catalyst. At least some of the H may also react with a catalyst source to form a catalyst. The source of the catalyst may be a nitride or imide, for example an alkali metal nitride or imide, such as Li ₃N or Li₂And (4) NH. The imide or amide cathode half cell product can decompose and hydrogen can be returned to the metal of the anode half cell compartment to reform the corresponding hydride. The source of the catalyst may be atomic H. The hydrogen that reacts to form hydrinos can be replenished. Hydrogen can be transferred by suction or electrolysis. In an exemplary reaction, M_aH is an anode metal hydride and M is a catalyst metal, such as Li, Na or K:

cathode reaction

2H⁺+2e^-+Li₃N or Li₂NH→Li+H(1/p)+Li₂NH or LiNH₂(262)

Anodic reaction

M_aH→M_a+H⁺+e-(263)

Regeneration

Li+Li₂NH or LiNH₂+M_a→M_aH+Li₃N or Li₂NH(264)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (265) at least partially in electrical form

The cell may further comprise an anode or cathode support material, such as a boride (e.g., GdB)₂、B₄C、MgB₂、TiB₂、ZrB₂And CrB₂) Carbide (e.g. TiC, YC)₂Or WC) or TiCN. A suitable exemplary battery is [ LiH/beta alumina/Li₃N][ NaH/. beta.alumina/Li ]₃N](KH/. beta. -alumina/Li)₃N]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[CaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[SrH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[BaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[NbH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[ZrH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[LaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃N][ LiH/. beta. -alumina/Li ]₂NH][ NaH/. beta.alumina/Li ]₂NH](KH/. beta. -alumina/Li)₂NH]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[CaH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[SrH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[BaH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[NbH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[ZrH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[LaH₂beta-alumina/Li ₂NH][ LiH/. beta. -alumina/Li ]₃NTiC][ NaH/. beta.alumina/Li ]₃NTiC](KH/. beta. -alumina/Li)₃NTiC]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[CaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[SrH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[BaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[NbH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[ZrH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[LaH₂beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC][ LiH/. beta. -alumina/Li ]₂NHTiC][ NaH/. beta.alumina/Li ]₂NHTiC](KH/. beta. -alumina/Li)₂NHTiC]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[CaH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[SrH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[BaH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[NbH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[MgH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[ZrH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[LaH₂beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[Ti(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[Nb(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[V(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃N]、[Ti(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[Nb(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[V(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NH]、[Ti(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[Nb(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[V(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₃NTiC]、[Ti(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[Nb(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[V(H₂) beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]And [ PtC (H)₂) Or PdC (H)₂)/H⁺Conductors (e.g. solid proton conductors, such as H)⁺Al₂O₃/Li₃N)]。

In an embodiment, H⁺The source is an organic or inorganic compound containing protons, for example an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydroxide anion, such as phosphate or sulphate. Acids, such as silicic acid; h-containing alkyl aluminum compounds or boranes, such as those containing bridged H bonds; ammonium or alkyl ammonium compounds. Other suitable sources of H are amine borane complexes such as amine boranes, borane amides, hydrazine-borane complexes, diborane diamides, borazoles and ammonium octahydrotriborate or tetrahydroborate, imidazolium ionic liquids such as alkyl (aryl) -3-methylimidazolium N-bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide salts, phosphonium borates and oxalate species. Other exemplary compounds are ammonia borane, alkali metal ammonia borane (e.g., lithium ammonia borane), and borane alkylamine complexes (e.g., borane dimethylamine complex, borane trimethylamine complex) and aminoboranes and boramines (e.g., aminodiborane, n-dimethylaminoboroborane, tris (dimethylamino) borane, di-n-butylborane, dimethylaminoborane, trimethylaminoborane, ammonia-trimethylborane, and triethylaminoborane). Suitable ammonium compounds are ammonium halides or alkylammonium halides and aromatic compounds (e.g. imidazoles, pyridines, pyrimidines, pyrazines, perchlorates, imines,) And other anions of the invention compatible with (and with which the cell is in contact with) any of the components of the cell, including at least the electrolyte, the salt bridge, the reactants of each half-cell, and the electrodes. The electrolyte or salt bridge may also comprise these compounds. Exemplary ambient temperature H⁺The conductive molten salt electrolyte is 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride-AlCl₃And pyrrolidinium-based protic ionic liquids. In one embodiment, H⁺The source is a protonated zeolite, such as HY. H⁺The source may also comprise organometallic compounds, for example, aromatic transition metal compounds, such as ferrocene-containing compounds, such as polyvinylferrocene, nickelocene, cobaltocene, and other similar compounds that are protonated in one embodiment.

In an embodiment, H⁺The source is a compound having a metal-H bond (M-H), for example a transition metal, ruthenium, rhenium, platinum or osmium complex with further ligands such as CO, halogen, cyclopentadienyl and triphenylphosphine. Other suitable sources include metals and hydrogen bridges, such as W, Lu, Ru, Mo, Co, Mn, and Y further comprising ligands (e.g., CO, NO, and cyclopentadienyl). The source may comprise metal polyhydrides such as Ir, W, Re, Pt, Os and Rh with ligands such as tertiary phosphines and cyclopentadienyl groups. In another embodiment, H⁺The source is a compound comprising H bound to a group V, VI or VII element.

Having H⁺The cell as mobile ion may contain suitable H⁺A conductive electrolyte. An exemplary electrolyte is a polymer with protonated cationsInorganic salts of (e.g. ammonium). The electrolyte may comprise an ionic liquid. The electrolyte may have a low melting point, such as in the range of 100 ℃ to 200 ℃. Exemplary electrolytes are ethylammonium nitrate, ethylammonium nitrate doped with dihydrogen phosphate (e.g., doped with 1%), hydrazine nitrate, NH₄PO₃-TiP₂O₇And LiNO₃-NH₄NO₃Co-dissolved salts of (a). Other suitable electrolytes may comprise at least one salt from the following group: LiNO₃Ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Tf ═ CF)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium trifluoroacetate (TFAc = CF) ₃COO^-) Ammonium tetrafluoroborate (BF)₄ ^-) Ammonium methane sulfonate (CH)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium Nitrate (NO)₃ ^-) Ammonium thiocyanate (SCN)^-) Ammonium Sulfamate (SO)₃NH₂ ^-) Ammonium bifluoride (HF)₂ ^-) Ammonium Hydrogen Sulfate (HSO)₄ ^-) Ammonium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (TFSI = CF)₃SO₂)₂N^-) Ammonium bis (perfluoroethanesulfonyl) imide (BETI = CF)₃CF₂SO₂)₂N^-) Hydrazine nitrate, and may further comprise a mixture, e.g., further comprising NH₄NO₃、NH₄Tf and NH₄A co-dissolved mixture of at least one of TFAc. Other suitable solvents include acids such as phosphoric acid. In one embodiment, H⁺Produced at the anode and reduced to H at the cathode (e.g., a non-reactive conductor such as a metal, e.g., Stainless Steel (SS)). The theoretical cell voltage for non-hydrino-based chemistry may be substantially zero, but the actual voltage is generated due to hydrinos formed during the formation of H. An exemplary battery is [ Pt (H)₂)、Pt/C(H₂) Borane, aminoborane and borane amines, AlH₃Or H-X compound (X = group V, VI or VII element)/inorganic salt mixture comprising liquid electrolyte (such as ammonium nitrate-ammonium trifluoroacetate)/Li₃N、Li₂NH or M (M = metal, e.g. SS, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal)]、[R-Ni/H⁺Conductor electrolyte/at least one of Ni, Pd and Nb][ hydrogenated Pt/C/H ]⁺A conductive electrolyte, a conductive metal oxide, Such as ammonium salt or at least one of Nafion/Ni, Pd, Nb][ hydrogenated Pt/C/H ]⁺Conductor electrolytes, e.g. ammonium salts or Nafion/Pd-Ag (Li)₃N, one of alkali metal (such as Li), alkaline earth metal, rare earth metal, Ti and Zr)]、[H₂And gas fuel cell anode/H comprising Pt/C⁺A conductor electrolyte, such as an ammonium salt or at least one of Nafion/Li, Pd, Nb, Pd-Ag (Li)₃N, one of alkali metal (such as Li), alkaline earth metal, rare earth metal, Ti and Zr)](wherein () represents within an H-permeable chamber (e.g. a tube)) and [ H₂And gas fuel cell anodes/H comprising Pt/C, R-Ni, Pt or Pd/R-Ni, hydrogenated Pt/C⁺Conductor electrolytes, e.g. ammonium salts/Al₂O₃Alkali metal (e.g. Li), alkaline earth metal, Li₃N, rare earth metals, Ti, Zr]。

In one embodiment, the cathode may comprise a hydrogen permeable membrane, such as a metal tube. H reduced to H at the cathode⁺Can diffuse through a membrane, such as membrane 473 shown in fig. 20. The membrane may separate the interior chamber 474 from the electrolyte 470. The chamber may contain a reactant, such as a simple substance, an alloy, a compound, or other material, that reacts with H diffused within the chamber. The internal reactant may be a hydride-forming metal, such as at least one of the following metals: alkali metals, such as Li; alkaline earth metals such as Ca, Sr and Ba; transition metals, such as Ti; internal transition metals, such as Zr; rare earth metals, such as La. The reactant may also be a compound, such as Li ₃N and Li₂At least one of NH. An exemplary battery is [ Pt (H)₂)、Pt/C(H₂) Borane, aminoborane and borane amines, AlH₃Or H-X compound (X = group V, VI or VII element)/inorganic salt mixture containing liquid electrolyte such as ammonium nitrate-trifluoroacetate/SS, Nd, Ni, Ta, Ti, V, Mo (Li)₃N、Li₂NH or M; m = metal, such as SS, transition, internal transition or rare earth metal)]Wherein () is represented within the chamber.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a proton source and the cathode comprises a proton acceptor. The cathode may comprise organic molecules that are reversibly reduced by reaction with electrons and protons. Suitable displayIllustrative organic molecules are methylene blue (methylene blue), diphenylbenzidine sulfonate, diphenylamine sulfonate, dichlorophenol indophenol, N-phenylanthranilic acid, N-ethoxychrysidine (4- (4-ethoxyphenylazo) -1, 3-phenylenediamine monohydrochloride), dianisidine (4- (4-amino-3-methoxyphenyl) -2-methoxyaniline), diphenylamine sulfonate, diphenylamine, viologen (bipyridine derivative of 4,4 'bipyridyl), thionine, indigo tetrasulfonic acid, indigo trisulfonic acid, isatin (5,5' -indigo disulfonic acid), indigo monosulfonic acid, safranin T, (safranin T), 2, 8-dimethyl-3, 7-diamino-phenazine, Neutral red (eurhodin dye), anthraquinone and similar compounds known in the art. In one embodiment, the cell further comprises a hydrogen-containing compound or material, such as a hydride or hydrogen intercalated in a carrier (e.g., carbon). The battery has a migration H ⁺Other battery components of the invention. An exemplary cell is [ Pt/C (H)₂) Or Pd/C (H)₂) A separator proton conductor, such as Nafion, an aqueous salt electrolyte solution, or an ionic liquid/organic molecule proton acceptor, such as methylene blue, diphenylbenzidine sulfonate, diphenylamine sulfonate, dichlorophenol indophenol, N-phenylanthranilic acid, N-ethoxycoidine (4- (4-ethoxyphenylazo) -1, 3-phenylenediamine monohydrochloride), o-dianisidine (4- (4-amino-3-methoxyphenyl) -2-methoxyaniline), diphenylamine sulfonate, diphenylamine, viologen (a bipyridine derivative of 4,4 'bipyridyl), thionine, indigo tetrasulfonic acid, indigo trisulfonic acid, isatin (5,5' -indigo disulfonic acid), indigo monosulfonic acid, safranin T, 2, 8-dimethyl-3, compounds of 7-diamino-phenazine, neutral red (eurhodin dyes) or anthraquinones, metal hydrides (e.g. hydrides of rare earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals) or C (H)₂)]。

In another embodiment, the cathode half-cell comprises H^-A source (e.g., a hydrogen permeable cathode) and a hydrogen source (e.g., Ti (H)₂)、Nb(H₂) Or V (H)₂) Cathode ((H))₂) Refers to a source of hydrogen (e.g., hydrogen gas) or hydride (e.g., at least one of the following) that permeates through the cathode to contact the electrolyte: alkali metals or bases Earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrides (e.g., Ti hydrides), internal transition metal hydrides (e.g., Nb, Zr, or Ta hydrides), palladium or platinum hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides)). H^-Migrating to the anode half-cell compartment. The migration may be through a salt bridge that acts as a hydride conductor. The battery may further comprise an electrolyte. In another embodiment, the salt bridges may be replaced by an electrolyte such as a molten eutectic salt electrolyte (e.g., LiCl-KCl or LiF-LiCl). In the anode half-cell compartment, H^-Oxidized to H. H may act as a reactant to form hydrinos with the catalyst. At least some of the H may also react with the catalyst source to form a catalyst, or at least one of the H may constitute a catalyst. The source of the catalyst may be a nitride or imide, for example an alkali metal nitride or imide, such as Li₃N or Li₂And (4) NH. In one embodiment, the anodic reactant (e.g., nitrides and imines (e.g., Li)₃N and Li₂NH) may be contained in a chamber (e.g., an H-permeable chamber, such as a tube), or the chamber may contain an H-permeable membrane in contact with an electrolyte. Hydride ions in the electrolyte may oxidize at and diffuse through the walls or membranes of the chamber walls to react with the reactants in the chamber, where hydrino reactions may occur between the formed catalysts (e.g., Li and H). The imide or amide cathode half cell product can decompose and hydrogen can be returned to the metal of the cathode half cell compartment to reform the corresponding hydride. The hydrogen reacted to form hydrinos can be replenished. Hydrogen can be transferred by suction or electrolysis. In an exemplary reaction, M _aH is a cathodic metal hydride and M is a catalyst metal, such as Li, Na or K:

cathode reaction

M_aH+e^-→M_a+H^-(266)

Anodic reaction

2H^-+Li₃N or Li₂NH→Li+H(1/p)+Li₂NH or LiNH₂₊2e^-(267)

Regeneration

Li+Li₂NH or LiNH₂+M_a→M_aH+Li₃N or Li₂NH(268)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (269) at least partially in the form of electricity

The cell may further comprise an anode or cathode support material, such as a boride (e.g., GdB)₂、B₄C、MgB₂、TiB₂、ZrB₂And CrB₂) Carbide (e.g. TiC, YC)₂Or WC) or TiCN. A suitable exemplary battery is [ Li ]₃N/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/V(H₂)]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/V(H₂)]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/V(H₂)]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/Nb(H₂)]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/V(H₂)]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/LiH]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/NaH]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/KH]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/MgH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/CaH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/SrH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/BaH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/NbH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/LiH]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/NaH]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/KH]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/MgH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/CaH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/SrH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/BaH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/NbH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/LiH]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/NaH]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/KH]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/MgH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/CaH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/SrH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/BaH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/NbH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/LiH]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/NaH]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/KH]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/MgH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/CaH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/SrH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/BaH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/NbH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/ZrH₂]、[Li₂NHTiC/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]、[Ni(Li₃N)/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂CB]、[Ni(Li₃NTiC)/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂CB]And [ Ni (LiLiCl-KCl)/LiCl-KClLiH/Fe (H)₂)]Where () represents inside an H-permeable chamber (e.g. a tube).

In an inclusion M-N-H system (e.g., with inclusion MNH)₂、M₂NH and M₃N at least one half cell reactant or product) in embodiments, at least one H acts as a catalyst for the other. The catalyst mechanism consists of H at 2.2, 1.65 and 1.2ppm respectively₂(1/2)、H₂(1/3) and H₂NMR peaks of (1/4) were supported.

In other embodiments, the catalyst source may be in the presence of hydrogen^-Other compounds of the catalyst are released upon oxidation of the H formed at the anode. Suitable compounds are, for example, salts which form anions or acids of hydrogen acids (e.g. Li)₂SO₄) Which can form Li₂HPO₄LiHSO of₄Or Li₃PO₄. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

M_aH+e^-→M_a+H^-(270)

Anodic reaction

2H^-+Li₂SO₄→Li+H(1/p)+LiHSO₄+2e^-(271)

Regeneration

LiHSO₄+M_a→M_aH+Li₂SO₄(272)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (273) at least partially in the form of electricity

The H-transfer reactions comprising these systems can be a source of catalyst as well as details of the present invention.

In another embodiment, the anode half-cell comprises a metal cation (e.g., an alkali metal cation, such as Li)⁺) And (4) source. The source may be a corresponding metal (e.g., Li) or an alloy containing the metal (e.g., at least one of Li: Li)₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe (e.g. Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (such as oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides), and mixed metal-Li alloys). Such as Li⁺The cations migrate to the cathode half-cell compartment. The battery may have an electrolyte. Such as Li⁺The cations can migrate through a molten salt electrolyte, e.g., a eutectic molten salt mixture, such as a mixture of alkali metal halides (e.g., LiF-LiCl or LiCl-KCl). An exemplary battery is [ LiSb/LiCl-KCl/SeTiH₂]、[LiSb/LiCl-KCl/SeZrH₂]、[LiSn/LiCl-KCl/SeTiH₂]、[LiSn/LiCl-KCl/SeZrH₂]And [ LiH +, at least one of: LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1- _ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn andli metal-metalloid alloy/LiCl-KCl/LiH]And [ LiH + at least one of: LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, Li ₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn and Li metal-metalloid alloy, + Carrier/LiCl-KCl/LiH]And [ LiH + at least one of: LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn and Li metal-metalloid alloy/LiCl-KCl/LiH + carrier]And [ LiH + at least one of: LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn and Li metal-metalloid alloy, + Carrier/LiCl-KCl/LiH + Carrier]Suitable exemplary supports are carbides, borides or carbon.

Alternatively, the migration may be through a salt bridge that acts as a cation conductor (e.g., beta alumina). Exemplary Li⁺Salt bridge/electrolyte containing 1MLiPF₆A borosilicate glass-fiber sheet impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte. In the cathode half-cell compartment, such as Li⁺The cations are reduced. The reduction product, such as atoms (e.g., Li), may act as a catalyst and may also remain as a reactant from the source to form hydrogen, where the catalyst and H may react to form hydrinos. The hydrogen source may be an amide or imide, for example an alkali metal amide or imide, such as LiNH ₂Or Li₂And (4) NH. The hydrogen source may be a hydrogen storage material. The imide or nitride cathode half-cell product can be hydrogenated by the addition of hydrogen and a source of cations such as Li can be returned to the anode compartment electrolytically or physically or chemically. In an exemplary reaction, Li is the anode metal and Li is the catalyst. In other embodiments, Na or K may replace Li.

Cathode reaction

2Li⁺+2e^-+LiNH₂Or Li₂NH→Li+H(1/p)+Li₂NH or Li₃N(274)

Anodic reaction

Li→Li⁺+e-(275)

Li regeneration to anode compartment

Li₂NH or Li₃N+H→LiNH₂Or Li₂NH+Li(276)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (277) at least partially in the form of electricity

The cell may further comprise an anode or cathode support material, such as a boride (e.g., GdB)₂、B₄C、MgB₂、TiB₂、ZrB₂And CrB₂) Carbide (e.g. TiC, YC)₂Or WC) or TiCN. A suitable exemplary battery is [ Li/1 MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/LiNH₂][ Li or Li alloy, e.g. Li)₃Mg or LiC/olefin separator LiBF₄Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution/LiNH of₂][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution saturated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Li₂NH]And [ LiAl/1 MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/LiNH ₂]And [ LiAl/1 MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution saturated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Li₂NH]And [ Li/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH H₂]And [ Li/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH H₂]And [ LiAl/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH₂]And [ LiAl/Li-beta-alumina/Li₂NH][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/LiNH₂TiC][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution saturated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Li₂NHTiC]And [ LiAl/1 MLiPF₆1:1 dimethyl carbonate/carbon as electrolyteVinyl acetate solution saturated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/LiNH₂TiC]And [ LiAl/1 MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution saturated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Li₂NHTiC]And [ Li/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH H₂TiC]And [ Li/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH H₂TiC]And [ LiAl/Li-beta-alumina/LiNH₂TiC]And [ LiAl/Li-beta-alumina/Li₂NHTiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]、[LiAl/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[LiAl/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]、[Li/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂]、[Li/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Li₂NH]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[Li/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NHTiC]、[LiAl/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[LiAl/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NHTiC]、[Li/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[Li/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[LiAl/LiF-LiCl/Li₂NHTiC]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂TiC]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NHTiC]. Other alkali metals may replace Li, and the reactant mixture may be used in at least one of the cathode or anode. Other exemplary batteries are [ M (M = alkali metal) or M alloys, such as Li alloy/BASE/MNH as given in the present invention₂And optionally metal hydrides, e.g. CaH₂、SrH₂、BaH₂、TiH₂、ZrH₂、LaH₂、CeH₂Or other rare earth metal hydrides ]。

Alternatively, the anode may comprise a source of Li, which forms a compound such as selenide or telluride at the cathode. An exemplary battery is [ LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/Te]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/Se]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/TeTiH₂]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/SeTiH₂]And [ LiNH ] or₂/LiCl-KCl/TeZrH₂]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/SeZrH₂]And [ LiBH₄Mg/CelgardLP30/Se]。

In other embodiments similar to the Li-N-H system, another catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Na, K, or Ca) displaces Li, which corresponds to the Na-N-H, K-N-H and Ca-N-H systems, respectively.

In another embodiment, the anode half-cell comprises a metal cation (e.g., an alkali metal cation, such as Li)⁺) And (4) source. The source may be at least one of: metals, such as Li; hydrides, e.g. LiH, LiBH₄And LiAlH₄(ii) a And intercalation compounds such as one of carbon, hexagonal boron nitride, and metal chalcogenides. Suitable lithiated chalcogenides are lithiated chalcogenides having a layered structure, for example MoS₂And WS₂. The layered chalcogenide may be one or more of the following group: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂. The source of metal cations may further comprise at least one lithium transition metal nitride, such as Li_2.6M_0.4N(M=Co、Cu、Ni)、Li_2.6Co_0.4N、Li_2.6Co_0.2Cu_0.2N、Li_2.6Co_0.2Ni_0.2N、Li_2.6Cu_0.2Ni_0.2N、Li_2.6Co_0.25Cu0_.15N、Li_2.6Co_0.2Cu_0.1Ni_0.1N、Li_2.6Co_0.25Cu_0.1Ni_0.05N and Li_2.6Co_0.2Cu_0.15Ni_0.05N; complexes, e.g. compounds, such as Li_2.6M_0.4N, and SiC, silicon oxide and metal oxides (e.g. Co)₃O₄And LiTi₂O₄) At least one of; alloys, such as SnSb; lithium transition metal oxides, e.g. LiTi ₂O₄Lithium tin oxide; metal alloys, e.g. lithium alloys (e.g. Li)₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe (e.g. Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn), Li metal-metalloid alloys (such as oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides), and mixed metal-Li alloys; compounds of the Li-N-H system, e.g. LiNH₂、Li₂NH and Li₃N; and lithium compounds, e.g. chalcogenides, e.g. Li₂Se、Li₂Te and Li₂And S. Such as Li⁺The cations migrate to the cathode half-cell compartment. The battery may have an electrolyte or a solvent. Such as Li⁺The cations can migrate through a molten salt electrolyte, e.g., a eutectic molten salt mixture, such as a mixture of alkali metal halides, such as LiF-LiCl or LiCl-KCl. The battery may have a channel for transporting ions (e.g., Li)⁺) The salt bridge of (2). The salt bridge may then be bridged via Li⁺Electrolyte-impregnated glasses (e.g. borosilicate glass) or ceramics (e.g. Li)⁺Implanted beta alumina). At least one of the half-cells may further comprise an oxide-containing material (e.g., LiWO)₂、Li₆Fe₂WO₃、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, e.g. LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄) The source of Li (g). At least one half-cell may further comprise a Li acceptor comprising a lithium-deficient form of no compound (such as the above-mentioned oxides). In general, the oxide ions may have a face centered cubic packing pattern, including having a spinel structure (e.g., LiMn) ₂O₄And variants containing more than one redox ion) and a packing pattern with an ordered cation distribution. The latter belongs to the class with a layered structure. LiCoO₂And LiNiO₂Are exemplary compounds. Other suitable materials have hexagonal close-packed oxide packing, including some with olivine-related structures (e.g., LiFePO)₄) The stacking method (2). However, others have a more open crystal structure that can be referred to as a framework or skeletal structure. It is further regarded as containing polyanions. Exemplary materials are some sulfate, tungstate, phosphate, Nasicon, and Nasicon-related materials, such as Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃And LiFe₂(SO₄)₃Mixtures and polyanionic mixtures. Lithium ions may occupy more than one type of interstitial sites.

Can act as mobile ion (such as Li)₊Or Na₊) Suitable exemplary phosphate-based CIHT compounds for the electrode material of the source or the receiving agent may be the catalyst source. They may in embodiments replace H such that hydrinos are formed, thereby allowing one or more H atoms to act as a catalyst, which is LiFePO₄、LiFe_1-xM_xPO₄、Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃、LiVPO₄F、LiVPO₄OH、LiVP₂O₇、Li₂MPO₄F、Na₂MPO₄F、Li₄V₂(SiO₄)(PO₄)₂、Li₃V_1.5Al_0.5(PO₄)₃、β-LiVOPO₄、NaVPO₄F、Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃NovelPhaseA, NovelPhaseB, NovelPhaseC and those compounds in which the alkali metal is replaced by another (e.g. Li is replaced by Na or vice versa). In general, the CIHT battery material may comprise formula A ₂FePO₄F, where A may be Li or Na or mixtures, and OH may replace F in these compounds. In embodiments, these materials may be at least one of alkali metal depleted and at least partially H substituted for alkali metal.

The cell can comprise at least one of an anode, electrolyte, salt bridge, separator, and cathode of a lithium ion battery known to those skilled in the art, and further comprise a source of hydrogen and other reactants (e.g., one or more carriers) that contribute to the formation of hydrinos. The catalyst Li can be formed when H, which is formed or present in the corresponding half-cell with Li, is present. The battery may include: a Li-source anode, such as a Li intercalation compound, nitride, or chalcogenide; at least one of an electrolyte, a separator, and a salt bridge; and a cathode comprising a metal hydride (e.g., a rare earth metal hydride, a transition metal hydride (e.g., R-Ni or TiH)₂) Or internal transition metal hydrides (e.g. ZrH)₂) Hydrogenated matrix materials (e.g., hydrogenated carbon, such as activated carbon), Li intercalation compounds (e.g., transition metal oxides, tungsten oxides, molybdenum oxides, niobium oxides, vanadium oxides, metal oxides, or metal oxyanions (e.g., LiCoO)₂Or LiFePO₄) Or other chalcogenides. An exemplary lithiated cathode material is a Li acceptor comprising an oxide (e.g., Li) _xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄. An exemplary lithiated anode material is a source of Li, such as graphite (LiC)₆) Hard carbon (LiC)₆) Titanate (Li)₄Ti₅O₁₂)、Si(Li_4.4Si) and Ge (Li)_4.4Ge). The cathode may comprise aminoboranes and borane amines that react with the reduced mobile ions. An exemplary battery is [ LiC/1 MLiPF₆1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated polypropylene membrane/CoO of electrolyte₂R-Ni]、[Li₃N/use 1MLiPF₆1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated polypropylene membrane/CoO of electrolyte₂R-Ni]And [ Li/polyolefin separator LP40/MH_x]Wherein MH is_xIs a hydride of one of alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, rare earth metal, R-Ni, hydrogenated carbon, carbon MH (M = alkali metal)]Source of [ Li, e.g. Li metal or alloy/lithium solid electrolyte or molten salt electrolyte, e.g. eutectic salt/H source, e.g. hydride (MH)_x) Or M (H)₂) Wherein M is H₂Permeable metal or H₂Diffusion cathode]And [ Li source, e.g. Li metal or alloy/polyolefin separator LP40/H source, e.g. hydride or M (H)₂) Wherein M is H₂Permeable metal or H₂Diffusion cathode ]. In one embodiment, H₂Permeable metal or H₂The diffusion cathode is embedded in a hydrogen dissociating agent and a carrier, such as at least one of carbon, Pt/C, Pd/C, Ru/C, Ir/C, carbide, boride and metal powder (such as Ni, Ti and Nb). Suitable hydrogen permeable metals are Pd, Pt, Nb, V, Ta and Pd-Ag alloys. Where the electrolyte is a molten salt, the salt may comprise a carbonate salt such as an alkali metal carbonate.

The migrating cations may undergo reduction at the cathode and form an alloy or compound with the reactants of the cathode compartment. The reduced cation can form a metal (e.g., Li), hydride (e.g., LiH, LiBH)₄And LiAlH₄) And intercalation compounds (e.g., one of carbon, hexagonal boron nitride, and metal chalcogenide). Suitable chalcogenides are sulfur with a layered structureFamilies (e.g. MoS)₂And WS₂). The layered chalcogenide may be one or more of the following list: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、VSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂. An exemplary Li cathode is LiTiS₂. The cathode half-cell reactant can comprise a cathode half-cell reactant of a lithium ion cell, such as a transition metal oxide, tungsten oxide, molybdenum oxide, niobium oxide, vanadium oxide, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi) _1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄. In one embodiment, the charged negative electrode is a transition M of a circuit comprising an alkali metal (e.g., lithium) intercalation chalcogenide⁺(e.g. Li)⁺) And a source of electrons. The alloy or compound formed may be a lithium alloy or compound, such asOne of the following components: li₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe (such as Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (such as oxides, nitrides, borides and silicides) and mixed metal-Li alloys, compounds of Li-N-H system (such as LiNH)₂、Li₂NH and Li₃N) and lithium compounds (e.g. chalcogenides, e.g. Li)₂Se、Li₂Te and Li₂S). At least one of the anode or cathode compartment reactants comprises a source of hydrogen, such as hydrogen gas or hydrogen from metal infiltration, hydrides or compounds of Li-N-H or similar systems. The hydrogen permeation source may be a metal tube alloyed with reduced mobile ions (e.g., Li). The tube may be internally pressurized with hydrogen. The tube may comprise exemplary metals such as Sb, Pb, Al, Sn, and Bi. At least one of the cathode and anode reactants may further comprise a support, such as a carbide, boride or carbon. In other embodiments, other catalysts or catalyst sources such as Na, K, Rb, or Cs are substituted for Li.

The battery may comprise an intercalation compound or intercalation compound at least one of the cathode and anode, an electrolyte or salt bridge, and a hydrogen source for at least one of the cathode or anode. At least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactants can comprise a reactant of a lithium ion cell. The hydrogen source can be a hydride, hydrogen permeating through the membrane, and a hydrogenated carrier. The mobile ion may be Li⁺、Na⁺Or K⁺And suitable electrolytes may include organic electrolytes (e.g., MPF)₆(M is the corresponding alkali metal)) in a carbonate solvent or a molten co-soluble salt (e.g., a mixture or alkali metal halide, such as a mixture of the same alkali metal M or alkali metal halide).

In one embodiment, the electrochemistry produces a catalyst and a fractional hydrogen reactant of H at least one of the cathode or anode or a compartment thereof. Exemplary reactions (where the metal M is a catalyst or catalyst source, and M_aAnd M_bGold being alloyed or compound with MGenus) is

Cathode reaction

M⁺+e^-+H+M_a→MM_a+ H (1/p) or M⁺+e^-+H→M+H(1/p)(278)

Anodic reaction

M→M⁺+e^-Or MM_b→M⁺+e^-(279)

Net reaction

M+H→M₊H (1/p) + energy at least partially in the form of electricity

M+M_a+H→MM_a+ H (1/p) + energy at least partially in the form of electricity

MM_b+H→M_b+ M + H (1/p) + energy at least partially in the form of electricity

MM_b+M_a+H→M_b+MM_a+ H (1/p) + energy at least partially in the form of electricity

(280)

Exemplary batteries are [ Li/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbTiH₂]- [ Li/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbLiH]And [ Li/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbZrH₂]And [ Li/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbMgH₂]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbMgH₂]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbLiH]- [ LiH/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbTiH₂]- [ LiH/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbZrH₂]- [ LiH/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbTiH₂]- [ LiH/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbLiH]- [ LiH/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbMgH₂]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbMgH₂]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbLiH]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbTiH₂]- [ LiSn/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbZrH₂]- [ LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbMgH₂]- [ LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbLiH]- [ LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbTiH₂]- [ LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Sb or LiSbZrH₂]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/Se]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/SeTiH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Se]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/SeTiH₂]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/MgSe]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/MgSeTiH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/MgSe]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/MgSeTiH₂]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/Te]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/TeTiH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Te]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/TeTiH₂]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/MgTe]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/MgTeTiH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/MgTe]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/MgTeTiH₂]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[LiHLi₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]、[LiHLi₃N/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂TiH₂]、[Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂TiH₂]、[LiHLi₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NHTiH₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NHTiH₂]、[Li₃NTiH₂/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[Li₂NHTiH₂/LiCl-KCl/Li₂NH]And [ at least one of: li, LiH, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloy, Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂And carrier/LiCl-KCl/at least one source of H (e.g., LiH, MgH)₂、TiH₂、ZrH₂) A carrier and a material forming an alloy or compound with Li (e.g. at least one of the following group of alloys and compounds or Li-free species: li₃Mg、LiAl、LiSi、LiB、LiC、LiPb、LiTe、LiSe、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloy, S, Se, Te, MgSe, MgTe, Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂)]And [ at least one of: li, LiH, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiSe, LiC d、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloy, Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂And a support/salt bridge (e.g., borosilicate glass or Li-infused beta alumina)/at least one H source (e.g., LiH, MgH)₂、TiH₂、ZrH₂) A carrier and a material forming an alloy or compound with Li (e.g. at least one of the following group of alloys and compounds or Li-free species: li₃Mg、LiAl、LiSi、LiB、LiC、LiPb、LiTe、LiSe、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1- _ySb(0<x<3、0<y<1) LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloy, S, Se, Te, MgSe, MgTe, Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂)]. Batteries containing anode and cathode compartment reactants for systems such as the Li-N-H system may incorporate a rocking chair design. At least one of H or Li supplied from one set of reactants to the other set may react in the opposite compartment to release at least one of H or Li, thereby establishing a reaction cycle between the two sets of reactants. For example, the anode reactant may include Li₃N and the cathode reactant may comprise LiNH₂. Li from the anode can be made to react with LiNH of the cathode₂Reaction to form Li₂NH + H. The H may be reacted with Li₃N reacts in the anode compartment to form Li and Li₂NH, which continues to circulate. The reverse reaction to form the original reactants may be carried out by appropriate addition and removal of at least one of H and Li or by electrolysis.

In batteries with solid electrolyte and Li⁺In an embodiment for transferring ions, Li ⁺The source being a lithium compound, e.g. a lithium intercalation compound or a lithium hydride, e.g. LiH or LiBH₄. An exemplary battery is [ LiH/BASE/LiOH]、[LiBH₄/BASE/LiOH]、[LiV₂O₅/BASE/LiOH]And [ LiC solvent (e.g., LiILIBr)/BASE/LiOH]. Comprising M⁺Other exemplary batteries with (M = alkali metal) as the mobile ion are [ Na/Na-BASE/LiOH]、[Na/Na-BASE/NaBH₄]、[Li/CelgardLP30/PtC(H₂)]、[Li₃Mg/CelgardLP30/PtC(H₂)]、[Li₃Mg/CelgardLP30/R-Ni]、[Li_1.6Ga/CelgardLP30/R-Ni]、[Na/BASE/PtC(H₂)NaINaBr]、[Na/BASE/PtAl₂O₃(H₂)NaINaBr]、[Na/BASE/PdAl₂O₃(H₂)NaINaBr]、[Na/BASE/PtTi(H₂)NaINaBr]、[Na/BASE/NaSHNaBrNaI]、[Na/BASE/NaSHNaOH]、[LiBH₄/LiICsI/Te]、[LiBH₄/LiICsI/Se]、[LiBH₄/LiICsI/MgTe]And [ LiBH₄/LiICsI/MgSe]。

In one embodiment, the chemistry is regeneration by a method such as electrolysis or in a spontaneous manner. In the latter case, suitable examples according to the formula (278- & 280) are: m is formed at the cathode, M diffuses into M_aStructured anode, and M spontaneously reacts to form an alloy MM_a. Further regarding another exemplary embodiment of equation (274) is: forming M, M and MNH on the cathode₂Or M₂NH to form H and M, respectively₂NH or M₃N, H and M supplied₂NH or M₃N reacts to form MNH₂And M₂One of NH and M, M diffusing to M_aStructured anode, and M reacts spontaneously to form alloy MM_a。

In one embodiment, the cell comprises metal and ammonia in at least one of the cathode and anode half-cells, wherein the metal forms the corresponding amide by reaction with ammonia gas. In embodiments having a metal that reacts with nitrogen to form the corresponding metal nitride, which further reacts with hydrogen to form an amide, the corresponding half cell contains nitrogen and optionally hydrogen. In the absence of hydrogen, the amide may be formed by H in one half cell or hydrogen migrating from the other half cell. The hydrogen source may be a hydride such as a metal hydride. The mobile hydrogen species may be H ⁺Or H^-. The cell may further comprise other cell components of the invention such as electrolytes, salt bridges or separators, carriers, hydrogen sources, and other half-cell reactants. An exemplary battery is [ M + NH₃Partition LP40 or LiBF₄In Tetrahydrofuran (THF), ionic liquid electrolyte, solid electrolyte (such as LiAlO)₂Or BASE), solution in co-dissolved salt electrolyte/M' + NH₃]Wherein M and M' are each independently a group formed by reaction with NH₃Metals that react to form amides, such as alkali or alkaline earth metals. M and M' are preferably different metals. Other exemplary batteries are [ M + NH₃Or N₂And H₂Optional Pt/C (H)₂) Partition LP40 or LiBF₄In Tetrahydrofuran (THF), ionic liquid electrolyte, solid electrolyte (such as LiAlO)₂Or BASE), solution in co-dissolved salt electrolyte/M' + NH₃Or N₂And H₂Optionally metal hydrides (e.g. TiH)₂、ZrH₂Or rare earth metal hydrides)]Wherein M and M' are each independently a group formed by reaction with NH₃Metals which react to form amides (e.g. alkali or alkaline earth metals, or with N₂And H₂The metal that reacts to form the corresponding amide). M and M' are preferably different metals. The battery may also include a substrate having conductivity. In one embodiment, the conductive matrix is a metal, such as an alkali metal. Exemplary batteries are [ Li/separator LP40 or LiBF ₄In Tetrahydrofuran (THF), ionic liquid electrolyte, solid electrolyte (such as LiAlO)₂Or BASE), solution in co-dissolved salt electrolyte/NaNH₂Na]And [ LiC/CelgardLP40/N₂And H₂A gas mixture, and a conductive matrix (e.g. TiC, metal powder (e.g. Al, R-Ni or reduced Ni), or CB or PtC]。

In one embodiment, the lithium amide is formed by the reaction of Li with ammonia. The anode is Li source and the cathode is NH₃And (4) source. Suitable sources of Li are Li metal or Li alloys, e.g. Li₃And Mg. Suitable sources of ammonia are intercalated carbon (e.g. carbon black), zeolites, carbon zeolite mixtures and adsorbed NH₃NH of other materials₃. An exemplary battery is [ Li or Li ]₃Mg/olefin separator LP 40/NH intercalated in carbon₃Or NH adsorbed on the zeolite₃]. In other embodiments, other alkali metals such as Na or K replace Li.

In one embodiment, the mobile ion can be a metal ion (e.g., an alkali metal ion, such as Li)⁺) Or H⁺Or H^-. At least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactants comprises an aminoborane and a borane amine that reacts with a mobile ion undergoing reduction. The reaction produces H vacancies or H additions which result in the formation of hydrinos, wherein one or more H atoms act as catalysts for the other. In another embodiment, the reaction is such that H is formed in the presence of a catalyst that reacts to form hydrinos (such as Li, K, or NaH). An exemplary battery is [ Li or Li alloy (e.g., LiC or Li) ₃Mg)/olefin spacers LP 40/aminoboranes and borane amines]、[Pt/C(H₂) Proton conductors (e.g. Nafion) or ionic liquids/aminoboranes and boramines][ aminoboranes and borane amine/co-soluble salts H^-Conductor (e.g., LiCl-KCl)/hydride (e.g., rare earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, alkali metal and alkaline earth metal)]. The battery may further comprise at least one of a conductive support, a matrix, and a binder.

In one embodiment, cation exchange may occur between the half-cell reactants and the eutectic salt. In one example, Li₂The NH reacts with the cations of the electrolyte and it is replaced by cations from the anode half-cell. The source may be a metal or hydride, such as the hydride illustrated by MH.

Cathode reaction

Li⁺+Li₂NH+e^-→Li₃N+H(1/p)(281)

Anodic reaction

MH→M⁺+e^-+H(282)

Regeneration

Li₃N+H→Li+Li₂NH(283)

Li+M⁺→Li⁺+M(284)

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (285) at least partially in the form of electricity

In one embodiment, such as Li⁺Plasma with a plasma chamberCan be formed by oxidation of the corresponding imide at the anode. The reaction of the mobile ions at the cathode may also include the formation of compounds or alloys containing reduced mobile ions. An exemplary reaction is

Anodic reaction

2Li₂NH→Li₃N+2H+1/2N₂+Li⁺+e^-(reaction of Li with H to yield hydrido) (286)

Cathode reaction

Li⁺+e^-→Li(287)

Net reaction

2Li₂NH→Li₃N+2H+1/2N₂+Li(288)

Anodic reaction

Li₂NH→H+1/2N₂+2Li⁺+2e^-(Li reacts with H to yield hydrino H (1/4)) (289)

Cathode reaction

2Li⁺+2e^-+Se→Li₂Se(290)

Net reaction

Li₂NH+Se→1/2N₂+Li₂Se+H(1/4)(291)

An exemplary battery is [ Li ]₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Se]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Se+H₂]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/Se]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/Se+H₂]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Te]、[Li₂NH/LiCl-KCl/Te+H₂]、[LiNH₂/LiCl-KCl/Te]And [ LiNH H₂/LiCl-KCl/Te+H₂]。

In one embodiment, LiH may serve as a catalyst for the Li-N-H system. In one exemplary system, the reversible reaction is

Cathode reaction

LiH+LiNH₂+2e^-→Li₂NH+2H^-(292)

LiH+Li₂NH+2e^-→Li₃N+2H^-(293)

Anodic reaction

4H^-+Li₃N→LiNH₂+2LiH+4e^-(294)

When H is reduced and H is caused to react^-When oxidized, hydrino H (1/p) is formed. In fact, LiNH₂Moving from cathode to anode and the chemistry is reversible so that electricity is generated when hydrinos are formed. The H carrier can be H that migrates from the cathode to the anode^-。

In one embodiment, at least one H atom produced by reactions between species of the M-N-H system acts as a catalyst for another formed by these reactions. An exemplary reversible reaction is LiH + LiNH₂→Li₂NH+H₂、LiH+Li₂NH→Li₃N+H₂、Li+LiNH₂→Li₂NH+1/2H₂、Li+Li₂NH→Li₃N+1/2H₂. Na or K may replace Li. H at 3.94ppm₂NMR peaks and batteries [ Li₃N/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂]Reaction product peaks at 2.2ppm, 1.63ppm and 1.00ppm (initially largest is the 1.63ppm peak) and function to form peaks H with corresponding molecular NMR₂(1/2)、H₂(1/3) and H₂H (1/2), H (1/3) of (1/4) and H of the catalyst of the subsequent H (1/4) are identical. Li may also act as a catalyst. Based on NaNH₂Middle H₂(1/4) intensity of the peak, NaH may also act as a catalyst in this material.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a source of Li, which may also comprise a source of hydrogen, such as Li metal, LiH, Li ₂Se、Li₂Te、Li₂S、LiNH₂、Li₂NH and Li₃And N. The cathode comprises iodine and may further comprise a complex of iodine with a matrix such as poly-2-vinylpyridine (P2 VP). Is suitable forThe complex of (a) comprises about 10% P2 VP. The cell further contains a source of hydrogen, which may be from the anode reactant or may be the reactant of the cathode compartment. Suitable hydrogen sources are H added directly or by permeation through a membrane, such as a hydrogen permeable metal membrane₂A gas. An exemplary battery is [ Li/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VPH₂][ Li/LiI formed during operation ]₂P2VPSS(H₂)][ LiH/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VP]、[LiNH₂LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VP]、[Li₂NH/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VP]、[Li₃N/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VP]、[Li₂Se/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VPSS(H₂)]、[Li₂Te/LiI/I formed during operation₂P2VPSS(H₂)]And [ Li₂S/LiI formed during operation₂P2VPSS(H₂)]。

In one embodiment, the hydrino reactants of the present halide-hydride anion exchange reaction are electrochemically generated. In one embodiment, the redox reaction that forms a fractional hydrogen comprises a cathodic reaction of formula (243), wherein M is⁺+ H is reduced to MH, which is the reactant of the halide hydride ion exchange reaction that forms hydrinos as a result of the exchange reaction. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

Li⁺+e^-+H→LiH(295)

Anodic reaction

Li→Li⁺+e^-(296)

And in solution

nLiH + MX or MX_n→ nLiX + M and MH_nAnd H (1/4) (297)

Net hydriding reaction

H→H(1/4)+19.7MJ(298)

The co-solvent mixture containing the electrolyte may be a source of the hydrino reactant of the halide-hydride anion exchange reaction. Suitable co-solvent mixtures may comprise at least one first salt (e.g., a halide salt) and a salt as a hydride source. The hydride source may be a catalyst source. Alkali metal halides may serve as a source of catalyst. For example, LiX, NaX, or KX (X being a halide) may serve as a source of catalyst comprising LiH, NaH, and KH, respectively. Alternatively, at least one H may act as a catalyst. The first salt may comprise rare earth metals, transition metals, alkaline earth metals, alkali metals, and other metals (such as Ag and metals of the alkali metal salts). An exemplary halide-salt mixture is EuBr₂-LiX(X=F、Cl、Br)、LaF₃-LiX、CeBr₃-LiX, AgCl-LiX. Others are given in table 4. In another embodiment, at least one electrode may be a reactant or product of a halide-hydride anion exchange reaction. For example, the cathode can be Eu or EuH₂Which is, for example, EuBr₂And the like, with alkali metal hydrides such as LiH. Other rare earth metals or transition metals or hydrides thereof (e.g. La, LaH) ₂、Ce、CeH₂Ni, NiH and Mn) may constitute the cathode. These are the products of the halide-hydride exchange reaction of the invention, for example in the presence of alkali metal hydrides MH (such as LiH, NaH and KH) and metal halides (such as LaF)₃、CeBr₃、NiBr₂And MnI₂) A halide-hydride anion exchange reaction between them. In one embodiment, the halide hydride anion exchange reactant can be regenerated electrolytically or thermally. In one embodiment, the battery may be operated at high temperatures such that thermal regeneration occurs in the battery. The reverse reaction of halide-hydride anion exchange can occur thermally, wherein the thermal energy is at least partially from the reaction forming hydrinos.

In one embodiment, conductive species (e.g., Li metal) from the porous or open electrodes may accumulate in the battery, for example, in the electrolyte. The conductive species may short circuit the voltage generated between the cathode and the anode. The short circuit can be eliminated by breaking the continuity of the conductive circuit between the electrodes. Can stirMix electrolyte to break the circuit. The concentration of the conductive species can be controlled to prevent shorting. In one embodiment, the release of the species is controlled by controlling the solubility of the species in the electrolyte. In one embodiment, reaction conditions such as temperature, electrolyte composition, and hydrogen pressure and hydride concentration are controlled. For example, the metal concentration (e.g., the concentration of Li) can be controlled by varying its solubility using the amount of LiH present, and vice versa. Alternatively, conductive species such as Li may be removed. The removal may be achieved by electroplating using electrolysis. In one embodiment, excess metal, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (e.g., Li), may be removed by electroplating by first forming a hydride. The ions may then be removed. M ⁺(e.g. Li)⁺) Can be removed by electroplating in metallic form (e.g., Li), and H^-With H₂The gaseous form is removed. Can be electroplated on the counter electrode. The counter electrode may be formed of a Li alloy such as LiAl. Electrolysis may remove Li from the CIHT cathode. During electrolysis, the Li metal deposited on the CIHT cathode may be anodized (oxidized) to Li⁺The Li⁺Migrate to the electrolytic cathode (CIHT anode) and are plated therein. Or alternatively, Li⁺The solution may be admitted at the electrolytic anode and anions may be formed at the electrolytic cathode. In one embodiment, H may be reduced to H at the electrolytic cathode^-. In another embodiment, Li may be deposited at the electrolytic cathode and H may be formed at the electrolytic anode. H can pass through H^-Is formed by oxidation of (a). H can react with Li to form LiH on the surface of the electrolytic anode. LiH may be dissolved in the electrolyte such that Li is removed from the electrolytic anode (CIHT cathode), thereby regenerating CIHT cell voltage and power due to the catalytic recovery of H forming a fraction of hydrogen when operating in CIHT cell mode. During operation of a CIHT cell, hydrides, such as LiH, may precipitate from the electrolyte and separate based on the buoyancy differences between it, the electrolyte, and optionally Li metal. It may also be selectively deposited on the material. The hydride layer may be pumped or otherwise mechanically transferred to electrolysis, where Li metal and H ₂Produce and return CIHT cells. Electrolytic power may be provided by another CIHT cell. In other embodiments, other metals may be substitutedLi。

In one embodiment, a voltage is generated from the reaction of the hydrino reactants formed, which then react to form hydrinos, and the polarity is periodically reversed by applying an external power source to regenerate the hydrino forming conditions. Regeneration may comprise at least one of the following: partially regenerating the original reactants or their concentrations, and removing the reactants or intermediates or other species (e.g., contaminants) or one or more products. Removal of one or more products may at least partially eliminate product inhibition. Electrolysis may be performed by applying a voltage to remove hydrinos and other inhibitory products. In one embodiment, excess alkali metal (e.g., Li, Na, or K) may be plated out of solution. In one embodiment, an external power source such as Li is used⁺、Na⁺Or K⁺The plasma is electrolyzed at the cathode into a metal and the external power source may be another CIHT cell operated in a direction to form a fractional hydrogen to at least partially supply electrolysis power. Electrolysis may be performed on the cathode to form an alloy, e.g. Li₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiTe, LiCd, LiBi, LiPd, LiSn, LiSb, LiZn, LiGa, LiIn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (e.g., oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides), mixed metal-Li alloys (e.g., Cu (5.4 wt%) Li (1.3 wt%) Ag (0.4 wt%) Mg (0.4 wt%) Zr (0.14 wt%) Al (balance), Cu (2.7 wt%) Li (2.2 wt%) Zr (0.12 wt%) Al (balance), Cu (2.1 wt%) Li (2.0 wt%) Zr (0.10 wt%) Al (balance), and Cu (0.95 wt%) Li (2.45 wt%) Zr (0.12 wt%) Al (balance)), NaSn, NaZn, NaBi, KSn, KZn, or KBi alloys. Other CIHT cell anodes that can be regenerated by electrolysis as cathodes are lithium-infused (lithiated) boride anodes, such as LiB alloys and lithiated TiB ₂、MgB₂、GdB₂、CrB₂、ZrB₂. Other suitable alloys (e.g., alloys of alkaline earth metals) are MgNi and MgCu alloys. Electrolysis at the anode may form hydrogen or a metal hydride of the anode metal, such as nickel, titanium, niobium or vanadium hydride. The electrolytic cathode and anode may be a CIHT cell anode and cathode, wherein the action is reversed upon switching from CIHT to the electrolytic cell and after cell regenerationIt can be used for rehabilitation. The reverse voltage may be applied in a pulse form. The pulsed reverse polarity and waveform may be in any frequency range, peak voltage, peak power, peak current, duty cycle, and compensation voltage. The pulsed inversion may be DC, or the applied voltage may already be alternating or have a waveform. The application may be pulsed at a desired frequency and the waveform may have a desired frequency. Suitable pulse frequencies are in the range of about 1 to about 1000Hz, and the duty cycle may be about 0.001% to about 95%, but may be in a narrower range of two increments within this range. The peak voltage may be in the range of at least one of about 0.1V to 10V, but may be in a narrower range of two increments within this range. In another embodiment, high voltage pulses are applied that may be in the range of about 10V to 100kV, but may be in a narrower range of magnitude increments within this range. The waveform frequency may be in at least one of the ranges of about 0.1Hz to about 100MHz, about 100MHz to 10GHz, and about 10GHz to 100GHz, but may be in a narrower range of magnitude increments within this range. The duty cycle may be at least one of in the range of about 0.001% to about 95% and about 0.1% to about 10%, but may be in a narrower range of magnitude increments within this range. The peak power density of the pulse may be about 0.001W/cm ²To 1000W/cm²But may be within a narrower range of step increments within this range. The average power density of the pulses may be about 0.0001W/cm²To 100W/cm²But may be within a narrower range of step increments within this range.

In one embodiment, reactants, which may be transient, are generated during electrolysis, which cause formation of hydrinos and corresponding electricity during the discharge phase of a CIHT cell in a repeating cycle of charge and discharge. Electrolytic power may be applied to optimize the energy from the formation of hydrinos relative to the input energy. The electrolysis conditions of voltage, waveform, operating cell, frequency and other parameters may be adjusted to increase the gain of electrical energy from the cell.

Exemplary pulsed electrolytic cells are [ Li/olefin separator LP 40/hydrided C ], [ LiC/olefin separator LP 40/hydrided C ], [ Li/olefin separator LP 40/metal hydride ], [ LiC/olefin separator LP 40/metal hydride ].

In another embodiment, removal of the inhibitor or regeneration of the hydrino reaction is performed by mechanical agitation, such as stirring. In another embodiment, removal of the inhibitor or regeneration of the hydrino reaction is performed by thermally cycling the cell. Alternatively, a reactant may be added to remove the inhibitory source. Where the inhibiting species is a hydride, such as a fractional hydride, a proton source may be added. The source may be HCl. The product may be a metal halide (e.g., an alkali metal halide) that can be further regenerated by electrolysis. Electrolysis may be carried out in a molten electrolyte such as a co-solvent. In the case where the inhibitor is an alkali metal of hydride (e.g., Li), a reactant may be added that selectively reacts therewith to alter its activity. For example, a suitable reactant for Li is nitrogen, which tends to form nitrides with Li.

In one embodiment, Li can be regenerated and collected in a container (e.g., an inverted electrolyte-impregnated bell) that collects the metal on top of the electrolyte within the bell due to the lower density of the metal relative to the electrolyte. In one embodiment, the metal concentration in the electrolyte may be controlled by an actuation system such as a thermal or electrical controlled release system, such as a knudsen cell (knudsen cell) or a piezoelectric release system. In another embodiment, the metal, such as Li, is controlled by controlling reaction conditions, such as cell temperature, concentration of at least one reactant, or hydrogen pressure. For example, the formation of LiAl or LiSi alloys proceeds spontaneously from LiH with a metal counter electrode (e.g., Ti forming a metal hydride such as TiH). The reaction is formed by a high LiH concentration. Next, as the LiH concentration decreases, the cell can be operated in CIHT mode with a lithium alloy as the anode and a metal hydride (e.g., TiH) as the cathode.

In an embodiment, the half-cell reactants are regenerated. Regeneration may be in a batch mode, achieved by methods such as electrolysis of the product into the reactant, or by thermal reaction of the product into the reactant. Alternatively, the system may be spontaneously regenerated in batch mode or continuously. Reaction for forming a hydrino reactant by The electron and ion flow comprising the corresponding reactants undergoing oxidation in the anode half cell and reduction in the cathode half cell. In one embodiment, the overall reaction to form the hydrino reactants is not thermodynamically favored. For example, it has a positive free energy, and the reaction in the reverse direction is spontaneous or can be made spontaneous by changing the reaction conditions. The reaction is then driven in a manner that can be a synergistic reaction by the large amount of energy released when forming hydrinos. Because the reaction to form hydrinos is irreversible, the product can spontaneously convert to reactant after hydrinos have been formed. Alternatively, one or more reaction conditions (e.g., temperature, hydrogen pressure, or concentration of one or more reactants or products) are altered to regenerate the initial reactants of the cell. In an exemplary cell, the anode comprises an alloy or compound of a catalyst source (e.g., Li) (e.g., LiPb or LiSb and Li)₂Se、Li₂Te, an amide, an imide, or a nitride (e.g., an amide, imide, or nitride of Li, respectively)), and the cathode contains a hydrogen source and reactants that react with a catalyst source that can also be a hydrogen source. The hydrogen source and the reactant, which may also be a hydrogen source, may be at least one of a hydride, a compound, a simple substance (e.g., a metal), an amide, an imide, or a nitride. In other embodiments with alkali metal alloys, such as Li alloys, the alloys may be hydrogenated (i.e., the corresponding alloy hydrides). The metals of any of the cathode half cell reactants can be alloyed or otherwise compounded with a source of catalyst (e.g., selenide, telluride, or hydride). The delivery of the catalyst source from the anode while forming an alloy or compound at the cathode is not thermodynamically favored, but is driven by the hydrino reaction. Then, a spontaneous reverse reaction of products including only non-hydrinos can occur to regenerate the reactants. An exemplary cell is [ LiSb/LiCl-KCl/Ti (KH) ] ]、[LiSb/LiCl+KClLiH/Ti(KH)]、[LiSi/LiCl-KClLiH/LiNH₂]、[LiSi/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Ti(KH)]、[LiPb/LiCl-KClLiH/Ti(KH)]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂Or Li₂NH]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂Or Li₂NH + carrier (e.g. TiC)]、[Li₂Te/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂Or Li₂NH]、[Li₂Te/LiCl-KCl/LiNH₂Or Li₂NH + carrier (e.g. TiC)]、[LiSi/LiCl-KClLiH/Ti(H₂)]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[Li₂Te/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[LiSi/LiCl-KClLiH/Fe(H₂)]、[LiPb/LiCl-KCl/Fe(H₂)]、[Li₂Se/LiCl-KCl/Fe(H₂)]And [ Li₂Te/LiCl-KCl/Ni(H₂)]. An exemplary regeneration reaction involving the reactant amide and the product imide or nitride is the addition of hydrogen, which reacts with the imide or nitride, respectively, to form a hydrogenated imide or amide.

In one embodiment, the hydrino anion suppresses the reaction, and regeneration is achieved by reacting the hydrino anion to form molecular hydrino that can be vented from the cell. Hydride anions may be present on at least one of the cathode and the anode and in the electrolyte. The reaction of hydride ions to molecular fraction hydrogen can be achieved by electrolysis. The electrolysis may have a polarity opposite to that of the operation of the CIHT cell. Electrolysis may form protons or H, which react with hydrino anions to form molecular hydrinos. The reaction may occur at the electrolytic anode. In one embodiment, the hydrino anion has a high mobility such that it migrates to the anode and reacts with H⁺Or H reacts to form molecular hydrinos.

In one embodiment, the half-cell reactants are selected such that the energy in the redox reaction is better matched to an integer multiple of the energy transfer between the H atoms and the catalyst of about 27.2eV to increase the reaction rate for forming hydrinos. The energy in the redox reaction can provide activation energy to increase the reaction rate for forming hydrinos. In one embodiment, the electrical load to the cell is adjusted to match the redox reaction coupled by current and ion flow to an integer multiple of the energy transfer between the H atoms and the catalyst of about 27.2eV to increase the reaction rate for forming hydrinos.

In one embodiment, a positive bias voltage is applied to at least the anode to collect electrons from the catalyst under ionization. In one embodiment, the electron collector at the anode collects ionized electrons at an increased rate than when no collector is present. A suitable rate is a rate faster than the rate at which electrons will locally react with a surrounding reactant (e.g., a metal hydride) to form an anion, such as a hydride anion. Thus, the collector forces the electrons through an external circuit, where the voltage is increased by the release of energy to form hydrinos. Thus, the electron collector (e.g., the applied positive potential) serves as a source of activation energy for the hydrino reaction that powers the CIHT cell. In one embodiment, the voltage bias (bias) acts as a current amplifier, e.g., a transistor, where injecting a small current results in the flow of a large current powered by the hydrino reaction. The applied voltage, as well as other conditions (e.g., temperature and hydrogen pressure) can be controlled to control the power output of the cell.

In one embodiment, a battery comprises: an anode compartment containing a hydrino or H limited hydrino catalyst reaction mixture, a cathode compartment containing a hydrogen source (such as hydrogen or hydride), a salt bridge connecting the compartments by ionic conduction, wherein the conducting ion can be a hydride, and the anode and cathode are electrically connected by an external circuit. Power may be delivered to a load connected to the external circuit, or power may be delivered to the battery with an applied power source in series or parallel with the external circuit. The applied power source can provide activation energy for the hydrino reaction such that amplified power is output from the battery as a result of the applied power. In other embodiments, the applied electrolytic power causes the migration of another ion (e.g., a halide or an oxygen ion), wherein mass transport induces a hydrino reaction to occur in the compartment.

In one embodiment of the CIHT cell, the product is regenerated by electrolysis. The molten salt may comprise an electrolyte. The product can be an alkali metal halide of the catalyst metal and at least one hydride of a second metal (e.g., an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydride). The product can be oxidized in the following manner: a voltage is applied to reduce the halide to metal at the electrolytic cathode and to change the halide to halogen at the electrolytic anode, where the polarity is opposite to that of the CIHT cell. The catalyst metal may beReact with hydrogen to form an alkali metal hydride. The halogen may react with a metal hydride (e.g., an alkali metal hydride or an alkaline earth metal hydride) to form the corresponding halide. In one embodiment, the salt bridge is selective for halide ions and the catalyst metal is in the CIHT anode compartment and the second metal is in the CIHT cathode compartment. Because the electrical energy released to form hydrinos is much greater than that required for regeneration, the second CIHT cell may regenerate the first CIHT cell, and vice versa, so that constant electrical power may be output from multiple cells in the power and regeneration cycle. An exemplary CIHT cell is NaH or KHMg and a support (e.g., TiC)// MX, where MX is a metal halide, such as LiCl, and the salt bridge represented by// is a halide ion conductor. Suitable halide ion conductors are halide salts such as molten electrolytes (which include alkali metal halides, alkaline earth metal halides, and mixtures), solid rare earth metal oxychlorides, and alkali metal halides or alkaline earth metal halides that are solid at the operating parameters of the cell. In one embodiment, Cl ^-The solid electrolyte may include metal chlorides, metal halides, and other halides (e.g., PdCl)₂(which may be doped with KCl) and PbF₂、BiCl₃) And ion exchange polymers (silicates, sodium phosphotungstate, and sodium polyphosphate). The solid electrolyte may comprise an infused carrier. An exemplary solid electrolyte is PbCl doped with an implant₂The textile glass cloth. In another embodiment, the counter ion is an ion other than a halide ion, such as at least one of the following group: oxygen ions, phosphorus ions, boron ions, hydroxyl groups, silicon ions, nitrogen ions, arsenic ions, selenium ions, tellurium ions, antimony ions, carbon ions, sulfur ions, hydrogen ions, carbonate groups, bicarbonate groups, sulfate groups, hydrogen sulfate groups, phosphate groups, hydrogen phosphate groups, dihydrogen phosphate groups, nitrate groups, nitrite groups, permanganate groups, chlorate groups, perchlorate groups, chlorite groups, perchlorate groups, hypochlorite groups, bromate groups, perbromite groups, iodate groups, periodate groups, iodite groups, periodate groups, chromate groups, dichromate groups, tellurate groups, selenate groups, arsenate groups, silicate groups, borate groups, cobalt oxides, tellurium oxides and other oxyanions (e.g., halogens, hydrogen sulfate groups, phosphate groups, hydrogen phosphate groups, dihydrogen phosphate groups, nitrate groups, nitrite groups, permanganate groups, chlorate groups, perchlorate groups, chlorite groups, perchlorate groups, Oxyanions of P, B, Si, N, As, S, Te, Sb, C, S, P, Mn, Cr, Co, and Te), the CIHT cathode compartment contains a compound of a counter ion, and the salt bridge is selective for the counter ion. Exemplary CIHT cells that can be regenerated by electrolysis include an alkali metal hydride at the anode and a metal halide, e.g., an alkali or alkaline earth metal halide, at the cathode and a metal halide electrolyte, such as a molten eutectic salt. The anode and cathode may further comprise a metal comprising a hydride and a halide, respectively.

Based on the Nernst equation, H^-The increase in (b) makes the potential more positive. A more negative potential is beneficial to the stabilization of the catalyst ion transition state. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture contains hydride exchangeable metals to make the nernst potential more negative. Suitable metals are Li and alkaline earth metals (e.g. Mg). The reaction mixture may also include an oxidizing agent (e.g., an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, or transition metal halide) to lower the potential. The oxidant can accept electrons as the catalyst ions are formed.

The carrier may act as a capacitor and charge upon accepting electrons from the ionizing catalyst during energy transfer from H. The capacitance of the carrier can be increased by adding a high permittivity dielectric that can be mixed with the carrier, or the dielectric material is a gas at the cell operating temperature. In another embodiment, a magnetic field is applied to reflect the ionized electrons from the catalyst to drive the hydrino reaction forward.

In another embodiment, the catalyst becomes ionized and reduced in the anode half-cell reaction. Reduction may be by formation of H⁺Is carried out with hydrogen. H⁺Can migrate to the cathode compartment through suitable salt bridges. The salt bridge may be a proton conducting membrane, a proton exchange membrane and/or a proton conductor, e.g. based on SrCeO₃Of perovskite type in solid state, e.g. SrCe_0.9Y_0.08Nb_0.02O_2.97And SrCeO_0.95Yb_0.05O₃-α。H⁺Can react in the cathode compartment to form H₂. For example, H⁺Can be reduced at the cathode or combined with, for example, MgH₂Isohydrid compoundsReaction to form H₂. In another embodiment, the cation of the catalyst migrates. In the case where the mobile ion is, for example, Na⁺In the case of iso-cations, the salt bridge may be a beta-alumina solid electrolyte. Liquid electrolytes (e.g., NaAlCl)₄) Can also be used to deliver Na, for example⁺And (3) plasma.

In the two-membrane three-compartment cell shown in fig. 20, the salt bridge may comprise an ion-conducting electrolyte 471 in the compartment 470 between the anode 472 and the cathode 473. The electrodes are kept separate and can be sealed to the inner container wall such that the container wall and electrodes form the chamber 470 for the electrolyte 471. The electrodes are electrically insulated from the container so as to be spaced apart from each other. Any other conductor that can electrically short the electrodes must also be electrically insulated from the container to avoid shorting. The anode and cathode may comprise metals having high permeability to hydrogen. The electrode may comprise a geometry that provides a higher surface area (e.g., a tube electrode), or it may comprise a porous electrode. Hydrogen from the cathode compartment 474 may diffuse through the cathode and experience a transition to H at the interface of the cathode and the salt bridge electrolyte 471 ^-Reduction of (2). H^-Migrate through the electrolyte and oxidize to H at the electrolyte-anode interface. H diffuses through the anode and reacts with the catalyst in the anode compartment 475 to form hydrinos. H^-And ionization of the catalyst provides a reduction current at the cathode, which is carried in an external circuit 476. The H-permeable electrode may comprise V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloys, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, Pd-coated Ti, rare earth metals, other refractory metals, and other such metals known to those skilled in the art. The electrode may be a metal foil. The chemical may be thermally regenerated by heating any hydrides formed in the anode compartment to thermally decompose them. Hydrogen may be flowed or pumped into the cathode compartment to regenerate the initial cathode reactant. The regeneration reaction may occur in the anode and cathode compartments, or the chemicals in one or both compartments may be delivered to one or more reaction vessels for regeneration.

In another embodiment, the catalyst undergoes H catalysis and becomes ionized in the cathode compartment, and is also neutralized in the cathode compartment,so that no net current flows directly as a result of the catalytic reaction. The free energy to generate EMF comes from the formation of hydrinos that require mass transport of ions and electrons. For example, the mobile ions may be generated by oxidation of e.g. H in the anodic compartment ₂H formed of the same species⁺。H⁺Migrates through at least one of the electrolyte and salt bridges (e.g., proton exchange membrane) to the cathode compartment and is reduced to H or hydride in the cathode compartment so that the hydrino reaction occurs. Or, H₂Or hydrides can be reduced to H in the cathode compartment^-. The reduction further forms at least one of a catalyst, a source of catalyst, and atomic H that allows the hydrino reaction to occur. H^-Migrate to the anode compartment where it or another species is ionized to provide electrons to an external circuit, forming a complete cycle. The oxidized H can be derived from H₂It can be recycled into the cathode compartment using a pump.

In another embodiment, the metal is oxidized at the anode. The metal ions migrate through an electrolyte such as a molten salt or a solid electrolyte. Suitable molten electrolytes are halides that migrate metal ions. The metal ions are reduced at the cathode, where the metal undergoes a reaction that changes its activity. In a suitable reaction, the metal dissolves in another metal, forms an intermetallic with at least one other metal, chemisorbs or physisorbs on a surface or intercalates in a material such as carbon, and forms a metal hydride. The metal may act as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The cathode reactant also contains hydrogen and may include other reactants to allow the hydrino reaction to occur. Other reactants may include a support such as TiC and a reducing agent, a catalyst, and a hydride exchange reactant. Suitable exemplary Mg intermetallic compounds include Mg-Ca, Mg-Ag, Mg-Ba, Mg-Li, Mg-Bi, Mg-Cd, Mg-Ga, Mg-In, Mg-Cu and Mg-Ni and hydrides thereof. Suitable exemplary Ca intermetallic compounds include Ca-Cu, Ca-In, Ca-Li, Ca-Ni, Ca-Sn, Ca-Zn and hydrides thereof. Exemplary Na and K alloys or amalgams include alloys of Hg, Pb, and Bi. Others include Na-Sn and Li-Sn. The hydride is thermally decomposable. The intermetallic compounds may be regenerated by distillation. The regenerated metal may be recycled.

In another embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source in the anode compartment is subjected to ionization and the corresponding cation migrates through a salt bridge selective for the cation. A suitable cation is Na⁺And Na⁺The selective membrane is beta alumina. The cations are reduced in a cathode compartment containing hydrogen or a hydrogen source and optionally other reactants of the hydrino reaction mixture, such as one or more of a carrier, a reducing agent, an oxidizing agent and a hydride anion exchanger. The battery may operate as a CIHT battery, an electrolysis battery, or a combination, wherein the applied electrolysis power is amplified by a hydrino reaction.

In another embodiment, the cathode compartment comprises a source of catalyst and a source of H. The catalyst and H form reactions from these sources with the reduced cations migrating from the anode compartment. The catalyst and H further undergo a reaction to form hydrinos.

In one embodiment, LiCl/KCl and optionally LiH are co-dissolved salts and positive ions of the electrolyte (e.g., Li)⁺) From the anode compartment, through salt bridges, to the cathode compartment and is reduced to a metal or hydride (e.g., Li and LiH). Another exemplary electrolyte comprises LiPF₆Dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution. The borosilicate glass may be a spacer. In other embodiments, one or more alkali metals are substituted for at least one of Li and K. At K ⁺Substitution of Li⁺As the mobile ion, a solid potassium-glass electrolyte may be used. In one embodiment, due to, for example, Li⁺The migration of the plasma, and thus its reduction and any subsequent reactions (e.g., hydride formation and H-catalysis to the hydrino state) occur in the cathode compartment, thereby contributing to the battery EMF. The hydrogen source used to form the hydride and H for the hydriding reaction may be a hydride that forms heat to a lesser extent than the hydride of the mobile ion. In Li⁺Suitable hydrides for use as mobile ions include MgH₂、TiH₂、LiH、NaH、KH、RbH、CsH、BaH、LaNi_xMn_yH_zAnd Mg₂NiH_xWherein x, y and z are rational numbers. A suitable hydride of K or Na to replace Li is MgH₂。

In one embodiment, the anode half-cell reactant comprises at least one oxidizable metal and the cathode half-cell reactant comprises at least one hydride that is reactive with the metal of the anode. At least one of the cathode and anode half cell reactants may further comprise a conductive matrix or support material (e.g., carbon black), carbide (e.g., TiC, YC)₂Or WC) or borides (e.g. MgB)₂Or TiB₂) And both half-cells include a conductive electrode. The reactants may be in any molar ratio, but a suitable ratio is an approximately stoichiometric mixture of the hydrogen-donating exchange metal and up to 50 mole% of the support. Anodic metal is oxidized in the anodic half-cell compartment, cations (e.g. Li) ⁺) Migrate to the cathode half-cell compartment and are reduced and metal atoms (such as Li) react with hydrides in the cathode compartment. In one embodiment, the reaction is a hydride exchange reaction. The hydrogen content of the cathode half cell compartment also serves as a source of H for the formation of hydrinos. At least one of the migrating cations, the reduced cations, the reaction products of the migrating cations, the at least one H and one or more reactants of the cathode half-cell compartment or their reaction products with the migrating cations or the reduced cations serve as a catalyst or a source of catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. Because the cell reaction can be driven by a more exothermic reaction where H forms hydrinos with the catalyst, in one embodiment, the cathode compartment hydride, which is H exchanged with the reduced migrating cation from the anode compartment, has a formation free energy similar to or more negative than the hydride of the reduced migrating cation. The free energy resulting from the reaction of the reduced mobile cation (e.g., Li) with the cathode metal hydride can then be slightly negative, zero, or positive. Excluding the hydrino reaction, in embodiments, the free energy of the hydride ion exchange reaction can be any possible value. Suitable ranges are about +1000 kj/mole to-1000 kj/mole, about +1000 kj/mole to-100 kj/mole, about +1000 kj/mole to-10 kj/mole, and about +1000 kj/mole to 0 kj/mole. Further, the method can be used for preparing a novel material Suitable hydrides for hydride exchange that serve as sources of hydrinos forming hydrinos are at least one of metal, semi-metal or alloy hydrides. In the case of mobile ions as catalysts or sources of catalysts (e.g. Li)⁺、Na⁺Or K⁺) In the case of (b), the hydride may comprise any metal, semimetal or alloy other than that corresponding to the mobile ion. Suitable exemplary hydrides are alkali or alkaline earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrides (such as Ti hydrides), internal transition metal hydrides (such as Nb, Zr or Ta hydrides), palladium or platinum hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides. Due to the negative free energy used to form hydrinos, the cell voltage is higher than the voltage caused by the free energy of any hydride anion exchange reaction that can contribute to the voltage. This applies to circuits with open circuit voltage and with load. Thus, CIHT cells differ from any prior art in that: the voltage is higher than that predicted by the nernst equation for non-hydrino-related chemistry, such as hydrogen anion exchange reactions, including correction for voltage due to any polarization voltage when the cell is loaded.

In one embodiment, the anode half-cell reactant comprises a source of catalyst, such as an alkali metal or compound, wherein alkali metal ions migrate to the cathode compartment and can undergo a hydride exchange reaction with the hydride of the cathode compartment. An exemplary conventional battery total reaction in which the anode reactant comprises a source of Li can be represented by the formula:

(n, m are integers) (299)

Wherein M represents a single element or several elements (in the form of mixtures, intermetallic compounds or alloys) selected from the group consisting of metals or semimetals capable of forming hydrides. These hydrides may also be replaced by compounds known as "M hydrides" (which means elements M that adsorb (e.g., chemically combine) hydrogen atoms). M hydride may be represented as MH hereinafter_mWherein M is the number of H atoms adsorbed or combined by M. In one embodiment, the hydride M_nH_mOr MH_mIs higher than, equal to, or lower than the free formation enthalpy of the hydride of the catalyst (e.g., LiH). Alternatively, at least one H may act as a catalyst. Exemplary metals or semi-metals include alkali metals (Na, K, Rb, Cs), alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Ba, Sr), group IIIA elements (e.g., B, Al, Ga, Sb), group IVA elements (e.g., C, Si, Ge, Sn), and group VA elements (e.g., N, P, As). Other examples are transition metal alloys and intermetallic compounds AB_nWherein A represents one or more elements capable of forming a stable hydride and B is an element forming an unstable hydride. Examples of intermetallic compounds are given in table 5.

Table 5. elements and combinations that form hydrides.

Other examples are intermetallic compounds, wherein a part of site a and/or site B is substituted by another element. For example, if M represents LaNi₅The intermetallic alloy may be formed of LaNi_5-xA_xWhere a is, for example, Al, Cu, Fe, Mn and/or Co, and La may be substituted with a cerium-containing rare earth alloy (a mixture of rare earth metals containing 30% to 70% cerium, neodymium and a very small amount of elements from the same family, the remainder being lanthanum). In other embodiments, the lithium may be replaced by other catalysts or catalyst sources (e.g., Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ca, and at least one H). In embodiments, the anode may comprise an alloy, such as Li₃Mg、K₃Mg、Na₃Mg, formed such as MMgH₃And (M = alkali metal) and the like. An exemplary battery is [ Li ]₃Mg、K₃Mg、Na₃Mg/LiCl-KCl/hydride, e.g. CeH₂、LaH₂、TiH₂、ZrH₂Or M (H)₂) Wherein M is H₂Permeable metal or H₂Diffusion cathode]。

In an exemplary reaction, Li is the anodic metal and M_nH_mIs yinHydride reactant for the polar half cell compartment:

cathode reaction

mLi⁺+me^-+M_nH_m→(m-1)LiH+Li+H(1/p)+nM(300)

Anodic reaction

Li→Li⁺+e-(301)

In other embodiments, Li may be replaced by another catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Na or K). M may also be a catalyst or a source of catalyst. H consumed to form hydrinos can be replaced. Li and M_mH_nRegeneration may be by electrolysis or other physical or chemical reaction. Due to the formation of hydrinos, net electrical and thermal energy is given off:

Net reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (302) at least partially in the form of electricity

The battery may comprise a salt bridge suitable for, or selective for, migrating ions, and may further comprise an electrolyte suitable for migrating ions. The electrolyte may contain ions that migrate ions (e.g., Li)⁺Electrolytes, e.g. lithium salts, e.g. lithium hexafluorophosphate, in organic solvents (Li for mobile ions)⁺For example, dimethyl carbonate or diethyl carbonate and ethylene carbonate). The salt bridge may then be glass (e.g., with Li)⁺Electrolyte-impregnated borosilicate glass) or ceramics (e.g. Li)⁺Implanted beta alumina). The electrolyte may also include at least one or more of ceramics, polymers, and gels. An exemplary battery comprises (1)1cA²A 75 μm thick composite positive electrode disk (e.g., made by mixing R-Ni, Mg and TiC, or made by mixing NaH and 15% carbon SP (MM's carbon black)) containing 7-10 Mg of metal hydride, and (2) 1cm of a negative electrode²Li metal disk, and (3) use of 1MLiPF as separator/electrolyte₆Whatmann GF/D borosilicate glass-fiber sheets impregnated with a 1: 1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte. Another suitable electrolyte is lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF)₆) Sheet, sheetLithium hexafluoroarsenate hydrate (LiAsF) ₆) Lithium perchlorate (LiClO)₄) Lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF)₄) And lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiCF)₃SO₃) Such as ethylene carbonate. In addition, H may be₂Gas is added to the cell, for example to the cathode compartment. In another cell, the electrolyte and catalyst source may comprise a radical anion, such as a solution of naphthalene-lithium or lithium naphthalide in naphthalene or other suitable organic solvent. Exemplary batteries include sources of [ Li or naphthalene ion (naphthalideion), e.g., lithium/naphthalene/Li naphthalide or H sources (e.g., LiH)]. The battery may further comprise a binder for the anode or cathode reactants. Suitable polymeric binders include, for example, poly (vinylidene fluoride), copoly (vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene), poly (tetrafluoroethylene), poly (vinyl chloride), or poly (ethylene-propylene-diene monomer) (EPDM). The electrode may be a suitable conductor, such as nickel, in contact with the half-cell reactants.

In one embodiment, the anode half-cell reactant may comprise an alkali metal (e.g., an alkali metal) intercalated into a matrix (e.g., carbon) that may act as a catalyst or catalyst source. In one exemplary embodiment, the anode comprises a Li-carbon (LiC) anode of a lithium ion battery, such as Li-graphite. The battery may further comprise an electrolyte, such as a molten salt electrolyte, and a cathode comprising a source of H. An exemplary cell is [ LiC/LiCl-KCl/Ni (H) ₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/Ni(H₂)]、[LiC/LiCl-KCl/Ti(H₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/Ti(H₂)]、[LiC/LiCl-KCl/Fe(H₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiCl/Fe(H₂)]、[LiC/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Ni(H₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Ni(H₂)]、[LiC/LiCl-KClLiH(0.02mol%)/Ti(H₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Ti(H₂)]And [ LiC/LiCl-KClLiH (0.02mol%)/Fe (H)₂)]、[LiC/LiF-LiClLiH(0.02mol%)/Fe(H₂)]。

In another embodiment, carbon is reacted with a catalyst or catalyst source (e.g., Li, Na, or K) to form the corresponding ionic compound (e.g., MC)_x(M is an inclusion M)⁺Andalkali metal of (ii)) is substituted with another substance. The material can form an intercalation compound with at least one of a catalyst, a source of the catalyst, and a source of hydrogen (e.g., K, Na, Li, NaH, LiH, BaH, KH, and H alone). Suitable intercalation materials are hexagonal boron nitride and metal chalcogenides. Suitable chalcogenides are those having a layered structure (e.g. MoS)₂And WS₂). The layered chalcogenide may be one or more of the following list: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、VSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂. Other suitable exemplary substances are silicon, doped silicon, silicides, boron and borides. Suitable borides include those that form double-stranded and two-dimensional networks, such as graphite. The boride of the two-dimensional network structure, which can be conductive, can have, for example, MB₂Wherein M is a metal (CrB) such as at least one of Cr, Ti, Mg, Zr and Gd₂、TiB₂、MgB₂、ZrB₂、GdB₂). The formation of the compound may be thermally reversible or electrolytically reversible. The reactants may be thermally regenerated by removing the catalyst from the catalyst source. In one embodiment, the negatively charged electrode is a transition M of a circuit comprising an alkali metal (e.g., lithium) layer sandwiched with a chalcogenide ⁺(e.g. Li)⁺) And a source of electrons.

In another embodiment, the metal-carbon (e.g., lithium carbon) of the negative electrode is coated with a metal ion (e.g., Li)⁺) A source comprising at least one compound comprising a metal and one or more elements other than carbon. The metal-containing compound may comprise metal oxides (e.g., oxides of Co, Ni, Cu, Fe, Mn, or Ti, transition metal oxides, tungsten oxide, molybdenum oxide, niobium oxide, vanadium oxide), sulfides (e.g., sulfides of iron, nickel, cobalt, and manganese), nitrides, phosphides, fluorides, and compounds of other metals of the intermetallic compound or alloy. The negative electrode of the CIHT cell may comprise the known negative electrode of a lithium ion cell. The ion release reaction may be a conversion reaction or an intercalation reaction. In this case, the catalyst may be Li. The catalyst may be formed at the cathode. The reaction may be Li⁺Reduction of (2). The cathode half-cell reactant may further comprise a reactant derived from a compound such as hydride or H₂Gas (supplied by permeation of H through the membrane) and the like. The catalyst reacts with H to form a fraction of hydrogen to contribute to CIHT cell power.

In one embodiment, the battery may further comprise mobile intercalating ions (e.g., Li) ⁺) The salt bridge of (2). Suitable salt bridges are glasses impregnated with salts and solvents of mobile ions and ceramics (e.g. beta alumina) impregnated with mobile ions. An exemplary battery is [ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Ni (H) impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte₂)][ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Electrolyte 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution impregnated borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Ni (H)₂)][ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Ti (H) impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte₂)][ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Ti (H) impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte₂)][ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Fe (H) impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte₂)]And [ LiC/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass-fiber sheet/Fe impregnated with a 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution of electrolyte(H₂)]。

At least one of the cathode or anode reaction mixtures may contain other reactants that increase the rate of the hydrino reaction, such as at least one of the following: a support (e.g. a carbide such as TiC), an oxidising agent (e.g. an alkali or alkaline earth metal halide such as LiCl or SrBr) ₂) And reducing agents (e.g., alkaline earth metals such as Mg)). The cathode compartment may comprise: catalysts such as K, NaH (or may be from Li)⁺Migrating Li), reducing agents such as Mg or Ca, such as TiC, YC₂、Ti₃SiC₂Or a carrier such as WC, e.g. LiCl, SrBr₂、SrCl₂Or BaCl₂And oxidizing agents such as hydrides (e.g. R-Ni, TiH)₂、MgH₂NaH, KH or LiH).

In one embodiment, one or more H atoms act as a catalyst for forming a hydrino power cell or CIHT cell. The mechanism may comprise at least one of the following: h vacancies (holes) or multiple H are created in the material such that multiple H atoms interact to form hydrinos. In the present invention, it is implied that the negative and positive electrodes of the different embodiments can be used in different combinations by those skilled in the art. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof may serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. For molecular hydrinos and hydrinos anions, hydrino products can be identified by solid or liquid NMR showing peaks given by formulas (12) and (20), respectively. Specifically, after solvent extraction of the anode reaction product in dmf, an exemplary battery [ Li [ ]₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂Carbon Black (CB)]H catalyst reaction products of (a) show respective correspondence to H ₂(1/2)、H₂(1/3)、H₂(1/4) and H^-(1/2) liquid HNMR peaks at 2.2ppm, 1.69ppm, 1ppm, and-1.4 ppm. In one embodiment, an absorbent, such as an alkali metal halide (e.g., KI), is added to the half-cell to act as an absorbent for the molecular fraction hydrogen and the fractional hydride anion.

For example, such as metal ions (e.g., Li)⁺) Plasma mobile ion from CIHT cellThe anode migrates to the cathode where it undergoes reduction, and exemplary Li can displace H (e.g., H in the crystal lattice) to produce one or more free H atoms and optionally H vacancies that cause the formation of free H, which react to form hydrinos. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof may serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. For example, the H-containing lattice can be a hydrogenated carbon, a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride, such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, a hydride of a noble metal or a rare earth metal, LiAlH₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides) or R-Ni. In other embodiments, the H lattice can be a hydrogen dissociator and a source of H (e.g., at least one of Pd/C, Pt/C, Pt/Al)₂O₃、Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/Ti, Ni powder, Nb powder, Ti powder, Ni/SiO₂、Ni/SiO₂-Al₂O₃And H₂Gas), or hydrides (e.g. hydrides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, noble metals or rare earth metals, LiAlH ₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides). In other embodiments, the H-containing lattice is an intercalation-containing species (e.g., an alkali metal or ion, such as via H or H)⁺Substituted Li or Li⁺) The intercalation compound of (1). The compound may comprise intercalated H. The compound may comprise a layered oxide, such as LiCoO₂In which some Li is replaced by H, e.g. also denoted HCoO₂CoO (OH) of (2). The cathode half-cell compound can be a layered compound, e.g., a layered chalcogenide, e.g., a layered oxide, e.g., LiCoO₂Or LiNiO₂With at least some of the intercalated alkali metal, such as Li, being replaced by intercalated H. In one embodiment, at least some H and possibly some Li are intercalation species of the charged cathode material, and Li is inserted during discharge. Other alkali metals may be substituted for Li. Suitable intercalation compounds for which H displaces at least some Li are those that constitute the anode or cathode of a Li-ion battery, such as the Li-ion battery of the invention. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides. The cell can comprise at least one of a salt bridge, a separator (e.g., an olefin membrane), and an electrolyte. The electrolyte may be a Li salt, a co-dissolved salt, a lithium solid electrolyte, or an aqueous electrolyte solution in an organic solvent. Exemplary batteries are [ Li or Li alloys, e.g. Li ₃Mg or Li graphite/separator (e.g., olefin film) and organic electrolyte (e.g., LiPF)₆DEC solution of electrolyte, LiBF₄Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution), low melting point eutectic salts (e.g., mixtures of alkali metal hydrides, LiAlCl)₄Alkali metal aluminum or borohydride and H₂Atmospheric mixture) or lithium solid electrolyte (e.g. LiPON, lithium silicate, lithium aluminate, lithium aluminosilicate, solid polymer or gel), Silica (SiO)₂) Alumina (Al)₂O₃) Lithium oxide (Li)₂O), gallium oxide (Ga)₂O₃) Phosphorus oxide (P)₂O₅) Silica alumina and solid solutions or aqueous electrolyte solutions/MNH₂、M₂NH (M = alkali metal) and M-N-H compounds with mixtures of: optionally mixed metal, MOH, MHS, MHSe, MHTe, hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, compound containing metal and hydrogen anion (e.g. NaHCO)₃Or KHSO₄) Hydrides (e.g. NaH, TiH)₂、ZrH₂、CeH₂、LaH₂、MgH₂、SrH₂、CaH₂、BaH₂、LiAlH₄、LiBH₄R-Ni) containing H_xLi_yOr instead of Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂A layered transition metal oxide (e.g., Ni-Mn-Co oxide, such as LiNi) of at least one of the group of_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Other Li-layered chalcogenides and intercalation compounds with hydrogenated carriers (e.g. hydrogenated carbon, and with H) ₂Pd/C, Pt/C, Pt/Al of gas₂O₃、Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/Ti, Ni powder, Nb powder, Ti powder, Ni/SiO₂、Ni/SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or hydrides (e.g. hydrides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, noble metals or rare earth metals, LiAlH₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides))]. The source of H can be HY (protonated zeolite), with an exemplary cell being [ Na or Li/Celgard organic electrolyte, such as LP30/HYCB]. To improve performance, conductive materials and binders may be added to at least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactants of the cells of the invention. Exemplary conductive materials and binders are carbon black (which may be about 10 wt.%) and an ethylene propylene diene monomer binder (which may be about 3 wt.%); but other ratios known in the art may be used. The conductive material may further function as at least one of a hydrogen dissociating agent and a hydrogen carrier. Suitable conductors which are also dissociators are Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C and Ru/C, Pt/Al₂O₃、Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/Ti, Ni powder, Nb powder, Ti powder, Ni/SiO₂And Ni/SiO₂-Al₂O₃。

In one embodiment, CoH can act as MH type hydrogenA catalyst to produce hydrino provided by: the Co-H bond cleavage plus 2 electrons each ionize from atomic Co to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the 2 electrons is about m · 27.2eV, where m is 1, as given in table 3. CoH can be formed by reaction of a metal M (e.g., an alkali metal) with cobalt oxyhydroxide, e.g., 4M with 2CoOOH to form CoH, MCoO ₂MOH and M₂Reaction of O, or formation of CoH and 2M from 4M and CoOOH₂And (4) reaction of O. CoH can also be formed by the reaction of M with cobalt hydroxide, e.g., 5M with 2Co (OH)₂Formation of CoH, MCoO₂、2M₂O and 1.5H₂Or 3M with Co (OH)₂Formation of CoH, MOH and M₂And (4) reaction of O.

In one embodiment, the cathode reactant comprises at least two compounds from the group of oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, and oxides, thereby facilitating intercalation of M rather than MOH (M being an alkali metal) formation. Formation of e.g. LiCoO from CoOOH₂The intercalated product is rechargeable.

Hydrogen-intercalated chalcogenides (e.g., hydrogen-intercalated chalcogenides comprising O, S, Se and Te) may be formed by hydrogen processing a metal chalcogenide. The treatment may be carried out at elevated temperature and pressure. A dissociating agent such as Pt/C or Pd/C may be used to generate atomic hydrogen that overflows on a support such as carbon for intercalation into the chalcogenide. Suitable chalcogenides are at least one of the following groups: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂。

In other embodiments, an alkali metal (M) intercalation compound, such as a Li intercalation compound, is deficient M, where the deficiency can be achieved by charging. The M acceptor may be a simple substance or a compound that reacts with M, e.g., S, Se, Te, Li ₂NH or LiNH₂. The source of M, such as Li, may be an alkali metal aluminum or borohydride, e.g., LiAlH₄、LiBH₄. An exemplary battery is [ LiAlH [ ]₄Or LiBH₄Separator (e.g., olefin membrane) and organic electrolyte (e.g., LiPF)₆DEC solution or LiBF of electrolyte₄Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of (1)/NaH, TiH₂、ZrH₂、CeH₂、LaH₂、MgH₂、SrH₂、CaH₂、BaH₂、S、Se、Te、Li₂NH、LiNH₂R-Ni, Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂A layered transition metal oxide (e.g., Ni-Mn-Co oxide (e.g., LiNi) with Li defects in at least one of the group(s)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄) Other Li-layered chalcogenides, and intercalation compounds with optional hydrogenated carriers (e.g. hydrogenated carbon and H-bearing)₂Pd/C, Pt/C, Pt/Al of gas₂O₃、Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/Ti, Ni powder, Nb powder, Ti powder, Ni/SiO₂、Ni/SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or hydrides (e.g. alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metalsInternal transition metal, noble metal or rare earth metal hydride, LiAlH₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides))]And [ MBH₄(M = Li, Na, K)/BASE/S, Se, Te, hydrosulfides (e.g., NaOH, NaHS, NaHSe, and NaHTe), hydroxides, oxyhydroxides (e.g., CoO (OH), or HCoO)₂And NiO (OH)), hydrides (e.g. NaH, TiH)₂、ZrH₂、CeH₂、LaH₂、MgH₂、SrH₂、CaH₂And BaH₂、Li₂NH、LiNH₂R-Ni), Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO ₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂A layered transition metal oxide (e.g., Ni-Mn-Co oxide (e.g., LiNi) with Li defects in at least one of the group(s)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄) Other Li-layered chalcogenides, and intercalation compounds with optional hydrogenated carriers (e.g. hydrogenated carbon, and H-bearing)₂Pd/C, Pt/C, Pt/Al of gas₂O₃、Pd/Al₂O₃Pt/Ti, Ni powder, Nb powder, Ti powder, Ni/SiO₂、Ni/SiO₂-Al₂O₃Or hydrides (e.g. hydrides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, noble metals or rare earth metals, LiAlH₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides))]. Other exemplary suitable oxyhydroxides are at least one of the following groups: hydroxychromite (CrO (OH)), diaspore (AlO (OH)), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), goethite (alpha-Fe)³⁺O (OH), manganese sphene (Mn)³⁺O (OH), yersinite (CrO (OH)), schreyerite ((V, Fe) O (OH)), CoO (O)H)、NiO(OH)、Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/ ₃O (OH), RhO (OH), InO (OH), GaO (OH), manganite (Mn)³⁺O (OH), Yttrium-tungsten-white- (Y) (YW)₂O₆(OH)₃) Yttrium tungsten white- (Ce) ((Ce, Nd, Y) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) The undesignated (Nd-like yttrium tungsten-white- (Ce) ((Nd, Ce, La) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) Copper tellurium ore (Cu)₂[(OH)₂[TeO₄]]) Telluridelectrite(TeO₆)(OH)₂) And sub-tellurium-lead-copper stoneTeO₆(OH)₂)。

In the presence of R-Ni and mobile alkali metal ions (e.g. Li)⁺) In embodiments, the R-Ni hydride may be regenerated by: any Li-R-Ni product incorporated into the material is first hydrogenated by H reduction to form LiH, followed by electrolysis, where Li is formed by oxidation of LiH ⁺And R-Ni hydride. Subsequent reduction of Li at the electrolytic cathode (anode of CIHT cell)⁺。

In one embodiment comprising R-Ni, the R-Ni may be doped with another compound for forming hydrogen or hydride. A suitable dopant is MOH (M = alkali metal). The reaction with the reduced mobile ion comprising an alkali metal is 2M + MOH → M₂O + MH; the MH reacts to form hydrinos and the MOH can be regenerated by the addition of hydrogen (e.g., formulas (217) and (220)). An exemplary battery is [ Li/1 MLiPF₆Polypropylene film/R-Ni impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Polypropylene film/LiOH-doped R-Ni impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution][ Na/1 MNaPF for₆Polypropylene membrane/NaOH doped R-Ni impregnated with electrolyte solution in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate]And [ K/with 1MKPF₆Polypropylene film impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution/KOH-doped R-Ni]。

In one embodiment, H may be incorporated into a material such as an intercalation compound by electrolysis. An intercalation compound containing H and optionally a metal (e.g. Li) may be formed by electrolysis of an electrolyte containing protons or a source of hydrogen oxide anions or hydrogen anions. The proton or proton source or hydride anion source can be the counter half cell and the electrolyte of an electrochemical cell, such as the electrochemical cell of the present invention. For example, the former may be composed of a half cell and electrolyte [ Pt (H) ₂)、Pt/C(H₂) Borane, aminoborane and borane amines, AlH₃Or H-X compound (X = group V, VI or VII element)/inorganic salt mixture comprising liquid electrolyte such as ammonium nitrate-trifluoroacetate]Provided is a method. The latter can be composed of electrolyte and half-cell/H^-Conducting electrolytes (e.g. molten eutectic salts, e.g. LiCl-KCl)/H permeable cathodes with H₂(e.g., Ni (H)₂) And Fe (H)₂) Hydrides (e.g. of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals or rare earth metals, the latter being, for example, CeH)₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂) And M-N-H compounds (e.g. Li)₂NH or LiNH₂)]Provided is a method. In one embodiment, such as H_xLi_yOr H replaces Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxygen)Compounds, e.g. LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Other compounds of Li in the Li layered chalcogenide can be synthesized by: reacting the Li chalcogenide with a proton source (e.g. an ammonium salt, such as ammonium nitrate) followed by decomposition (e.g. decomposition to release NH)₃) Or a Li compound that undergoes a reaction with an acid to form an anion. The synthesis can be carried out in aqueous solution or in ionic liquids. An exemplary reaction is

Li_xCoO₂+yHCl→Li_x-yCoO₂+yLiCl(303)

LiCoO₂+ HCl → LiCl + CoO (OH) or HCoO ₂(304)

The desired product being CoO (OH), hydrocobalite or HCoO₂. In the case where the mobile ion of the cell is Li + (reduced at the cathode), the reaction to form hydrinos may be

CoO (OH) or HCoO₂+2Li→LiH+LiCoO₂(305)

LiH→H(1/p)+Li(306)

Where Li can act as a catalyst. Other products are Co (OH)₂And Co₃O₄. LiCl can be removed by filtering the solid product. In other embodiments, another acid may be substituted for HCl, with the formation of the corresponding Li acid anion compound. Suitable acids are those known in the art, e.g., HF, HBr, HI, H₂S, nitric acid, nitrous acid, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, perchloric acid, chloric acid, chlorous acid, and hypochlorous acid. In one embodiment, LiH may be reacted with MSO₄Replacement of H by, for example, LiMSO, by reaction in ionic liquids at elevated temperatures₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal) in the intercalation compound. During cell discharge, H may react to form hydrinos. Transferring ions during discharge (e.g. Li)⁺) Can produce free or reactive H to form hydrinos. In other embodiments, the base isThe metal may be replaced by another alkali metal.

In other embodiments, the cathode reactant comprises at least one of a hydroxide or a hydroxylate that may be synthesized by methods known to those skilled in the art. These reactions can be given by the formula (303-304). Another exemplary oxyhydroxide hydriding reaction involving nio (oh) is given by the following formula.

NiO(OH)+2Li→LiH+LiNiO₂(307)

LiH→H(1/p)+Li(308)

Other exemplary suitable oxyhydroxides are at least one of the following groups: hydroxychromite (CrO (OH)), diaspore (AlO (OH)), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), goethite (alpha-Fe)³⁺O (OH), manganese sphene (Mn)³⁺O (OH), andirobromite (CrO (OH)), schorlite ((V, Fe) O (OH)), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH), RhO (OH), InO (OH), GaO (OH), manganite (Mn)³⁺O (OH), Yttrium-tungsten-white- (Y) (YW)₂O₆(OH)₃) Yttrium tungsten white- (Ce) ((Ce, Nd, Y) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) The undesignated (Nd-like yttrium tungsten-white- (Ce) ((Nd, Ce, La) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) Copper tellurium ore (Cu)₂[(OH)₂[TeO₄]]) Telluridelectrite(TeO₆)(OH)₂) And sub-tellurium-lead-copper stoneTeO₆(OH)₂). The reactants may be regenerated from the product by electrolysis. Alternatively, the product may be converted to the initial reactant using chemical treatment steps known in the art, and the method of the invention may be used, for example, the step given by formula (304). In one embodiment, a combination of electrolysis and chemical steps may be used. For example, the product can be delithiated by electrolysis, andthe resulting CoO₂Can be converted into CoO (OH) or HCoO₂。

In one embodiment, the oxyhydroxide compound is regenerated by at least one of electrolysis and chemical regeneration. The hydrogen consumed to form hydrinos can be replaced by the addition of hydrogen gas or a source of hydrogen (e.g., a hydride such as LiH). Li can be extracted by heating and evaporation or sublimation, with H being replaced with applied hydrogen. For example, LiCoO ₂Can be at least partially converted to CoO (OH) or HCoO by treatment with an acid such as HCl₂(formula (303-304)). Alternatively, the oxyhydroxide can be regenerated by electrolysis in aqueous solution, and the removed Li forms lithium oxide. In another embodiment, H is displaced by treating the product with a gaseous acid (e.g., a hydrohalic acid, such as HBr or HI). The intercalated Li may react with an acid to form the corresponding halide, such as LBr or LiI. Lithium halide can be removed by sublimation or evaporation.

In one embodiment, regeneration is achieved using a CIHT cell comprising three half cells as shown in fig. 21. The primary anode 600 and cathode 601 half-cells comprise a primary cell containing standard reactants, such as Li source and coo (oh), respectively, separated by a separator 602 and an organic electrolyte. Each having its corresponding electrode 603 and 604, respectively. Upon closing the switch 606, the power discharging the main battery is dissipated in the load 605. Additionally, a third or regenerative half cell 607 is connected to the primary cathode half cell 601 and includes a source of protons. The primary cathode and the regenerative half-cell are separated by a proton conductor 608. The regenerative half-cell has its electrodes 609. During main battery recharging, power is provided by power source 610 with switch 611 closed and switch 606 open. The regenerative half cell 607 acts as a secondary anode and the primary anode 600 acts as a secondary cathode. Protons are formed by oxidation of H and migrate from regenerative cell 607 to primary cathode 601. When Li is present ⁺When the ions migrate to the secondary cathode 600, H⁺Ion exchange of Li⁺Ion generation from LiCoO₂Displaced to form CoO (OH) or HCoO₂And Li⁺The ions are reduced to Li. In a three-chamber cell embodiment, the recharging anode can comprise a proton source (e.g., Pt/C (H)₂) And proton conductors. The rechargeable battery can then be [ Pt/C (H) with proton conductor interface ]₂)/LiCoO₂/Li]. An exemplary battery is a source of [ Li (e.g., Li or Li alloy (e.g., Li))₃Mg) or LiC)/olefin separators and organic electrolytes (e.g. Celgard and LP40)/CoO (OH) or HCoO₂Proton conductor/H⁺Sources (e.g. Pt (H)₂)、Pt/C(H₂))]. In another embodiment, hydrogen is supplied to chamber 607, chamber 607 containing a hydrogen dissociation catalyst (e.g., Pt/C) and membrane separator 608 (which may be Nafion), whereby H atoms diffuse into the cathode product material in chamber 601 when an electrolysis voltage is applied between electrodes 604 and 603. When H is incorporated into the cathode material during electrolysis, a positive voltage applied on electrode 604 causes Li to migrate into chamber 600, thereby reducing Li at electrode 603. In another embodiment, separator 608 is electrically isolated from the cell body and includes electrodes 609. The chamber 607 contains a source of H (e.g., hydride). Electrode 609 may oxidize H from a source such as hydride ^-. Conductivity can be measured through the molten eutectic salt H in chamber 607^-The number of conductors is increased. Electrolysis causes H to migrate into the cavity 601 and intercalate in the oxyhydroxide.

In one embodiment, the mobile ions may be reduced during electrolysis such that the reduced species forms a reduced form of the compound and additionally comprises any form of hydrogen, for example at least one of hydrogen, protons, hydride ions and a source of hydrogen, protons and hydride ions. For example, Li⁺Can be reduced at an electrode that contains carbon as a half-cell reactant. Li may be intercalated in the carbon. Intercalation can displace some of the H atoms. The generation of H in the material causes multiple H atoms to interact to form hydrinos. Furthermore, during discharge, ions (e.g. metal ions, such as Li)⁺) Creates vacancies in the composite material comprising a source of mobile ions (e.g., mobile ions in different oxidation states) and hydrogen, protons, hydride ions or a source of hydrogen, protons, hydride ions. The vacancies created by the movement of mobile ions have the effect of creating H vacancies (holes) or H in the material, such that multiple H atoms interact to form hydrinos. Or, reduced mobile ions or their hydrogens The compound may act as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The cathode for the mobile ion may be a reactant that forms a compound with the reduced mobile ion, for example a reactant that forms an intercalation compound with the reduced mobile ion. An intercalation compound suitable for use in exemplary Li is one that comprises the anode or cathode of a Li-ion battery, such as an intercalation compound of the invention. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides. Suitable anodes form compounds that migrate ions and further contain hydrogen. The anode may be a mixture of materials or compounds. For example, hydrogen may be present as a hydride (e.g., LiH), and the compound that migrates ions may include an intercalation compound (e.g., carbon) or other negative electrode of a Li-ion battery. Alternatively, the compound that migrates ions may comprise an alloy, such as Li₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiGa, LiTe, LiSe (e.g. Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3，0<y<1) At least one of, LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (such as oxides, nitrides, borides and silicides) and mixed metal-Li alloys or compounds that are sources of Li (such as compounds that release Li upon reaction with hydrides). An exemplary compound of the latter type is Li ₃N and Li₂NH which can react with, for example, LiH to give Li ions, electrons and Li₂NH orLiNH₂. Exemplary batteries are [ complexes of H and Li graphite that can be formed by electrolysis, mixtures of hydrides with H-bearing species (e.g., lithiated carbon, carbides, borides, or silicon) as the source of Li, hydrides (e.g., LiH), and alloys (e.g., Li)₃Mg, LiAl, LiSi, LiB, LiC, LiPb, LiGa, LiTe, LiSe (e.g. Li)₂Se)、LiCd、LiBi、LiPd、LiSn、Li₂CuSn、Li_xIn_1-ySb(0<x<3，0<y<1) Mixtures of at least one of LiSb, LiZn, Li metal-metalloid alloys (such as oxides, nitrides, borides, and silicides), and mixed metal-Li alloys, and hydrides (such as LiH) and Li₃N or Li₂At least one of a mixture of NH/separator (e.g., olefin membrane) and organic electrolyte (e.g., LiPF)₆Solutions of electrolytes in DEC or eutectic salts)/graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F (M = Fe, Ti), other Li-layered chalcogenides]。

In one embodiment, the H of the hydrinos consumed to form the electrode material (e.g., a composite comprising H and a product or source of mobile ions) may be replaced with hydrogen gas. The application of hydrogen gas can displace molecular hydrino.

In embodiments, the cathode may comprise a hydrogen permeable membrane, e.g. coated with reduced mobile ions(e.g. metal ions, such as reduced Li)⁺Ions). The reduced mobile ions (e.g., Li metal) can be electrolytically plated onto the film. The source of mobile ions may be a Li-ion battery electrode material, such as the electrode material of the present invention. Suitable Li sources are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides. Electroplating can occur in the absence of hydrogen. Hydrogen can then be applied to the inside of the tube without an electrolytic voltage, where the electrode in turn acts as a CIHT cell cathode. Other suitable sources of Li are Li metal, Li alloys and Li compounds, such as Li-N-H compounds.

In one embodiment, the H-containing compound releases atomic H that is catalyzed to form hydrinos, wherein at least one H acts as a catalyst for at least another H. The H compound may be H intercalated in a matrix, such as H in carbon or H in a metal (e.g., R-Ni). The compound may be a hydride, e.g. of an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, noble metal or rare earth metal, LiAlH ₄、LiBH₄And other such hydrides. By ionizing mobile ions of the cell (e.g. alkali metal ions, such as Li)⁺) Incorporated into the compound for release. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The cathode may comprise carbon, a carbon-coated conductor (e.g., metal), or be capable of absorbing H andother materials capable of intercalating metals that displace H or change their chemical potential or oxidation state in the crystal lattice. For example, K and H in a carbon matrix are used as a three-layer structure of carbon-K ions and hydride-carbon (C/. K.)⁺H^-K⁺H^-.../C), and Li and H are present in the carbon layer in the form of LiH. Generally, the metal-carbon compound (e.g., a compound known as a hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound) may include MC_x(M is a metal, e.g. comprising M⁺Andalkali metal(s) of (ii). During operation, H and at least one atom or ion of a species other than H (e.g., K, K)⁺Li or Li⁺) May be incorporated into a carbon lattice so as to produce H atoms derived from a catalyst that can undergo catalysis to form hydrinos, wherein at least one H may serve as at least one other H atom; or atoms or ions of non-H species may serve as a catalyst or catalyst source. In other embodiments, other intercalation compounds may be substituted for carbon, such as hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), chalcogenides, carbides, silicon, and borides (e.g., TiB) ₂And MgB₂). Exemplary batteries are [ hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compounds, Li, K, Li alloys/separators (e.g., olefin membranes) and organic electrolytes (e.g., LiPF)₆Solutions of electrolytes in DEC or eutectic salts)/hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compounds, or incorporation of hBN, LihBN, graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄H of at least one of the group of other Li-layered chalcogenides]And [ Li/CelgardLP 30/hydrogenated PtC or PdC]Wherein the hydrogen can be replaced when consumed to form hydrinos.

In an embodiment, at least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactants comprises modified carbon. The modified carbon may contain physically or chemically absorbed hydrogen. The modified carbon may comprise a graphite intercalation compound as given in the following references: drosselhaus and g, drosselhaus, "international composition of the graph", advanced physics, (2002), volume 51, phase 1, pages 1-186 (which are incorporated herein by reference). The modified carbon may comprise or further comprise an intercalated species, such as at least one of: K. rb, Cs, Li, Na, KH, RbH, CsH, LiH, NaH, Sr, Ba, Co, Eu, Yb, Sm, Tm, Ca, Ag, Cu, AlBr ₃、AlCl₃、AsF₃、AsF₅、AsF₆ ^-、Br₂、Cl₂、Cl₂O₇、Cl₃Fe₂Cl₃、CoCl₂、CrCl₃、CuCl₂、FeCl₂、FeCl₃、H₂SO₄、HClO₄、HgCl₂、HNO₃、I₂、ICl、IBr、KBr、MoCl₅、N₂O₅、NiCl₂、PdCl₂、SbCl₅、SbF₅、SO₃、SOCl₂、SO₂Cl₂、TlBr₃、UCl₄、WCl₆、MOH、M(NH₃)₂Wherein the compound may be C₁₂M(NH₃)₂(M = alkali metal), chalcogenides, metals alloyed with alkali metals, metal hydrides, lithium ion battery anode or cathode reactants, and M-N-H compounds (where M is a metal such as Li, Na or K), MAlH₄(M = alkali metal), MBH₄(M = alkali metal) and other reactants of the invention. The lithium ion battery reactant may be at least one of the following group: li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides. Suitable chalcogenides are at least one of the following groups: TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂。

The modified carbon may contain bound H⁺A negative center of (c). The negative center may comprise an intercalating species, such as an anion. The modified carbon may comprise oxide centers formed by oxidation or intercalation. The modified carbon may comprise intercalated HNO₃Or H₂SO₄. An exemplary battery is [ Li or Li alloy (e.g., Li)₃Mg or LiC)/Celgard organic electrolyte (e.g. LP30) or eutectic salt/HNO₃Intercalated carbon]、[Li/CelgardLP30/H₂SO₄Intercalated carbon]、[LiTi₂(PO₄)₃、Li_xVO₂、LiV₃O₈、Li₂Mn₄O₉Or Li₄Mn₅O₁₂/LiNO₃Aqueous solution/HNO₃Intercalated carbon]And [ Li/CelgardLP 30/carbon nanotubes (H)₂)]. Other examples of modified carbons may include N absorbed or intercalated in carbon ₂O、SF₆、CF₄、NF₃PCl₃、PCl₅、CS₂、SO₂、CO₂、P₂O₅. Exemplary batteries are Li/CelgardLP30 or eutectic salt/modified carbon (e.g., N absorbed in carbon)₂O、SF₆CF₄、NF₃PCl₃、PCl₅、CS₂、SO₂、CO₂And P₂O₅At least one of the group of (1)]。

In one embodiment, the modified carbon is graphite oxide. Hydrogen in atomic and molecular form may be intercalated in graphite oxide. The H-intercalated graphite oxide may comprise the cathode half cell reactant. H may be replaced by an alkali metal to form hydrinos. An exemplary battery is [ Li/CelgardLP30/H intercalated graphite oxide ].

The modified carbon may also comprise a complex of an intercalating species, such as an alkali metal (e.g., K, Rb or Cs) or an alkaline earth metal, and an acceptor, such as an aromatic acceptor. In one embodiment, the acceptor forms a charge transfer complex with the donor and further absorbs or binds hydrogen by means such as physisorption or chemisorption. Suitable exemplary acceptors are tetracyanopyrene, tetranitropyrene, tetracyanoethylene, phthalonitrile, terephthalonitrile, alkanthrene B, graphite and similar molecules or materials. The modified carbon may be graphene or modified graphene with at least H and other optional species of graphene combined. The anode may comprise an alkali metal ion M acting as a mobile ion⁺(e.g. Li)⁺、Na⁺Or K⁺) The source of (a). The source may be an alkali metal, a hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound, an alkali metal alloy, or other such sources of the invention. The battery may comprise an electrolyte (e.g. organic or aqueous electricity) A salt and a solute), and may further comprise a salt bridge or a separator. In other embodiments, the anode may comprise a source of alkali or alkaline earth metals or at least one of these metals, and the modified carbon may comprise one of these metals. An exemplary battery is a modified carbon (e.g., hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound) and at least one of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal M or alloy/separator (e.g., an olefin membrane) and an organic electrolyte (e.g., MPF)₆Solutions of electrolytes in DEC) or eutectic salt/modified carbon]。

In one embodiment, the cathode and the anode may comprise at least one of carbon, hydrogenated carbon, and modified carbon. In embodiments comprising a carbon form at both half-cells, the mobile ion may be H⁺Or H^-Wherein the anode and cathode half-cell reactants comprise hydrogen, respectively. For example, the cathode may comprise a hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound that is reduced to a hydride ion that migrates through H^-A conducting electrolyte (e.g., a molten eutectic salt, such as an alkali metal halide mixture, such as LiCl-KCl). The hydride ions may be oxidized at the anode to form a hydrogenated carbon from carbon or a hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound from an alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound. Alternatively, the hydrogenated carbon or hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound may be oxidized at the anode to H ⁺，H⁺Migration through H⁺Conducting electrolyte (e.g., Nafion, ionic liquid, solid proton conductor, or aqueous electrolyte) to the cathode half cell where H is present⁺Reducing the reaction product into H. H may react to form hydrogenated carbon, or from an alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound to form a hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound. Exemplary batteries are [ carbon (e.g., carbon black or graphite)/eutectic salts (e.g., LiCl-KCl)/hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compounds or hydrogenated carbons]Alkali metal-graphite-ternary intercalation compound/eutectic salt (e.g. LiCl-KCl)/hydrogen-alkali metal-graphite ternary intercalation compound or hydrogenated carbon]And [ hydrogenated carbon/proton conducting electrolyte (e.g., Nafion or ionic liquid)/carbon (e.g., carbon black or graphite)]。

In one embodiment, the alkali metal hydride (e.g., KH) in the graphite) Having some interesting properties for use as cathode or anode in a CIHT cell, wherein H^-Migration to the anode or K⁺Migration to include a group such as C₈KH_xThe cathode of such compounds causes charge transfer and replacement or incorporation of H, resulting in a hydrino-forming reaction. Exemplary cells are [ K/separator (e.g., olefin membrane) and organic electrolyte (e.g., KPF)₆Solution of electrolyte in DEC)/carbon (H)₂) And C₈KH_xAt least one of ][ Na/separator (e.g., olefin film) and organic electrolyte (e.g., NaPF)₆Solution of electrolyte in DEC)/carbon (H)₂) And C_yNaH_xAt least one of]Carbon (H)₂) And C₈KH_xAt least one of (a) or (b) a eutectic salt/hydride (e.g. a metal hydride) or (H) through a permeable membrane₂]Carbon (H)₂) And C_yNaH_xAt least one of (a) or (b) a eutectic salt/hydride (e.g. a metal hydride) or (H) through a permeable membrane₂At least one of]And [ carbon (H)₂)、C_yLiH_xAnd at least one of CyLi/eutectic salt/hydride (e.g. metal hydride) or H passing through the permeable membrane₂At least one of]。

In one embodiment, the anode may comprise a polythiophene-derivative (PthioP) and the cathode may comprise polypyrrole (PPy). The electrolyte can be LiClO₄For example 0.1M in an organic solvent such as acetonitrile. An exemplary reversible reaction that drives the creation of vacancies and the addition of H to form hydrids in hydrogenated carbons is

wherein-Py-is a pyrrole monomer and-Th-is a thiophene monomer, and A is an anion involved in anion shuttling between half-cells. Alternatively, the anode may comprise polypyrrole and the cathode may comprise graphite. The electrolyte may be an alkali metal salt, such as a Li salt in an electrolyte such as Propylene Carbonate (PC). At least one of the electrodes may comprise a hydrogenated carbon, wherein electron and ion transfer reactions cause atomic H to react to form a molecule Several hydrogen atoms. An exemplary battery is [ PthioPCB (H)₂)/0.1MLiClO₄Acetonitrile solution of (3)/PPyCB (H)₂)]And [ PPyCB (H)₂) PC solution of Li salt/graphite (H)₂)]Wherein CB is carbon black.

In another embodiment, the anode and cathode may be hydrogenatable carbon, such as hydrogenated carbon black and hydrogenated graphite, respectively. The electrolyte may be an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The concentration may be higher, for example 12M. An exemplary reversible reaction that drives the creation of vacancies and the addition of H to form hydrids in hydrogenated carbons is

An exemplary battery is [ CB (H)₂)/12MH₂SO₄Graphite (H)₂)]。

In one embodiment, the battery comprises an aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyte may be an alkali metal salt in solution, such as alkali metal sulfates, hydrogen sulfates, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, dihydrogen phosphates, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, halides, hydroxides, permanganates, chlorates, perchlorates, chlorites, perchlorates, hypochlorites, bromates, perbromates, periodates, chromates, dichromates, tellurates, selenates, arsenates, silicates, borates and other oxyanions. Another suitable electrolyte is an alkali metal borohydride, such as sodium borohydride in concentrated base, e.g., about 4.4M NaBH in about 14M NaOH ₄. The negative electrode may be carbon, such as graphite or activated carbon. During charging, an alkali metal such as Na is incorporated into the carbon. The positive electrode may comprise a compound or material containing H, wherein the mobile ions displace H to release H, which further reacts to form hydrinos. The positive electrode may contain hydrogen substituted Na₄Mn₉O₁₈Analogous manganese oxide compounds of this type, analogous ruthenium oxide compounds, likeNickel oxide compounds like this and at least one such compound in a hydrogenated substrate, such as hydrogenated carbon. The H containing compound or material may be at least one H zeolite (HY, where Y = NaY containing zeolite, where some Na is replaced by H). HY is selected from NaY and NH₄Cl to HY, NaCl and NH₃Reaction formation (removal). The poorly conductive half-cell reactants can be mixed with a conductive matrix (e.g., carbon, carbide, or boride). The cathode may be a silicic acid derivative. In another embodiment, the cathode may be R-Ni, where Na may form sodium hydroxide or sodium aluminate and liberate H at the cathode. The cathode and anode may comprise carbon with different stages of alkali intercalation and hydrogenation to allow H⁺Or alkali metal ions, from one electrode to the other, thereby causing the replacement or incorporation of H, which further causes a reaction to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, water may be oxidized at one electrode and reduced at the other electrode due to the different activity of the materials of the electrodes or half cells. In one embodiment, H ⁺May be formed at the negative electrode and reduced at the positive electrode, with H flow causing hydrinos to form at one or both electrodes. Exemplary batteries are [ CNa and C_yNaH_xAt least one of (1), optionally an aqueous solution of an R-Ni/Na salt/CNa, C_y′NaH_x'HY, R-Ni and Na₄Mn₉O₁₈At least one + carbon (H)₂) Or R-Ni]. In other embodiments, Na may be replaced by another alkali metal such as K or Li. In other embodiments, another alkali metal such as K or Li replaces Na. An exemplary K intercalation compound in an aqueous electrolyte (e.g., KCl (aq)) is K_xMnO_y(x =0.33 and y is about 2). The crystal type may be selected for the selected cation, for example birnessite for K. H⁺Alkali metal ions may be exchanged. H⁺Reduction to H can cause hydrino formation.

In embodiments with aqueous electrolyte, the cathode is paired with O₂Is stable in release and the anode is coupled to H₂The release is stable. An exemplary suitable cathode material is LiMn_0.05Ni_0.05Fe_0.9PO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂、LiCoO₂. In other embodiments, the H-containing lattice (e.g., cathode material) is an intercalating species (e.g., an alkali metal or ion, such as Li or Li)⁺) By H or H⁺A displaced intercalation compound. The compound may comprise intercalated H. The compound may comprise, for example, LiCoO₂An isolamellar oxide in which at least some Li is replaced by H, e.g. CoO (OH), also known as HCoO ₂. The cathode half-cell compound can be a layered compound, e.g., a layered chalcogenide, e.g., a layered oxide, e.g., LiCoO₂Or LiNiO₂Wherein at least some of the intercalated alkali metal (e.g., Li) is replaced with intercalated H. In one embodiment, at least some H and possibly some Li are intercalation species of the charged cathode material, and Li is intercalated during discharge. Other alkali metals may be substituted for Li. Suitable intercalation compounds in which hydrogen displaces at least some of the Li are intercalation compounds comprising the anode or cathode of a Li-ion battery, for example an intercalation compound of the invention. Comprising H_xLi_yOr Li-substituted H are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides.

An exemplary suitable anode material is LiTi₂(PO₄)₃、Li_xVO₂、LiV₃O₈、Li₂Mn₄O₉、Li₄Mn₅O₁₂. Suitable exemplary electrolytes are halides, nitrates, perchlorates and sulfates of alkali metals or ammonium, e.g. LiNO₃LiCl and NH₄X (X = halide, nitrate, perchlorate, and sulfate). The aqueous solution may be alkaline to facilitate intercalation of Li when LiOH is formed. The pH can be increased by adding LiOH (e.g., 0.0015M LiOH). In other embodiments, H is promoted by adjusting the pH ₂Wherein the liberation of H facilitates the formation of hydrinos. In other embodiments, the formation of oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, alkali metal oxides, and alkali metal hydrides occurs, wherein the formation of alkali metal hydrides causes the formation of hydrinos according to reactions such as the reaction of formula (305-306).

The lithium ion type battery may have a lithium ion containing salt (e.g., LiNO)₃) The aqueous electrolyte of (1). This is made possible by: using a common positive cathode (e.g. LiMn)₂O₄) The cathode has a positive potential far higher than LiC₆Such that the cell voltage is less than the voltage used to electrolyze water, taking into account any overvoltage of oxygen or hydrogen evolution at the electrode. Other suitable electrolytes are alkali metal halides, nitrates, sulfates, perchlorates, phosphates, carbonates, hydroxides or other similar electrolytes. To produce hydrido, the cell further comprises a hydride material. The cell reaction causes H addition or vacancy formation, which results in the formation of hydrinos. The hydride material may be a hydride such as R-Ni or the like or a hydride such as CB (H)₂) And the like. Other exemplary metals or semi-metals suitable for hydrides include alkali metals (Na, K, Rb, Cs), alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Ba, Sr), elements from group IIIA (e.g., B, Al, Ga, Sb), elements from group IVA (e.g., C, Si, Ge, Sn), elements from group VA (e.g., N, P, As), and transition metals and alloys. Other examples are intermetallic compounds AB _nWherein A represents one or more elements capable of forming a stable hydride and B is an element forming an unstable hydride. Intermetallic compounds are given in Table 5Examples of the substance are mentioned. An exemplary battery is [ LiV₂O₅CB(H₂) Or R-Ni/LiNO₃Aqueous solution and optionally LiOH/CB (H)₂) Or R-NiLiMn₂O₄]、[LiV₂O₅Aqueous LiOH solution/R-Ni]、[LiV₂O₅/LiNO₃Aqueous solution and optionally LiOH/R-Ni]、[LiTi₂(PO₄)₃、Li_xVO₂、LiV₃O₈、Li₂Mn₄O₉Or Li₄Mn₅O₁₂/LiNO₃Or LiClO₄Aqueous solutions and optionally LiOH or KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/Li-layered chalcogenides and these compounds in which Li is replaced by some H or is devoid of Li, comprising H_xLi_yOr compounds of H substituted with Li (where Li is in Li-graphite, Li)_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄At least one of the group of other Li-layered chalcogenides)]And [ LiTi₂(PO₄)₃、Li_xVO₂、LiV₃O₈、Li₂Mn₄O₉Or Li₄Mn₅O₁₂/LiNO₃Or LiClO₄Aqueous solution and optionally LiOH or KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/HCoO₂Or CoO (OH)]. Other alkali metals such as K may be substituted for Li.

In one embodiment, the electrolyte is a hydride, such as MBH₄(M is a metal, such as an alkali metal). Suitable electrolytes are alkali metal borohydrides, e.g., sodium borohydride in concentrated base, such as about 4.4M NaBH in about 14M NaOH ₄. The anode contains ions M⁺A source of (b), the ion M⁺Reduced to a metal M, such as Li, Na or K, at the cathode. In one embodiment, M is reacted with a hydride (e.g., MBH)₄) Reacting such that hydrinos are formed in the process. M, MH or at least one H can act as a catalyst for another H. The source of H is a hydride and may further comprise another source, such as another hydride, H compound, or H₂The gas and an optional dissociating agent. An exemplary battery is [ R-Ni/14MNaOH4.4MNaBH₄Carbon (H)₂)]、[NaV₂O₅CB(H₂)/14MNaOH4.4MNaBH₄Carbon (H)₂)]And [ R-Ni/4.4M NaBH in about 14M NaOH₄Oxyhydroxides (e.g., AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), and manganese oxide_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH) or hydroxides (e.g. Co (OH)₂、Ni(OH)₂、La(OH)₃、Ho(OH)₃、Tb(OH)₃、Yb(OH)₃、Lu(OH)₃、Er(OH)₃)]。

In another embodiment comprising an aqueous electrolyte, the battery comprises a metal hydride electrode, such as a metal hydride electrode of the present invention. Suitable exemplary hydrides are R-Ni, Raney cobalt (R-Co), Raney copper (R-Cu), transition metal hydrides (e.g., CoH, CrH, TiH₂FeH, MnH, NiH, ScH, VH, CuH and ZnH), intermetallic hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2) And AgH, CdH ₂、PdH、PtH、NbH、TaH、ZrH₂、HfH₂、YH₂、LaH₂、CeH₂And other rare earth metal hydrides. Other exemplary metals or semi-metals suitable for hydrides include alkali metals (Na, K, Rb, Cs), alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Ba, Sr), elements from group IIIA (e.g., B, Al, Ga, Sb), elements from group IVA (e.g., C, Si, Ge, Sn), and elements from group VA (e.g., N, P, As), and transition metals and alloys. The hydride may be an intermetallic compound. Other examples are intermetallic compounds AB_nWherein A represents one or more elements capable of forming a stable hydride and B is an element forming an unstable hydride. Examples of intermetallic compounds are given in table 5 and the corresponding sections of the present invention. The hydride may be AB₅Type (where A is a rare earth mixture of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium, and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese, and/or aluminum) and AB₂At least one of the types (wherein A is titanium and/or vanadium and B is zirconium or nickel and is modified with chromium, cobalt, iron and/or manganese). In one embodiment, the anode material functions to reversibly form a mixture of metal hydride compounds. An exemplary compound is LaNi₅And LaNi_3.6Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.7. An exemplary anodic reaction of the metal hydride R-Ni is

R-NiH_x+OH^-→R-NiH_x-1+H₂O+e^-(311)

In one embodiment, nickel hydride may serve as a half-cell reactant, such as an anode. Which can be formed by aqueous electrolysis using a hydrogenated nickel cathode. The electrolyte may be an alkaline electrolyte, such as KOH or K ₂CO₃And the anode can also be nickel. The cathode may comprise an oxidant, for example a metal oxide such as nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), that is reactive with water. An exemplary cathodic reaction is

NiO(OH)+H₂O+e^-→Ni(OH)₂+OH^-(312)

H vacancies or additions formed during cell operation (e.g., during discharge) can cause the hydrino reaction, thereby releasing electricity in addition to any power from the non-hydrino reaction. The battery may contain, for example, an alkali metalAn electrolyte such as a hydroxide (e.g., KOH), and may further comprise a separator (e.g., a hydrophilic polyolefin). Exemplary cells are [ R-Ni, Raney cobalt (R-Co), Raney copper (R-Cu), LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2CoH, CrH, FeH, MnH, NiH, ScH, VH, CuH, ZnH, AgH/polyolefin KOH (aq), NaOH (aq) or LiOH (aq)/NiO (OH)]. Other suitable oxidizing agents are WO₂(OH)、WO₂(OH)₂、VO(OH)、VO(OH)₂、VO(OH)₃、V₂O₂(OH)₂、V₂O₂(OH)₄、V₂O₂(OH)₆、V₂O₃(OH)₂、V₂O₃(OH)₄、V₂O₄(OH)₂、FeO(OH)、MnO(OH)、MnO(OH)₂、Mn₂O₃(OH)、Mn₂O₂(OH)₃、Mn₂O(OH)₅、MnO₃(OH)、MnO₂(OH)₃、MnO(OH)₅、Mn₂O₂(OH)₂、Mn₂O₆(OH)₂、Mn₂O₄(OH)₆、NiO(OH)、TiO(OH)、TiO(OH)₂、Ti₂O₃(OH)、Ti₂O₃(OH)₂、Ti₂O₂(OH)₃、Ti₂O₂(OH)₄And NiO (OH). Other exemplary suitable oxyhydroxides are at least one of the following groups: hydroxychromite (CrO (OH)), diaspore (AlO (OH)), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), goethite (alpha-Fe)³⁺O (OH), manganese sphene (Mn)³⁺O (OH), andirobromite (CrO (OH)), schorlite ((V, Fe) O (OH)), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH), RhO (OH), InO (OH), GaO (OH), manganite (Mn)³⁺O (OH), Yttrium-tungsten-white- (Y) (YW) ₂O₆(OH)₃) Yttrium tungsten white- (Ce) ((Ce, Nd, Y) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) The undesignated (Nd-like yttrium tungsten-white- (Ce) ((Nd, Ce, La) W)₂O₆(OH)₃) Copper tellurium ore (Cu)₂[(OH)₂[TeO₄]]) TelluridelectriteAnd sub-tellurium-lead-copper stone. Generally, the oxidizing agent can be M_xO_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M is a metal (e.g., a transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal), such as a metal oxyhydroxide. In other embodiments, other hydrogenated chalcogenides or chalcogenides may replace oxyhydroxides. S, Se or Te may replace O, and the other such chalcogenides may replace chalcogenides containing O. Mixtures are also suitable. An exemplary battery is [ hydride (e.g., NiH, R-Ni, ZrH)₂、TiH₂、LaH₂、CeH₂PdH, PtxH, hydrides of Table 5, LaNi₅And LaNi_3.6Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.7) Aqueous solution/M 'of MOH'_xO_yH_z](M = alkali metal and M' ═ transition metal), [ untreated commercially available R-Ni/aqueous KOH solution/untreated commercially available R-N charged to form nio (oh)]And [ metal hydride/aqueous KOH/charged NiO (OH) forming untreated commercial R-Ni]. The battery can be regenerated by charging or by chemical treatment, such as rehydrogenation of a metal hydride (e.g., R-Ni). In alkaline cells, the cathode reactant may comprise Fe (VI) ferrite, such as K₂FeO₄Or BaFeO₄。

In one embodiment, mH (m = integer), H ₂O or OH served as catalyst (table 3). OH can pass through OH^-Oxidation at the anode. The electrolyte may comprise a concentrated base, for example a MOH (M = alkali metal) at a concentration in the range of about 6.5M to saturation. The active material in the positive electrode can include nickel hydroxide, which is charged to form a hydroxyl radicalBased on nickel oxide. Alternatively, it may be another oxyhydroxide, oxide, hydroxide, or carbon (e.g., CB, PtC, or PdC) or carbide (e.g., TiC), boride (e.g., TiB)₂) Or a carbonitride (e.g., TiCN). The cathode, such as nickel hydroxide, may have a conductive mesh of cobalt oxide and a current collector (e.g., a nickel foam skeleton), but may alternatively be a matrix of nickel fibers or may be produced by sintering single-fiber nickel fibers. The active material in the negative electrode may be an alloy capable of storing hydrogen, such as AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂One of the (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) types, in which "AB_xThe expression "refers to the ratio of the type A element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the type B element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn). Suitable hydride anodes are hydride anodes used in metal hydride batteries, such as nickel metal hydride batteries known to those skilled in the art. Exemplary suitable hydride anodes include R-Ni, LaNi ₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Hydrides of the group (a), and other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, e.g. AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂One of the (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) types, in which "AB_xThe expression "refers to the ratio of the type A element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the type B element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn). In other embodiments, the hydride anode comprises at least one of: MmNi₅(Mm = cerium-containing rare earth alloys), e.g. MmNi_3.5Co_0.7Al_0.8，AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm = cerium-containing rare earth alloy: 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd), La_1-yR_yNi_5-xM_x；AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloying; alloys based on magnesium, e.g. Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀；La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1、LaNi_5-xM_x((M = Mn, Al), (M = Al, Si, Cu), (M = Sn), (M = Al, Mn, Cu)) and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂(ii) a AB compounds such as TiFe, TiCo and TiNi; AB_nCompound (n =5, 2 or 1), AB_3-4Compound and AB_x(A = La, Ce, Mn, Mg; B = Ni, Mn, Co, Al). Other suitable hydrides are ZrFe₂、Zr_0.5Cs_0.5Fe₂、Zr_0.8Sc_0.2Fe₂、YNi₅、LaNi₅、LaNi_4.5Co_0.5、(Ce、La、Nd、Pr)Ni₅Cerium-containing rare earth alloy-nickel alloy, Ti_0.98Zr_0.02V_0.43Fe_0.09Cr_0.05Mn_1.5、La₂Co₁Ni₉And TiMn₂. In either case, these materials may have a complex microstructure that allows the hydrogen storage alloy to operate in a corrosive environment within the cell, where most metals are thermodynamically more stable as oxides. Suitable metal hydride materials are conductive and can be applied to current collectors, such as current collectors made of perforated or expanded nickel or nickel foam substrates or current collectors made of copper.

In embodiments, the aqueous solvent may comprise H₂O、D₂O、T₂O or water mixtures and isotopic mixtures. In one embodiment, the temperature is controlled to control the reaction rate of the hydrinos and thereby control the power of the CIHT cell. A suitable temperature range is about ambient to 100 ℃. By sealing the cell, the temperature can be maintained at about greater than 100 ℃ in order to generate pressure and suppress boiling.

In one embodiment, at the anode, in the presence of H or a source of HIn the case of (A) via OH^-Oxidation to form OH and H₂At least one of O catalysts. A suitable anode half-cell reactant is a hydride. In one embodiment, the anode can comprise a hydrogen storage material, e.g., a metal hydride, e.g., a metal alloy hydride, e.g., BaReH₉、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、LaNi₅H₆Or LaNi₅H (in the invention, LaNi)₅H is defined as LaNi₅And may comprise LaNi₅H₆And other hydride stoichiometry, and the same applies to the other hydrides of the invention, where other stoichiometry than that shown is within the scope of the invention), ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2、FeTiH_1.7、TiFeH₂And MgNiH₄. In the presence of LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2In embodiments of anodes or similar anodes and KOH or NaOH electrolytes, LiOH is added to the electrolyte to passivate any oxide coatings, thereby promoting H ₂So that LaNi is absorbed₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Hydrogenated or rehydrogenated. An exemplary battery is [ BaReH ]₉、LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2、FeTiH_1.7、TiFeH₂And MgNiH₄(M = alkali metal)/carbon, pdcs, ptcs, oxyhydroxides, carbonizations,/MOH (saturated aqueous solution) (M = alkali metal)/carbonSubstance or boride]And [ LaNi ]₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2KOH (saturated aqueous solution) EuBr₂Or EuBr₃/CB]。

OH formed as an intermediate in a reduction reaction of a reactant (to form OH)^-) Can act as a catalyst or catalyst source for the formation of hydrinos (e.g., OH or H)₂O). In one embodiment, an alkaline electrolyte (e.g., MOH or M) is included₂CO₃Aqueous electrolyte, M = alkali metal) cell oxidant comprises an oxygen source, such as at least one of: oxygen-containing compounds, oxygen-containing conductive polymers, oxygen-containing compounds or polymers added to a conductive substrate (e.g. carbon), O₂Air and oxidized carbon (e.g., steam treated carbon). The reduction of oxygen may form reduced oxygen compounds and free radicals that may contain at least O and possibly H (e.g., hydrogen peroxide ions, superoxide ions, hydroperoxyl radicals, hydroxyl radicals,HOOH、HOO^-OH and OH^-). In one embodiment, the cell further comprises a separator that prevents or retards oxygen migration from the cathode to the anode, and the separator is paired with a mobile ion (e.g., OH)^-) Is permeable. The separator may also hinder or prevent the formation of oxides or hydroxides (e.g., in the anode half cell compartment) And) Migrating to the cathode compartment. In one embodiment, the anode comprises a source of H, such as a hydride (e.g., R-Ni, LaNi)₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2) Or H₂Gas and dissociation agent (e.g., Pt/C). In various embodiments of the invention comprising R-Ni, another Raney metal (e.g., Raney cobalt (R-Co), Raney copper (R-Cu), and other forms of R-Ni comprising activators (which may contain other metals, metal oxides, alloys, or compounds)) may be substituted for R-Ni to include other embodiments. An exemplary battery includes a metal hydride M' H_x(M ═ metal or alloy, e.g. R-Ni or LaNi₅) And oxygen cathodes, e.g. O at the cathode (e.g. carbon cathode)₂Gas or air, or adsorbed on carbon C (O)₂)_xOxygen, carbon C (O) of (1)₂)_xLiberation of O₂To obtain C (O)₂)_x-1. In an embodiment similar to formula (315), at least one of water and oxygen is reduced to OH at the cathode^-H and H₂At least one of (1). Corresponding exemplary reactions are

Anode

M′H_x+OH^-→M′H_x-1+H₂O+e^-(313)

Wherein OH can be formed as an intermediate and act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos.

Cathode electrode

1/2O₂+H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-(314)

Alternatively, the cathode reaction may involve only water at the positive electrode:

H₂O+e-→1/2H₂+OH^-(315)

the cathode for carrying out reaction (315) may be a water reduction catalyst, and optionally O₂Reduction (formula (314)) catalysts, such as supported metals, zeolites, and polymers that can be electrically conductive (e.g., polyaniline, polythiophene, or polyacetylene), can be mixed with an electrically conductive matrix (e.g., carbon). Suitably H ₂O reduction catalyst is effective in reducing H in solution, such as alkaline solution₂Reduction of O to H₂. Exemplary catalysts are catalysts from the following group: ni, porous Ni, sintered Ni powder, Ni-Ni (OH)₂Intermetallic compound of R-Ni, Fe and transition metal, Hf₂Fe. Zr-Pt, Nb-Pd (I), Pd-Ta, Nb-Pd (II), Ti-Pt, nanocrystalline Ni_xMo_1-x(x =0.6, 0.85 atomic percent), Ni — Mo, Mm alloys (e.g., MmNi)_3.6Co_0.75Mn_0.42Al_0.27Ni-Fe-Mo alloy (64:24:12) (by weight%), Ni-S alloy and Ni-S-Mn alloy). The electrolyte may further comprise an activator, for example an ionic activator, such as tris (ethylenediamine) cobalt (III) chloride complex and Na₂MoO₄Or each of EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) or a combination thereof with iron. Exemplary cells are [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/water reduction catalyst and possibly O₂Reduction catalyst](ii) a M = an alloy or metal, for example of Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge; water reduction catalyst and possibly O₂Reduction catalyst = Pt/Ti, Pt/Al₂O₃Steam carbon, perovskite, Ni, porous Ni, sintered Ni powder, Ni-Ni (OH)₂Intermetallic compound of R-Ni, Fe and transition metal, Hf₂Fe. Zr-Pt, Nb-Pd (I), Pd-Ta, Nb-Pd (II), Ti-Pt, nanocrystalline Ni_xMo_1-x(x =0.6, 0.85 atomic percent), Ni — Mo, Mm alloys (e.g., MmNi) _3.6Co_0.75Mn_0.42Al_0.2At least one of Ni-Fe-Mo alloy (64:24:12) (wt%), Ni-S alloy and Ni-S-Mn alloy).

In one embodiment, the cathode comprises a material such as an oxide,Oxyhydroxide, oxygen gas, air, or other oxygen sources. Oxygen from this source is reduced in aqueous solution at the cathode, forming negative ions comprising O and possibly H. The reduction of oxygen may form reduced oxygen compounds and free radicals which may contain at least O and possibly H, e.g. hydrogen peroxide ions, superoxide ions, hydroperoxyl radicals,HOOH、HOO^-OH and OH^-. In one embodiment, at least one of these species or the product species formed at the anode may comprise a catalyst. The catalyst reaction may involve OOH^-Oxidation to OH and metal oxides, in which OOH^-Acting as a source of catalyst. An exemplary reaction of the metal M is

Cathode electrode

O₂+H₂O+2e^-→OOH^-+OH^-(316)

Anode:

M+OOH^-→MO+OH+e^-(317)

MH or MOH + OOH^-→ M or MO + HOOH + e^-(318)

In which OOH^-And possibly HOOH as a source of catalyst. OOH^-May also serve as a source of catalyst in a cell comprising an oxide-forming hydroxide cathode or anode reactant, and may further comprise a solid electrolyte (e.g., BASE). An exemplary battery is [ Na/BASE/NaOH]And exemplary reactions involving superoxide, peroxide and oxides are

Na+2NaOH→NaO₂+2NaH→NaOOH+2Na→Na₂O+NaOH+1/2H₂(319)

2Na+2NaOH→Na₂O₂+2NaH→NaOOH+2Na+NaH(320)

2NaOH→NaOOH+NaH→Na₂O+H₂O(321)

In the latter reaction, H₂O can react with Na. To form an intermediate MOOH (M = alkali metal) (e.g. NaOOH, which can react to form Na₂The reaction of O and OH) may comprise the supplied hydrogen. An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂E.g., in the range of about 1 to 1.5 atm) NaOH/BASE/NaCl-NiCl₂Or NaCl-MnCl₂Or LiCl-BaCl₂]And [ Ni (H) ]₂)Na₂At least one of O and NaOH/BASE/NaCl-NiCl₂Or NaCl-MnCl₂Or LiCl-BaCl₂]It can generate electricity by, for example, forming hydrinos by the reaction of:

cathode:

2Na⁺+2e^-+M′X₂→2NaCl+M′(322)

anode:

1/2H₂+3NaOH→NaOOH+NaH+H₂O+Na⁺+e^-(323)

NaOOH+NaH→Na₂O+H₂O(324)

Na₂O+NaOH→NaOOH+2Na⁺+2e^-(325)

wherein M' is a metal, X is a halide, other alkali metals may be substituted for Na, and NaH or OOH^-May serve as a source of catalyst, or OH may form as an intermediate and act as a catalyst.

In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprises or additionally comprises a carbonate, such as an alkali metal carbonate. During electrolysis, the peroxygen species may form, for example, peroxycarbonic acid or alkali metal percarbonate, which may be OOH that acts as a source or catalyst for the formation of hydrinos^-Or a source of OH. Exemplary cells are [ Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K₂CO₃Carbon + air]And [ Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K₂CO₃Ni powder + carbon (50/50 wt%) + air ]。

In one implementationIn one approach, a substrate such as steam activated carbon comprises an oxygen source (e.g., carboxylate groups) that reacts with an electrolyte such as a hydroxide (e.g., KOH) to form the corresponding carboxylate (e.g., K)₂CO₃). For example, CO from carboxylate groups₂The following reaction may occur:

2KOH+CO₂→K₂CO₃+H₂O(326)

wherein OH is^-Oxidized and CO₂Is reduced. This process may include a mechanism for forming hydrinos. Activated carbon and activated carbon-containing PtC can react in this manner to form hydrinos. Similarly, R-Ni with OH^-Reaction to form H₂O and Al₂O₃This contains OH^-And provides a direct mechanism for forming hydrinos. Thus, hydrinos can be formed by direct reaction at a carbon cathode or an R-Ni anode. This is evidenced by the larger 1.25ppmNMR peak of the product after extraction in dDMF.

One embodiment includes having a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Gas) and oxygen source (e.g., O)₂Gas or air). H₂And O₂At least one of which may be produced by electrolysis of water. The power for electrolysis may be supplied by a CIHT cell, which may be driven by gas supplied directly thereto from the electrolysis cell. The electrolysis may further comprise H₂And O₂Thereby providing purified gas to each of the cathode and anode. Hydrogen may be supplied to the anode half cell and oxygen may be supplied to the cathode half cell. The anode may comprise H ₂An oxidation catalyst and may comprise H₂Dissociative groups (e.g., Pt/C, Ir/C, Ru/C, Pd/C and other dissociating agents of the present invention). The cathode may comprise O₂A reducing catalyst, such as the reducing catalyst of the present invention. The cell produces species that can form OH, which can act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos, and produces energy (e.g., electrical energy) that exceeds the energy produced by the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water.

In one embodiment, the cathode comprises O₂Or air reduction reaction, comprising₂Such as Pb, In, Hg, Zn, Fe, Cd or hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) And an anode. The anodic metal M may form complexes or ions, e.g.Which is at least partially soluble in the electrolyte so that the anodic reaction proceeds unhindered by the coating (e.g., oxide coating). The anode may also comprise other more active metals such as Li, Mg or Al, where inhibitors may be used to prevent direct reaction with the aqueous electrolyte, or non-aqueous electrolytes (such as organic electrolytes or ionic liquids) may be used. Suitable ionic liquid electrolytes for anodes such as Li are bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) amine 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium, bis (pentafluoroethylsulfonyl) amine 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium, and bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) amine 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium. The anode can be regenerated in aqueous solution by electrolysis, where Pb, Hg or Cd can be added to suppress H ₂Is released. Metals having a high negative electrode potential, such as Al, Mg and Li, can be used as the anode using the aprotic organic electrolyte.

In one embodiment, O₂The reduction of (a) proceeds via a peroxide pathway involving two electrons. Suitable cathodes that benefit this peroxide pathway are graphite and most other carbons, gold, oxide coated metals (e.g., nickel or cobalt), some transition metal macrocycles, and transition metal oxides. Such as MnO₂Oxides of manganese can act as O₂The catalyst is reduced. Alternatively, oxygen can be directly reduced to OH by 4 electrons^-Or H₂And O. This pathway occurs primarily on noble metals (e.g., platinum and platinum group metals), some transition metal oxides having perovskite or pyrochlore-type structures, some transition metal macrocycles (e.g., iron phthalocyanine and silver).

The electrodes may comprise compound electrodes for the reduction and release of oxygen. The latter can be used for regeneration. The electrodes may have a dual function of reducing and releasing oxygen, with activity provided by a respective separate catalyst layer, or electrocatalystsMay have a dual function. The electrode and cell design may be a design known in the art for electrodes and cells of metal-air cells (Fe or Zn-air cells or appropriate modifications thereto known to those skilled in the art). Suitable electrode structures include a current collector, a gas diffusion layer that may include carbon and a binder, and an active layer that may be a bifunctional catalyst. Alternatively, the electrode may comprise O on one side of the current collector ₂Reducing the layer and containing O on the other side₂A release layer. The former may comprise an outer gas diffusion layer in contact with an oxygen source and a porous hydrophobic catalyst layer in contact with a current collector; while the latter may comprise a porous hydrophilic catalyst layer in contact with the electrolyte on one side of the layer and a current collector on the other side.

Suitable perovskite-type oxides that can act as catalysts for the reduction of oxygen from a source can have the general formula ABO₃And the thus substituted perovskites may have the general formula A_1-xA'_xB_1-yB'_yO₃. A can be La, Nd; a' can be strontium, barium, calcium; and B may be nickel, cobalt, manganese, ruthenium. Other suitable catalysts for reducing oxygen at the cathode are perovskite catalysts, e.g. metal oxide doped La_0.6Ca_0.4CoO₃、La_1-xCa_xCoO₃、La_1-xSr_xCoO₃(x is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 0.5) or La_0.8Sr_0.2Co_1-yB_yO₃(B = Ni, Fe, Cu or Cr; y is 0. ltoreq. y.ltoreq.0.3), La_0.5Sr_0.5CoO₃、LaNiO₃、LaFe_xNi_1-xO₃Substituted LaCoO₃、La_1-xCa_xMO₃、La_0.8Ca_0.2MnO₃、La_1-xA'_xCo_1-yB'_yO₃(A′＝Ca；B'=Mn、Fe、Co、Ni、Cu)、La_0.6Ca_0.4Co_0.8Fe_0.2O₃、La_1- _xA'_xFe_1-yB'_yO₃(A′＝Sr、Ca、Ba、La；B′＝Mn)、La_0.8Sr_0.2Fe_1-yMn_yO₃And perovskite-type oxides based on Mn and some transition metals or lanthanoids; or spinels, e.g. Co₃O₄Or NiCo₂O₄(ii) a Pyrochlores, e.g. Pb₂Ru₂Pb_1-xO_1-yOr Pb₂Ru₂O_6.5(ii) a Other oxides, e.g. Na_0.8Pt₃O₄(ii) a Organometallic compounds such as cobalt porphyrin; or a pyrolized macrocyclic compound with a Co additive. Suitable pyrochlore oxides have the formula A₂B₂O₇Or A₂B_2-xA_xO_7-y(A = Pb/Bi, B = Ru/Ir), e.g. Pb₂Ir₂O_7-y、PbBiRu₂O_7-y、Pb₂(Pb_xIr_2-x)O_7-And Nd₃IrO₇. Suitable spinels are nickel-cobalt oxides, pure or lithium-doped cobalt oxide (Co) ₃O₄)、M_xCO_3-xO₄Type cobaltite spinels ((M = Co, Ni, Mn oxygen reduction) and (M = Co, Li, Ni, Cu, Mn oxygen evolution)). The oxygen evolution catalyst may be nickel, silver, noble metals (e.g., Pt, Au, Ir, Rh, or Ru), nickel cobalt oxides (e.g., NiCo)₂O₄) And copper cobalt oxide (e.g., CuCo)₂O₄). The oxygen reduction or evolution catalyst may further comprise an electrically conductive support, for example carbon, such as carbon black, graphitic carbon, ketjen black (Ketjenblack) or graphitized vulcan xc 72. Exemplary cells are [ Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/air + carbon + O₂Reducing catalysts (e.g. perovskite type catalysts, e.g. La doped with metal oxides_0.6Ca_0.4CoO₃、La_1-xCa_xCoO₃、La_1-xSr_xCoO₃(x is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 0.5) or La_0.8Sr_0.2Co_1-yB_yO₃(B = Ni, Fe, Cu or Cr; 0. ltoreq. y. ltoreq.0.3); or spinels, e.g. Co₃O₄Or NiCo₂O₄(ii) a Pyrochlores, e.g. Pb₂Ru₂Pb_1-xO_1-yOr Pb₂Ru₂O_6.5(ii) a Other oxides, e.g. Na_0.8Pt₃O₄Or a pyrolysed macrocyclic compound with a Co additive]. In another embodiment, the cathode comprises a water reduction catalyst.

The cathode can support H₂O and O₂Reduction of at least one of them. The cathode may comprise a high surface area conductor, such as carbon, e.g., carbon black, activated carbon, and steam activated carbon. The cathode may comprise a metal oxide with respect to O₂Or H₂Reduction of at least one of O or H₂Liberating a conductor with a lower overpotential, e.g. Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Rh, Au or these metals on a conductive support, e.g. carbon or titanium, as H ₂O serves as the cathode for the cathode half cell reactant. The electrolyte may be, for example, a concentrated base in the range of about 6.1M to saturation. An exemplary cell is [ dissociating agent with hydrogen (e.g., PtCB, PdC, or Pt (20%) Ru (10%) (H)₂About 1000 torr)) or metal hydrides (e.g., R-Ni, R-Co, R-Cu, LaNi of various compositions₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or a hydride/base aqueous solution (e.g., KOH (aq)) electrolyte of Table 5: (>6.5M to saturation or>11M to saturated)/carbon, oxygen electrodes (e.g. O on carbon₂Or air, C (O)₂)_xOr oxidized carbon (e.g. steam activated carbon) or CB, PtC, PdC, CB (H)₂)、PtC(H₂)、PdC(H₂) To O₂Or H₂Reduction of at least one of O or H₂Liberating a conductor having a lower overpotential (e.g., Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Rh, Au or these metals on a conductive support (e.g., carbon or titanium) as H₂O and O₂Cathode as cathode half-cell reactant))]。

In one embodiment, the anion may serve as an oxygen source for the cathode. Suitable anions are oxyanions, e.g.Andsuch asThe plasma can form a basic solution. Exemplary cathode reactions are cathodes

The reaction may comprise a reversible half-cell redox reaction, e.g.

H₂Reduction of O to OH^-+ H may cause a cathodic reaction forming hydrinos, where H₂O acts as a catalyst. And with KOH-K ₂CO₃Electrolyte cell (e.g. [ Zn, Sn, Pb, Sb/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K)₂CO₃/CB-SA]) H separated from the cathode product of (2)₂(1/4) the corresponding larger 1.23ppmNMR peak evidences this mechanism. In one embodiment, CO₂、SO₂、PO₂And other similar reactants may be added to the cell as a source of oxygen.

The anode may comprise a material capable of reacting with oxygen species (e.g., OOH)^-Or OH^-) The metal of the reaction. Suitable metals are Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Se, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, In, Pb, Cu, Sb, Bi, Au, Ir, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W, which may be powders. The anode may comprise short hydrophilic fibers (e.g., cellulose fibers) to prevent thickening during recharging. The anode may be formed in a discharged state and activated by charging. An exemplary zinc anode can comprise a mixture of: zinc oxide powder, cellulose fibres, polytetrafluoroethylene binder and optionally zinc powder and additives (e.g. lead (II) oxide) Or oxides of antimony, bismuth, cadmium, gallium and indium to prevent H₂Let out). The mixture may be stirred over a water-acetone mixture and the resulting homogeneous suspension may be filtered, the filter cake pressed into a current collector (e.g. a lead-plated copper mesh) and dried at a temperature slightly above 100 ℃. Electrodes having about 50% porosity can be wrapped in a microporous polymer membrane (e.g., Celgard), which holds the electrodes together and can act as a separator. In other embodiments, the anode may be assembled using primarily Zn powder, which avoids an initial charging step.

The cells may include a stack of cells connected in series or parallel, which may have a reservoir to accommodate the volume change of the electrolyte. The battery may further comprise humidity and CO₂At least one of the management systems. The metal electrode may be sandwiched between oxygen electrodes to double the surface area. Oxygen can diffuse from the air through a porous Teflon laminated air electrode containing an oxygen diffusion electrode. In one embodiment, electrons from the anode react with oxygen at catalytic sites of the wetted portion of the oxygen diffusion electrode to form reduced water and oxygen species.

In one embodiment, a metal-air cell (e.g., a Zn-air cell) may comprise a metal-air fuel cell, wherein metal is continuously added and oxidized metal (e.g., metal oxide or hydroxide) is continuously removed. Fresh metal is transported to the anode half cell and spent oxidized metal is transported away from the anode half cell by means such as suction, screw propulsion, transmission, or other mechanical methods known to those skilled in the art for moving these materials. The metal may comprise small particles that may be pumped.

In one embodiment, the oxyhydroxide compound can act as an OH group^-The source of oxygen. The oxyhydroxide can form a stable oxide. An exemplary cathodic reaction comprises at least one of the following reactions: reduction of the oxyhydroxide; or oxyhydroxides (e.g. one of the group of MnOOH, CoOOH, GaOOH and InOOH and lanthanides (e.g. LaOOH)) and H ₂O and O₂To form the corresponding oxide (e.g., by reduction of at least one ofLa₂O₃、Mn₂O₃、CoO、Ga₂O₃And In₂O₃). An exemplary reaction of the metal M is given by

Cathode:

MOOH+e^-→MO+OH^-(329)

2MOOH+2e^-+H₂O→M₂O₃+2OH^-+H₂(330)

2MOOH+2e^-+1/2O₂→M₂O₃+2OH^-(331)

alternatively, the oxide may act to form OH^-The source of oxygen. The reduced metal product may be an oxide, oxyhydroxide, or hydroxide of the metal in a lower oxidation state. An exemplary cathodic reaction involving metal M is

Cathode:

yMO_x+re^-+qH₂O→M_yO_yx+q-r+rOH^-+(2q-r)/2H₂(332)

wherein y, x, r and q are integers. A suitable exemplary oxide is MnO₂、Mn₂O₃、Mn₃O₄M' O (M ═ transition metal), SeO₂、TeO₂、P₂O₅、SO₂、CO₂、N₂O、NO₂、NO、SnO、PbO、La₂O₃、Ga₂O₃And In₂O₃Wherein the gas may be maintained in a matrix, for example, absorbed in carbon. The electrolyte may be, for example, a concentrated base in the range of about 6.1M to saturation. An exemplary cell is [ dissociating agent with hydrogen (e.g., PtCB, PdC, or Pt (20%) Ru (10%) (H)₂About 1000 torr)) or metal hydrides (e.g., R-Ni, R-Co, R-Cu, LaNi of various compositions₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or a hydride/base aqueous solution (e.g., KOH (aq)) electrolyte of Table 5: (>6.5M to saturation or>11M to saturated)/oxyhydroxide or oxide (e.g. MnO)₂、Mn₂O₃、Mn₃O₄M' O (M ═ transition metal), SeO₂、TeO₂、P₂O₅、SO₂、CO₂、N₂O、NO₂、NO、SnO、PbO、La₂O₃、Ga₂O₃And In₂O₃(wherein the gas may be maintained in a matrix, e.g. adsorbed in carbon), or CoOOH, MnOOH, LaOOH, GaOOH or InOOH)][ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MO _x(x =1 or 2) (suitable metals M = Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge)]And [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/M 'OOH (suitable metals M = Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge; M' = Mn, Co, La, Ga, In)]。

As OH^-The OH formed as an intermediate in the oxidation reaction of (a) can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst for the formation of hydrinos (e.g., OH or H)₂O). In one embodiment, the hydroxide or oxide forming metal may serve as the anode. Alternatively, the hydroxide starting reactant may serve as the anode. At least one of the oxidized metal, metal oxide and metal hydroxide can convert OH^-Oxidized to OH as an intermediate, thereby forming a compound (e.g., a metal hydroxide, oxide, or oxyhydroxide) containing at least two of a metal, oxygen, and hydrogen. For example, metals can be oxidized to form hydroxides, which can further react to form oxides. At least one hydroxide H may be at OH^-Transfer to the OH group on oxidation^-To form water. Thus, the metal hydroxide or oxyhydroxide can react in the same manner as the hydride (formula (313)) to form an OH intermediate that can serve as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. An exemplary reaction of the metal M is

Anode:

M+OH^-→M(OH)+e^-(333)

followed by

M(OH)+OH^-→MO+H₂O+e^-(334)

M+2OH^-→M(OH)₂+2e^-(335)

Followed by

M(OH)₂→MO+H₂O(336)

M+2OH^-→MO+H₂O+2e^-(337)

Wherein the OH of the water product may initially form as an intermediate and act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The anode metal pair may be stable to direct reaction with the concentrated base or may react at a slow rate. Suitable metals are transition metals, Ag, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and alloys comprising one or more of these and other metals. The anode may comprise a paste of powdered metal and electrolyte (e.g., a base such as MOH (M = alkali metal)). Exemplary paste anode reactants are Zn powder mixed with saturated KOH or Cd powder mixed with KOH. The electropositive metal suitable for the anode is one or more of the group of Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Se, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, In and Pb. Alternatively, suitable metals having low water reactivity are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W. In other embodiments, the anode may comprise a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide, for example, of the above-mentioned metals, such as Co (OH)₂、Zn(OH)₂、Sn(OH)₂And Pb (OH)₂. Suitable metal hydroxides form oxides or oxyhydroxides. The electrolyte may be, for example, a concentrated base in the range of about 6.1M to saturation. Exemplary batteries are [ metals (e.g., Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Sn, Pb) or metals with low water reactivity (e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te) Tl, Sn and W) or a paste or metal hydroxide of these metals with saturated MOH (e.g. Co (OH)₂、Zn(OH)₂、Sn(OH)₂Or Pb (OH)₂) Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g. KOH (aq)) electrolyte: (>6.5M to saturation or>11M to saturated)/oxyhydroxide or oxide (e.g. MnO)₂、Mn₂O₃、Mn₃O₄M' O (M ═ transition metal), SeO₂、TeO₂、P₂O₅、SO₂、CO₂、N₂O、NO₂、NO、SnO、PbO、La₂O₃、Ga₂O₃And In₂O₃(where the gas may be maintained in a matrix, e.g. adsorbed in carbon), or CoOOH, MnOOH, LaOOH, GaOOH or InOOH) or carbon, oxygen electrodes (e.g. O on carbon)₂Or air, C (O)₂)_xOr carbon oxide (such as steam activated carbon) or CB, PtC, PdC, CB (H)₂)、PtC(H₂)、PdC(H₂) To O₂Or H₂Reduction of at least one of O or H₂Liberating a conductor with a lower overpotential (e.g. Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Rh, Au or these metals on a conductive support (e.g. carbon or titanium) as H₂O and O₂Cathode as cathode half-cell reactant))](iii) hydroxide of [ Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb or Y/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon]And [ Zn-saturated MOH paste/MOH (saturated aqueous solution)/with O₂CB, activated carbon or steam activated carbon of]。

In one embodiment, the cathode can comprise a metal oxide (e.g., an oxide or oxyhydroxide) and the anode can comprise a metal or a reduced oxide of the oxidized metal relative to the cathode. The reduction of water given in formula (314) may involve the oxidation of an oxide or oxyhydroxide. The cathode and anode may comprise the same metal in different oxidation or oxide states. The anodic reaction can be given by at least one of the formulae (333-337). An exemplary cell is [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MOOH (M = transition metal, rare earth metal, Al, Ga or In) ][ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MO₂(M = Se, Te or Mn)]And [ M/KOH (saturated water)solution)/MO (M = Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb or Ge)]. Hydrogen may be added to at least one of the half-cells to initiate and propagate oxidation and reduction reactions of water (e.g., formulas 314-315 and 346) that retain some OH or other catalyst comprising at least one of O and H. The hydrogen source may be a hydride, e.g. R-Ni or LaNi₅H₆. Carbon, such as steam carbon, may also be added to the electrode, such as the cathode, to facilitate the reduction of water to OH^-And make OH^-Oxidation to OH and possibly H₂And O. At least one of the electrodes may comprise a mixture comprising carbon. For example, the cathode may comprise a mixture of carbon and a metal oxide, such as a mixture of vaporous carbon and an oxide of Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, or Ge. The anode may comprise the corresponding metal of the cathodic metal oxide. Others suitable for reducing O at the cathode₂The catalyst (C) is a perovskite catalyst (e.g., La doped with a metal oxide)_0.6Ca_0.4CoO₃、La_1-xCa_xCoO₃、La_1-xSr_xCoO₃(x is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 0.5) or La_0.8Sr_0.2Co_1-yB_yO₃(B = Ni, Fe, Cu or Cr; 0. ltoreq. y. ltoreq.0.3)) or spinel (e.g. Co₃O₄Or NiCo₂O₄) Pyrochlore (e.g. Pb)₂Ru₂Pb_1-xO_1-yOr Pb₂Ru₂O_6.5) Other oxides (e.g. Na)_0.8Pt₃O₄) Or a pyrolized macrocyclic compound with a Co additive. The oxygen reduction catalyst may further comprise an electrically conductive support, for example carbon, such as carbon black or graphitic carbon. Exemplary cells are [ Zn, Sn, Co, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Pb, Ge/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/air + carbon + O ₂Reducing catalysts (e.g. perovskite catalysts, such as La doped with metal oxides)_0.6Ca_0.4CoO₃、La_1-xCa_xCoO₃、La_1-xSr_xCoO₃(x is more than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 0.5) or La_0.8Sr_0.2Co_1-yB_yO₃(B = Ni, Fe, Cu or Cr; 0. ltoreq. y. ltoreq.0.3); or spinels, e.g. Co₃O₄Or NiCo₂O₄(ii) a Pyrochlores, e.g. Pb₂Ru₂Pb_1-xO_1-yOr Pb₂Ru₂O_6.5(ii) a Other oxides, e.g. Na_0.8Pt₃O₄(ii) a Or a pyrolysed macrocyclic compound with a Co additive]. In another embodiment, the cathode comprises a water reduction catalyst.

In one embodiment, the cell further comprises a source of oxygen acting as a reactant to participate directly or indirectly in the formation of the catalyst and the source of H that further forms hydrinos. The battery may comprise a metal M acting as an anode such that the corresponding metal ions act as mobile ions. Suitable exemplary metals are at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W and their metal alloys or alloys of other metals. OH can act as a catalyst for the reaction given in table 3. Other than such as M²⁺In addition to the metal ions, some OH may at least temporarily be removed from OH^-And (4) forming. Oxygen may be reduced at the cathode. Water may also participate in the reduction reaction to form at least some OH that may act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. An exemplary reaction is

Anode:

M→M²⁺+2e^-(338)

M+2OH^-→M(OH)₂+2e^-(339)

cathode:

M²⁺+2e^-+1/2O₂→MO(340)

M²⁺+2e^-+H₂O+1/2O₂→M²⁺+2OH^-→M(OH)₂(341)

some of the OH radical intermediates are formed at the anode or cathode to react further to form hydrinos. In another embodiment, the source of oxygen to be reacted with water is an oxyhydroxide compound, such as MnOOH or CoOOH. OH can pass through OH at the anode^-Oxidation ando or O at the cathode₂Reduction to OH^-To form the composite material. O may be the O of a oxyhydroxide. The energy balance may promote the formation of OH under conditions that propagate the hydrino-forming reaction. In other embodiments, the oxidizing agent may be a mixture of oxygen and another oxidizing agent, which may be a gas or may be inert. Suitable exemplary mixtures are with CO₂、NO₂、NO、N₂O、NF₃、CF₄、SO₂、SF₆、CS₂O mixed with at least one of He, Ar, Ne, Kr and Xe₂。

The concentration of the base (e.g., MOH (M = alkali metal), such as KOH (aqueous solution)) can be in any desired range, for example, in a range of about 0.01M to saturation (saturation), about 6.5M to saturation, about 7M to saturation, about 8M to saturation, about 9M to saturation, about 10M to saturation, about 11M to saturation, about 12M to saturation, about 13M to saturation, about 14M to saturation, about 15M to saturation, about 16M to saturation, about 17M to saturation, about 18M to saturation, about 19M to saturation, about 20M to saturation, and about 21M to saturation, and the like. Other suitable exemplary electrolytes, alone, in combination with a base (e.g., MOH, M = alkali metal), and in any combination, are halides, nitrates, perchlorates, carbonates, Na of alkali metals or ammonium ₃PO₄Or K₃PO₄And sulfates and NH₄X (X = halide, nitrate, perchlorate, phosphate, and sulfate). The electrolyte can be in any desired concentration. When R-Ni is used as an anode, a locally high concentration of OH may be formed due to the alkaline composition of R-Ni or the reaction of Al with water or alkali^-. The Al reaction may also supply hydrogen at the anode to further promote the reaction of formula (313).

The anode powder particles may have a protective coating to prevent corrosion by metal bases known in the art. Suitable zinc corrosion inhibitors and hydrogen evolution inhibitors are chelating agents, for example one selected from the group of aminocarboxylic acids, polyamines and aminoalcohols, which are added to the anode in an amount sufficient to achieve the desired inhibition. The inhibition of Zn corrosion can also be achieved by: combining zinc with up to 10% Hg, and dissolving the ZnO in an alkaline electrolyte or dissolving a Zn saltIn an acidic electrolyte. Other suitable materials are organic compounds such as polyethylene glycol and those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,377,625 (incorporated herein by reference), and those known to those skilled in the art for commercial Zn-MnO₂An inhibitor for batteries. Other exemplary inhibitors suitable for Zn and possibly other metals are the following organic or inorganic inhibitors: organic compounds such as surfactants; containing inhibition of H ₂Compounds of lead, antimony, bismuth, cadmium and gallium and the corresponding metal oxides formed; chelating agents, e.g. 5% CoO +0.1% diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, 5% SnO₂+0.1% diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or similar chelating agents; ascorbic acid, laponite or other such hydroxide ion-transporting clays, surfactants and indium sulfate, aliphatic sulfides (e.g., ethylbutyl sulfide, dibutyl sulfide and allylmethyl sulfide), complexing agents (e.g., alkali metal citrates, alkali metal stannates and calcium oxide), metal alloys and additives (e.g., group III and group V metals), polyethylene glycol, ethylene-polyethylene glycol (e.g., polyethylene glycols having different molecular weights, such as PEG200 or PEG600), fluoropolyethylene glycol (fluoropolyethylene glycol) ethers with ethylene oxide, polyoxyethylene alkylphosphonate acid forms, polyvinyl alkylphosphate esters, ethoxylated polyfluorools and alkyl polyethylene oxides. In other embodiments, other electropositive metals (e.g., Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Ag, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Sn, and Pb) or suitable metals having low water reactivity (Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, and W) are protected with corrosion inhibitors. In one embodiment, the protective coating material can be carried to contain the para-OH ^-With selective salt bridges. Suitable cells containing salt bridges are of the type given in the present invention as fuel cells. The salt bridge may be of the type having a donor pair OH^-Optionally a membrane of quaternary ammonium groups of similar groups. Alternatively, it may be para-OH^-Optionally an oxide or hydroxide. para-H for use with hydrogen anodes₂Commercially available permeate resistant separator is Nafion350(DuPont)。

The cell may be regenerated by electrolysis or by reaction with hydrogen and by other chemical treatment and separation methods and systems given in the present invention or known in the art. The oxidized metal (e.g., metal oxide) can be formed by supplying H₂To the anode to be regenerated electrolytically at a lower voltage, where the metal is deposited at the cathode. For another example, the Zn anode can be removed and replaced with a new cartridge with chemically regenerated Zn. In embodiments comprising Zn, Pb or Sn anodes with ZnO, PbO and SnO respectively formed during discharge, the products ZnO, PbO and SnO may be treated with carbon or CO to form zinc, lead and tin and CO₂(ii) a Or by treatment with sulfuric acid, thereby forming ZnSO₄、PbSO₄、SnSO₄Which can be electrolyzed to form recyclable Zn, Pb and Sn and sulfuric acid. Where the cell comprises the initial reactants of the metal anode and the corresponding oxidized metals (e.g., oxides, oxyhydroxides, and hydroxides), the cell product is an oxidized metal at both electrodes. The battery can be regenerated by electrolysis or by: the electrode is removed, the electrode reactants comprising a mixture of metal and oxidized metal compound are combined, and the mixture is separated into metal and oxidized metal compound. An exemplary method is to heat the mixture to cause the metal to melt and form a layer that can separate based on density. Suitable metals are Pb (MP =327.5 ℃), Sb (MP =630.6 ℃), Bi (MP =271.4 ℃), Cd (MP =321 ℃), Hg (MP = -39 ℃), Se (MP =221 ℃) and Sn (MP =232 ℃). In another embodiment, the anode comprises a magnetic metal (e.g., a ferromagnetic metal such as Co or Fe) and the cathode comprises the corresponding oxide (e.g., CoO and NiO). After discharge, the cathode and anode may comprise a mixture of the metal and the corresponding oxide. The metal and oxide of each half cell can be separated magnetically because the metal is ferromagnetic. The separated metal can be returned to the anode and the separated metal oxide can be returned to the cathode, thereby forming a regenerated cell.

In a general reaction, OH^-Oxidation to OH, thereby acting as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos, and can be from a source of H (e.g., hydride (formula (313)) or hydroxide (formula (334)))Form H₂O, wherein H₂O may act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The hydroxide reaction to provide H may be two OH groups^-The radicals forming, under oxidation, metal oxides and H₂And (4) reaction of O. The metal oxide may be with at least one OH group^-The groups may be derived from different or the same metals. As given by formula (334), the metal M' may be reacted with OH from MOH (e.g., M is an alkali metal)^-To form OH and H₂And O. And formula (355) is as OH^-Examples of reactions of the source metal M with the metal forming the metal oxide. Exemplary Battery having participation mechanism identical to formula (334) [ Na/BASE/NaOH]Another form of the reaction of formulae (355) and (217) is

Na+2NaOH→Na₂O+OH+NaH→Na₂O+NaOH+1/2H₂(342)

In the embodiment of an electrolytic cell comprising an aqueous alkaline electrolyte solution, the reaction mechanism for forming OH and hydrinos follows the equations (313) -342) and (355). For example, the electrolyte may comprise an alkali metal (M) base, such as MOH or M₂CO₃Which provide OH^-And alkali metal ion M⁺They may form M₂O and as form H₂OH of the intermediate of O. By way of example, an exemplary cathodic reaction following equation (342) is

K⁺+e^-+2KOH→K₂O+OH+KH→K₂O+KOH+1/2H₂(343)

In another embodiment of the aqueous electrolytic cell, oxygen from the anode reacts with the metal or metal hydride at the cathode to form OH^-(formula (314)) OH^-Oxidized at the anode to form OH. OH can also be formed as an intermediate at the cathode. The OH reacts further to form hydrinos. O can be promoted extremely by using carbon or carbon-coated metal cathodes₂And H₂O is reduced to OH at the cathode^-. The carbon can be derived from a carbonate electrolyte (e.g., an alkali metal carbonate, such as K)₂CO₃) And (5) electroplating out. The cell can be operated without an external recombinator to increase O₂Concentration of thereby increasing O₂The rate of reduction.

In other embodiments of OH producing cells, at least one of H and O formed during at least one of the oxidation and reduction reactions may also serve as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos.

In another general reaction with a hydrosulfide ionic electrolyte, the cathodic reaction involves performing a reaction that accepts at least one of electrons and accepts H. The anodic reaction includes a reaction of at least one of donating electrons, donating H, and oxidizing hydrogen chalcogenide ions.

In another embodiment, the battery system shown in fig. 21 may comprise an anode compartment 600, an anode 603 (e.g., Zn), a cathode compartment 601, a cathode 604 (e.g., carbon), and OH to mobile ions (e.g., electrolyte (e.g., 6.5M to saturated MOH, M = alkali metal)) ^-) A selectively permeable separator 602 (e.g., a polyolefin membrane). A suitable membrane is Celgard 3501. The electrodes are connected through a load 605 via a switch 606 to discharge the cell, causing oxide or hydroxide products, such as ZnO, to form at the anode 603. The battery comprising electrodes 603 and 604 may be recharged using an electrolytic power supply 612, which may be another CIHT battery. The cell may further comprise an auxiliary electrode, such as an auxiliary anode 609 in an auxiliary cell 607 shown in fig. 21. When a cell comprising anode 603 and cathode 604 is properly discharged, electrode 603 comprising an oxidation product (e.g., ZnO) may serve as the cathode, and auxiliary electrode 609 serves as the anode, to electrolytically regenerate or spontaneously discharge anode 603. Suitable electrodes with alkaline electrolytes in the latter case are Ni or Pt/Ti. In the latter case, a suitable hydride anode is a hydride anode used in a metal hydride battery (e.g., a nickel-metal hydride battery as known to those skilled in the art). Exemplary suitable auxiliary electrode anodes are the anodes of the present invention, for example metals (e.g. Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Sn, Pb or metals with low water reactivity (Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn or W)) or these gold Paste of saturated MOH, dissociation agent and hydrogen (e.g. PtC (H)₂) Or metal hydrides (e.g. R-Ni, LaNi)₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2And other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, e.g. AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂One of the (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) types, in which "AB_xThe expression "refers to the ratio of the type A element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the type B element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn). In other embodiments, the hydride anode comprises at least one of: AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm = cerium-containing rare earth alloy: 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd); AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloying; alloys based on magnesium, e.g. Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀；La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1、LaNi_5-xM_x((M = Mn, Al), (M = Al, Si, Cu), (M = Sn), (M = Al, Mn, Cu)) and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂(ii) a AB compounds such as TiFe, TiCo and TiNi; AB_nCompound (n =5, 2 or 1); AB_3-4A compound; and AB_x(A = La, Ce, Mn, Mg; B = Ni, Mn, Co, Al). When switch 611 is closed and switch 606 is open, the cell comprising anode 609 and cathode 603 can be discharged through load 613. Using power source 610, which may be another CIHT battery, the battery including electrodes 603 and 609 may be recharged. Alternatively, after closing switch 614 and opening switch 611,the discharged battery including electrodes 604 and 609 may be recharged using power source 616, which may be another CIHT battery. In addition, an auxiliary anode 609 (e.g., hydride, such as R-Ni, LaNi) ₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2) Regeneration can be by electrolytic recharge, either by in situ addition of hydrogen or by removal, hydrogenation and displacement. Formation of oxides or hydroxides during discharge and thermodynamically favourable H₂Suitable exemplary anodes for the regeneration reaction of reduction to metal are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W. Various such electrodes may be in the half cell at H₂And run down to regenerate the electrodes in batches or continuously. The electrodes may be alternately recycled. For example, a discharged metal hydride anode (e.g., from LaNi)₅H₆LaNi (Lami)₅) Can be used as a cathode in another aqueous cell, wherein water or H is present at the cathode⁺Reduction to hydrogen will make LaNi₅Then hydrogenated into LaNi₅H₆，LaNi₅H₆And may further serve as an anode. The energy source to drive the discharge and recharge cycles is the formation of hydrinos from hydrogen. Those skilled in the art may use the other anodes, cathodes, auxiliary electrodes, electrolytes and solvents of the present invention interchangeably to construct other cells capable of causing regeneration of at least one electrode (e.g., the initial anode).

In other embodiments, at least one of the anode 603 and the cathode 604 may comprise a plurality of electrodes, each of the plurality of electrodes further comprising a switch for electrically connecting or disconnecting each of the plurality of electrodes to the circuit. Then, for example, one cathode or anode may be connected during discharge and the other cathode or anode may be connected during recharging by electrolysis. In exemplary embodiments with an alkaline electrolyte (e.g., MOH (M = alkali metal), such as KOH (saturated aqueous solution)), the anode comprises a metal (e.g., a metal Suitable metals (Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W or Zn) or hydrides (e.g. R-Ni or LaNi) having low water reactivity₅H₆) And the cathode comprises a plurality of at least two electrodes, such as a carbon electrode connected to the circuit during discharge and nickel connected during recharge. In another embodiment, the electrolyte may be changed in at least one half cell, followed by electrolysis. For example, the saturated MOH may be diluted to make H₂Released at the electrolytic cathode and then concentrated again for discharge. In another embodiment, at least one of the solvent and solute may be varied to allow regeneration of the battery reactants. The electrolysis voltage of the cell product may exceed the electrolysis voltage of the solvent; the solvent change is then selected to allow the reactants to be regenerated by electrolysis. In one embodiment, an anode such as a metal or hydride may be removed from a first cell containing the anode and cathode after discharge and regenerated by electrolysis in a second cell having a counter electrode and returned to the first cell as a regenerated anode. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell comprising a hydride anode further comprises an electrolysis system that intermittently charges and discharges the cell, thereby resulting in an increase in net energy balance. Exemplary batteries are constant discharge and charge current [ LaNi ₅H₆KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]Pulsed electrolysis, where the discharge time is about 1.1 to 100 times the charge time, and the discharge and charge currents may be the same within about 10 times. In one embodiment, the battery is intermittently charged and discharged. In exemplary embodiments, the cell has a metal anode or a Metal Hydride (MH) anode, e.g., [ Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC][ Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC ]]"[ Sn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]And [ MH/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]Wherein MH may be LaNi₅H_x、TiMn₂H_xOr La₂Ni₉CoH_x. The intermittently charged and discharged CIHT cell may also comprise a molten electrolyte, such as at least one hydroxide and halide or other salt, and may further comprise a source of H at the anode, such as a hydride MH which may be in the electrolyteOr H₂And O. A suitable exemplary battery is [ MH/M' (OH)_n-M″X_m/M′″]And [ M/M' (OH)_n-M″X_m(H₂O)/M]Where n, M are integers, M, M ', M ' and M ' may be metals, suitable metals M may be Ni, M ' and M ' may be alkali and alkaline earth metals, and suitable anions X may be hydroxide, halide, sulfate, nitrate, carbonate and phosphate. In an exemplary embodiment, a CIHT cell is charged at a constant current of, for example, 1mA for 2 seconds, and then discharged at a constant current of, for example, 1mA for 20 seconds. The current and time can be adjusted to any desired value to achieve maximum energy gain.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a metal that forms an oxide or hydroxide that can be reduced by hydrogen. Hydrogen may be formed at the cathode by a reaction, such as the reaction of water (as given by equation (315)). The oxide or hydroxide may also be reduced by the addition of hydrogen. In one embodiment, the oxide or hydroxide is formed at the anode, wherein water is the hydroxide source and hydrogen reduces the hydroxide or oxide, wherein water is at least partially the hydrogen source. Involving OH as hydrino^-Or during the kinetic reaction of oxidation of the anode metal, reduction of water to hydrogen gas, and reaction of hydrogen with the anode oxide or hydroxide to regenerate the anode metal. The anode may then comprise a metal whose oxide or hydroxide can be reduced by hydrogen, for example one of the group of transition metals, Ag, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Sn and Pb, or a suitable metal with low water reactivity from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W. In one embodiment, the transition metal Zn may also act as a catalyst for the reaction given in table 1.

The cell may be regenerated by electrolysis of water and added back to replenish any hydrogen consumed in the formation of hydrinos or lost from the cell. In one embodiment, the electrolysis is pulsed such that a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride, such as nickel hydride) is formed during the electrolysis, which generates a voltage opposite to the electrolysis voltage and is absent Electrolyzing water during the time interval of the energized duty cycle. Electrolysis parameters such as peak voltage, current and power, compensation voltage, current and power, and duty cycle and frequency are optimized to increase energy gain. In one embodiment, the cell produces electricity and hydrogen (equation (315)), which can be collected as a product. Alternatively, the hydrogen gas can be recycled to hydrogenate R-Ni to continue discharging the cell and generating electricity, wherein the formation of hydrinos contributes to at least one of cell voltage, current, power, and energy. The cell may also be recharged by an external power source (which may be another CIHT cell) to generate hydrogen gas, thereby displacing any hydrogen consumed in the formation of hydrinos or lost from the cell. In one embodiment, the hydride species may be added by in situ addition of H₂Or adding H in a separate container after removal from the anode compartment₂To be re-hydrogenated. In the former case, the anode may be sealed and pressurized with hydrogen. Alternatively, the cell may be pressurized with hydrogen, wherein the hydrogen is preferentially absorbed or retained by the anode reactant. In one embodiment, the battery may be operated with H₂And (4) pressurizing.

In another embodiment of a battery comprising a hydride, such as a metal hydride half-cell reactant and other half-cell reactants comprising a oxyhydroxide, the electrolyte can be a hydride conductor, such as a molten eutectic salt. An exemplary cell is [ R-Ni/LiClKCl0.02 wt% LiH/CoOOH ].

In addition to the metal hydride (e.g., R — Ni), the anode can comprise anthraquinone, polypyrrole, or specifically passivated lithium. In an exemplary embodiment, the anode can comprise Anthraquinone (AQ) mixed with a hydrogenated carbon, wherein the anodic reaction produces H atoms that react to form hydrinos. The cell may further comprise nickel oxyhydroxide as the cathode and Anthrahydroquinone (AQH)₂) As an anode, the electrolyte may be alkaline. An exemplary reversible cell reaction is

An exemplary battery is [ AQH₂KOH/NiOOH separator]. In embodiments, the nickel oxyhydroxide can be oxidized with another oxide or oxyhydroxide (e.g., an oxide of lead or manganese, such as PbO)₂Or MnO₂) And (4) replacement.

In other aqueous electrolyte embodiments, OH^-Are half cell reactants. OH group^-Can be oxidized into H₂O, and the metal ions are reduced at the cathode. The organometallic compound may contain a metal ion. Suitable organometallic compounds are aromatic transition metal compounds, for example comprising ferrocene (Fe (C)₅H₅)₂) Nickel and cobalt compounds. Other organometallic compounds known to those skilled in the art to be capable of undergoing redox reactions may be substituted for these examples and their derivatives. The oxidized form of ferrocene is ferrocenium ion ([ Fe (C) ₅H₅)₂]⁺). The organometallic compound may comprise a ferrocenium hydroxide or halide, for example a chloride, which can be reduced to ferrocene. The ferrocenium ion may comprise a conductive polymer, such as a polyvinylferrocenium ion. The polymer may be attached to a conductive electrode, such as Pt or other metals given in the present invention. An exemplary anodic reaction of the metal hydride R-Ni is given by formula (311). An exemplary cathodic reaction is

Ferrocenium ion (OH) + e- → ferrocene + OH^-(345)

H vacancies formed during cell operation (e.g., during discharge) or the addition cause the hydrino reaction, thereby releasing electricity in addition to any power from the reaction of non-hydrino species. The electrolyte may comprise an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution. Exemplary cells are [ R-Ni/polyolefin KOH (aq), NaOH (aq), or LiOH (aq)/polyvinylferrocenium ion (OH) ]. Other polar solvents or mixtures as well as aqueous solutions of the present invention may be used.

In one embodiment, the source of H comprises hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen can be formed on dissociating agents such as Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C. The hydrogen source may also be a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂Gases, e.g. Ti (H)₂) Pd-Ag alloy (H) ₂)、V(H₂)、Ta(H₂)、Ni(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂). The cell may comprise an aqueous anion exchange membrane, for example a hydroxide ion conducting membrane, such as a membrane with an alkyl quaternary ammonium hydroxide and an aqueous alkaline solution. The cell may contain a gas preferably impermeable to H₂Membrane or salt bridge. The membrane or salt bridge may be to OH^-Has selectivity in the transport of (1). The alkaline electrolyte may be an aqueous hydroxide solution, for example an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution, such as KOH or NaOH. The anode can be an oxyhydroxide such as AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH), manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and manganese oxide (I-O) (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH), or may be a high surface area conductor such as carbon (e.g., CB, Pt/C or Pd/C), carbide (e.g., TiC), or boride (e.g., TiB)₂). In alkaline solution, the reaction is

Anode

H₂+2OH^-→2H₂O+2e^-Or H₂+OH^-→H₂O+e^-+H(1/p)(346)

Cathode electrode

2(CoOOH+e^-+H₂O→Co(OH)₂+OH^-)

Or CoOOH +2e^-+2H₂O→Co(OH)₂+2OH^-+H(1/p)(347)

An exemplary battery is [ R-Ni, H₂With Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C or metal hydrides (e.g. hydrides of transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals) or alloys (e.g. AB for alkaline batteries)₅Or AB₂One of forms)/MOH (M is an alkali metal, e.g., KOH (about 6M to saturated), wherein the base can act as a catalyst or catalyst source, e.g., K or 2K ⁺) Or other bases (e.g. NH)₄OH)、OH^-Conductors (e.g. aqueous alkaline electrolyte solutions), separatorsPlates (e.g. with separator of alkyl quaternary ammonium hydroxide and aqueous alkaline solution), ionic liquids or solid OH^-conductor/MO (OH) (M = metal, e.g. Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, Al), e.g. AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), (α -MnO (OH) manganese sphene and γ -MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (Ni), (OH), and their salts_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O (OH) or other H-intercalated chalcogenides or HY]. In another embodiment, such as Mg²⁺Etc. Mg can act as a catalyst. An exemplary cell is [ 1 wt% Mg (OH) mixed with R-Ni)₂KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CB]And [ R-Ni/Mg (OH)₂Crown ethers/CB]. In other embodiments, the electrolyte may be an ionic liquid or a salt in an organic solvent. The battery may be regenerated by charging or by chemical treatment.

In the presence of supplied H₂In the embodiment of the fuel cell system of (1), H₂Selectively or preferentially at the anode. H₂The reaction rate at the anode is much higher than at the cathode. H is to be₂The limitation to the anode half-cell or the use of materials that favor reactions at the anode over the cathode include two approaches to achieving selectivity. The cell may contain a gas preferably impermeable to H ₂Membrane or salt bridge. The membrane or salt bridge may be to OH^-The delivery is selective.

In embodiments where oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds participate in the oxidation or reduction reaction, O₂May serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The molecular bond energy of oxygen is 5.165eV, and the first, second and third ionization energies of oxygen atom are 13.61806eV, 35.11730eV and 54.9355eV, respectively. Reaction O₂→O+O²⁺、O₂→O+O³⁺And 2O → 2O⁺Respectively provide about E_h2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy, and comprises the catalyst reaction to form hydrinos by accepting these energies from H to cause hydrinos formation. In one embodiment, OH can act as an MH-type hydrogen catalyst to produce hydrinos provided by: O-H bond cleavage plus 2 or 3 electrons each ionize from atomic O to a bulk energy level such that the bond energy is coupled withThe sum of the ionization energies of 2 or 3 electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is 2 or 4, respectively, as given in Table 3. OH may be represented by OH as exemplary formulas (311), (313), and (346)^-Reaction at the anode or H as given by exemplary formulas (315) and (347)₂O is formed by reduction at the cathode. In a counter cell (e.g., [ R-Ni/KOH (saturated)/CoOOHCB)]And [ R-Ni/KOH (saturated)/PdC]) In the analysis of the reaction product, the larger 1.2ppm peak corresponds to m =3 for the OH catalyst in formula (5) and is derived from H ₂(1/4) the additional 27.2eV of intermediate decay energy matches the 108.8eV of the OH catalyst. The increased strength of the R-Ni anode product is evidenced by OH^-The OH formed by oxidation acts as a mechanism for the catalyst.

Alternatively, O — H may serve as a catalyst that causes a transition to the H (1/3) state as given in table 3, which H (1/3) state rapidly transitions to the H (1/4) state by catalysis with H, as shown in equation (10). Small H present at 1.6ppm₂(1/3) NMR Peak and Large H present at 1.25ppm₂(1/4) NMR peaks demonstrate this mechanism.

In one embodiment, an overpotential for at least one electrode may cause a better match of catalyst energies to m27.2ev (m = integer). For example, as shown in table 3A, OH may be a catalyst of formula (47) with m = 2. For O₂And reduction of water, and for accepting electrons, releasing H and releasing OH^-A metal, metal hydroxide, metal oxyhydroxide, metal hydride or H oxidized to OH (formula 313-₂An overpotential of at least one of the electrodes will cause a more precise match to m27.2ev, for example 54.4 eV. A suitable cathode material is carbon, which is at 10A/m^-2Overpotential of>0.6V and increases with current density. The current density can be adjusted by controlling the load to optimize the contribution of hydrino production to the battery power. The overpotential can also be adjusted by modifying the surface of the electrode (e.g., cathode). The overpotential of the carbon may be increased by partial oxidation or activation by a method such as steam treatment.

Further, atomic oxygen is at a Bohr radius equal to atomic hydrogenHas two unpaired electrons at the same radius. When atomic H acts as a catalyst, an energy of 27.2eV is accepted, so that the kinetic energy of each ionized H of the catalyst acting as another H is 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O can ionize at a kinetic energy of 13.6eV transferred to the O ion, such that the net enthalpy of O-H bond scission of OH followed by ionization of the two outer unpaired electrons is 80.4eV, as shown in Table 3. At OH^-During ionization to OH, further reaction to H (1/4) and O may occur²⁺+2e^-Wherein the released 204eV energy contributes to the power of the CIHT cell. The reaction is as follows:

and the overall reaction is

Wherein m =3 in formula (5). Kinetic energy can also be retained in the hot electrons. The observed inversion of the H-population in the water vapor plasma demonstrates this mechanism.

At OH^-When OH is oxidized to form OH and OH further reacts to form hydrinos, OH^-May be higher to increase the reaction rate for forming OH, thereby increasing the reaction rate for forming hydrinos, such as the following reactions:

OH^-→OH+e^-→1/2O₂+e^-+H(1/p)(351)

OH with electrolyte (e.g. MOH (M = alkali metal), such as KOH or NaOH)^-Concentration of corresponding OH^-The concentration may be any desired concentration, but is preferably high, for example 1M to saturation. An exemplary cell is [ R-Ni/MOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CB ]。

In another embodiment, the pH may be lower, such as neutral to acidic. At H₂In the case where O oxidizes to form OH, OH further reacts to form hydrinos, the concentration of electrolyte may be higher to increase the activity and conductivity, thereby increasing the reaction rate for forming OH, and thus increasing the reaction rate for forming hydrinos, such as the following reactions:

anode

H₂O→OH+e^-+H⁺→1/2O₂+e^-+H⁺+H(1/p)(352)

MH_x+H₂O→OH+2e^-+2H⁺→1/2O₂+2H⁺+2e^-+H(1/p)(353)

Cathode electrode

H⁺+e^-→1/2H₂Or H⁺+e^-→H(1/p)(354)

By competing reactions of formula (353) with O₂Compared to the evolution of the anode reactant hydride (e.g., MH)_xM is a non-H element, such as a metal) is more favorable for OH formation. The reaction to form hydrinos can be limited by the availability of H from the hydride; therefore, the conditions for increasing the H concentration can be optimized. For example, the temperature may be increased or H may be added₂Supplying hydride to replenish any consumed H₂. In a high temperature battery, the separator may be Teflon. The electrolyte may be a non-alkaline salt, such as at least one of the following group: MNO₃、MNO、MNO₂MX (X = halide), NH₃、M₂S、MHS、M₂CO₃、MHCO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、M₃PO₄、M₂HPO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂MoO₄、MNbO₃、M₂B₄O₇(tetraborate of M), MBO₂、M₂WO₄、M₂CrO₄、M₂Cr₂O₇、M₂TiO₃、MZrO₃、MAlO₂、MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_n、MZnO_n(M is an alkali metal or ammonium and n =1, 2, 3 or 4) and organic basic salts (e.g. acetate or carboxylate of M, where M is an alkali metal or ammonium). An exemplary battery is [ R-Ni/M₂SO₄(saturated aqueous solution)/CB ]. The electrolyte may also contain various anions and be soluble in a solventAny cation, such as alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, rare earth and other cations of group III, group IV, group V and group VI elements (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Bi and Te). An exemplary battery is [ R-Ni/MgSO₄Or Ca (NO)₃)₂(saturated aqueous solution)/Activated Carbon (AC)]. The electrolyte concentration may be any desired concentration, but is preferably high, for example 0.1M to saturation.

In one embodiment, the anode or cathode may comprise an additive, for example a support such as a carbide (e.g. TiC or TaC) or carbon (e.g. Pt/C or CB) or an inorganic compound or absorber (e.g. LaN or KI). An exemplary cell is [ ZnLan/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]And [ SnTaC/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]"[ SnKI/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC][ PbCB/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]"[ WCB/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]. In another embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise a mixture of bases, such as saturated ammonium hydroxide saturated in KOH. An exemplary cell is [ Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) NH₄OH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]And [ Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) NH₄OH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]。

In one embodiment, at least one of the cathode and anode half-cell reactions forms OH and H ₂At least one of the O's to act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. OH may be replaced by OH^-Oxidized, or OH can be formed from the oxidation of a precursor (e.g., a source of at least one of OH, H, and O). In the latter two cases, H reacts with the source of O to form OH, and O reacts with the source of H to form OH, respectively. The precursor may be a negative or neutral species or compound. The negative species may be a compound containing OH, OH^-Or containing OH or OH^-Part of ions of (2), e.g. containing OH^-Is/are as followsOr superoxide anions containing OHThe negative species may be a negative species comprising H, H^-Or containing H or H^-Part of ions of, e.g. containing H^-Is/are as followsOr a peroxy anion comprising H. The H product from the oxidation of the negative species then reacts with the O source to form OH. In one embodiment, OH may be reacted with H or a source of H to form OH^-(which is an intermediate to form OH) or an oxyhydroxide. The negative species may be ions containing elements other than H, e.g. O, O^-、O^2-、Or contain O, O^-、O^2-、OrE.g. metal oxides, e.g. containing oxyanionsOrOr a peroxy anion comprising O. The O product from the oxidation of the negative species then reacts with the H source to form OH. The neutral species or compound may comprise OH, OH ^-Or containing OH or OH^-E.g. hydroxides or oxyhydroxides, e.g. containing OH^-NaOH, KOH, Co (OH)₂Or CoOOH, or H containing OH₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The neutral species or compound may comprise H, H^-Or comprises H or H^-E.g. comprising H^-Or H containing H₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The H product from the oxidation is then reacted with a source of O to form OH. Neutral species or compounds may contain elements other than H, e.g. O, O^-、O^2-、Or contain O, O^-、O^2-、OrSuch as metal oxides, hydroxides or oxyhydroxides containing oxyanions or sources thereof, or H containing O₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The O product from the oxidation is then reacted with a source of H to form OH.

OH may be replaced by OH⁺Reduced or OH can be reduced from a precursor (e.g., a source of at least one of OH, H, and O). In the latter two cases, H reacts with the source of O to form OH, and O reacts with the source of H to form OH, respectively. The precursor may be a positive or neutral species or compound. Positive species may be ions containing OH or OH-containing moieties, e.g. containing OH^-Is/are as followsOr a peroxy anion containing OH. The positive species may be a compound comprising H, H⁺Or containing H or H⁺Part of ions of, e.g. containing H ⁺H of (A) to (B)₃O⁺Or a peroxy anion comprising H. The H product from the reduction of the positive species is then reacted with a source of O to form OH. Positive species may be ions containing elements other than H, e.g. O, O^-、O^2-、Or contain O, O^-、O^2-、OrSuch as metal oxides, e.g. AlO containing oxyanions⁺Or a peroxy anion comprising O. The O product resulting from the reduction of the positive species is then reacted with a source of H to form OH. The neutral species or compound may comprise OH or an OH-containing moiety, e.g. H₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The neutral species or compound may comprise H, H⁺Or comprises H or H⁺E.g. comprising H⁺Acid salts or acids of, respectively, e.g. MHSO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂HPO₄(M = alkali metal) and HX (X = halide), or H containing H₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The H product from the reduction is then reacted with a source of O to form OH. The neutral species or compound may comprise an element other than H, e.g. O, or a moiety comprising O, e.g. H₂O, alcohol or peroxide. The O product from the reduction is then reacted with a source of H to form OH.

The OH may be formed as an intermediate or by a synergistic or secondary chemical reaction involving the oxidation or reduction of a compound or species. The same applies to H₂And (3) an O catalyst. The reactant may comprise OH or an OH source, e.g. OH ^-At least one of O and H. As OH^-Suitable sources of OH formed from the formation or consumption of the intermediate are metal oxides, metal hydroxides or oxyhydroxides, such as CoOOH. Exemplary reactions are given in the present invention, wherein OH is involved in OH^-Is formed briefly, and some OH reacts to form hydrinos. Examples of OH groups formed by secondary reactions relate to hydroxides or oxyhydroxides, e.g. containing OH groups^-NaOH, KOH, Co (OH)₂Or CoOOH. For example, by reaction with a catalyst such as [ Na/BASE/NaOH]Reduction of Na in isobattery⁺Na may be formed, wherein the reaction of Na with NaOH may form OH as a transient intermediate as follows:

Na⁺+e^-→Na；Na+NaOH→Na₂+OH→Na₂O+1/2H₂(355)

in a reaction system such as [ Na/BASE/NaOH]In the embodiment of (1), Na⁺The delivery rate of (A) can be optimized in the following wayAnd (3) enlargement: for example, increasing Na can be achieved by increasing temperature or decreasing BASE thickness to decrease BASE resistance₂And H. Thus, the rate of OH and subsequent hydrino formation occurs.

Similarly, by reaction at a temperature such as [ Li/CelgardLP30/CoOOH]Reduction of Li in isobattery⁺Li can be formed, where the reaction of Li with CoOOH can form OH as a transient intermediate as follows:

Li⁺+e^-→Li；

3Li+2CoOOH→LiCoO₂+Co+Li₂+2OH→LiCoO₂+Co+2LiOH(356)

alternatively, in organic electrolytic cells [ Li/CelgardLP30/CoOOH ]Middle, 1.22ppm of H₂(1/4) NMR peaks were mainly at the anode. The mechanism may be OH^-Transfer to the anode, OH therein^-Oxidation to OH, which acts as a reactant to form hydrinos. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode electrode

CoOOH+e^-→CoO+OH^-(357)

Anode

OH^-→OH+e^-；OH→O+H(1/p)(358)

O can react with Li to form Li₂And O. The oxyhydroxide and electrolyte may be selected to favor OH^-As the mobile ion. In one embodiment, OH is promoted^-The migrating electrolyte is an ionic electrolyte, for example a molten salt, such as a eutectic mixture of alkali metal halides, such as LiCl-KCl. The anode can be a material having OH^-Or OH, e.g. metal or hydride, and the cathode may be OH^-Sources such as oxyhydroxides or hydroxides, such as those given in the present invention. Exemplary batteries are [ Li/LiCl-KCl/CoOOH, MnOOH, Co (OH)₂、Mg(OH)₂]。

In one embodiment, the solid fuel is reacted with CIIn at least one of the HT cells, O₂2O, OH and H₂At least one of the O acts as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. In one embodiment, OH may pass through an oxygen source (e.g., P)₂O₅、SO₂、KNO₃、KMnO₄、CO₂、O₂、NO、N₂O、NO₂、O₂And H₂O) and a source of H (e.g. MH (M = alkali), H₂O or H₂Gas and dissociating agent).

The cell may be by electrolysis or by H₂Added and regenerated. The electrolysis can be carried out in pulses under the conditions given in the present invention. One CIHT battery may provide electrolytic power from another CIHT battery because the phasing of the charge-recharge cycles of their cycling process may output a net power exceeding the power being recharged. The cell may be of the rocker chair type, in which H is shuttled between the anode and cathode. In embodiments, the mobile ion comprising H may be OH ^-Or H⁺. Consider a cell with a source of H at the anode and a sink of H at the cathode, e.g., [ R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/AC]. Exemplary discharge and recharge reactions are given by

Discharge of electricity

Anode:

R-NiH_x+OH-→H₂O+R-NiH_x-1+e^-(359)

cathode electrode

H₂O+e^-→OH^-1/2H in + carbon₂(C(H_x))(360)

Electrolytic recharging

Cathode:

R-NiH_x-1+H₂O+e^-→OH^-+R-NiH_x(361)

anode

C(H_x)+OH^-→H₂O+C(H_x-1)+e^-(362)

Wherein at least one of the H or OH generated during these reactions (formula 359-360)) acts as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The cell can be operated to consume water to displace hydrogen forming hydrinos. Oxygen may be selectively gettered or removed by a reactant that is selective to oxygen. Alternatively, hydrogen may be added back to the cell. The cell may be sealed to additionally maintain a balance of the total amount of H between the electrodes. At least one of the electrodes may be continuously or intermittently rehydrogenated during operation of the cell. Hydrogen can be supplied from a gas line which enables H₂Flows into the electrode. The battery may include another for removing H₂To maintain flow through the at least one electrode. The rehydrogenation by at least one of the total amount of internal hydrogen, hydrogen generated by internal electrolysis, and hydrogen supplied from the outside may be performed by means of direct reaction of hydrogen with a cathode or an anode or a reactant. In one embodiment, the anode reactant (e.g., hydride) further comprises a metal oxide to perform the increasing of the anode reactant (e.g., hydride, such as R-Ni, LaNi) ₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75Or ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2) To H₂At least one of the amount and rate of absorption of the reagent (b). The reagent may be a hydrogen overflow catalyst. Suitable agents are CB, PtC, PdC and other hydrogen dissociating agents and hydrogen dissociating agents on a carrier material. The hydrogen pressure may be in the range of about 0.01 to 1000 atm. Suitable for rehydrogenating LaNi₅Is in the range of about 1 to 3 atm.

The mobile ion may be OH^-Wherein the anode comprises a source of H, e.g. an intercalated layered chalcogenide of H, e.g. an oxyhydroxide, e.g. CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂. The electrolyte can be OH^-Conductors, e.g. aqueous alkaline solutions, e.g. aqueous KOH solutions, wherein the base can act as a catalyst or catalyst source, e.g. OH, K or 2K⁺. The cell may further comprise OH^-Permeable barriers, such as CG 3401. An exemplary cell is [ H intercalated layered chalcogenide (e.g., CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS)₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂) KOH (6.5M to saturated) + CG 3401/carbon (e.g. CB, PtC, PdC, CB (H)₂)、PtC(H₂)、PdC(H₂) Carbide (such as TiC), and boride (such as TiB)₂)]. The anode may be regenerated by supplying hydrogen or by electrolysis.

In one embodiment, at least one of the cathode or anode half cell reactants or electrolytes comprisesAn OH stabilizing species or an initiator species, such as a free radical catalyst that acts as a free radical accelerator. Suitable OH-stabilising species are species which stabilise free radicals or prevent their degradation, and suitable free radical initiators are compounds which react to form free radicals, e.g. peroxides or donative Co ²⁺Ionic with O₂Co reacted to form superoxide²⁺And (3) salt. The source of free radicals or oxygen may further comprise a peroxy compound, a peroxide, H₂O₂Azo group-containing compound, N₂O、NO、NO₂NaOCl, Fenton's reagent or the like, OH radicals or sources thereof, xenon ions or sources thereof (e.g. alkali metal or alkaline earth metal xenon peroxoates (preferably sodium xenon peroxonate (Na)₄XeO₆) Or potassium perhexanoate (K)₄XeO₆) Xenon tetraoxide (XeO)₄) And perhexanoic acid (H)₄XeO₆) And a source of metal ions (e.g., a metal salt). The metal salt can be FeSO₄、AlCl₃、TiCl₃And preferably a cobalt halide, e.g. as Co²⁺CoCl of origin₂. The electrolyte may contain cations of the anode material that may act as OH initiators. In exemplary embodiments comprising a nickel anode (e.g., R-Ni or Ni hydride or alloy), the electrolyte comprises a nickel salt additive, such as Ni (OH)₂、NiCO₃、Ni₃(PO₄)₂Or NiSO₄Wherein the electrolyte may be an alkali metal hydroxide, carbonate, phosphate or sulfate, respectively. Exemplary cells are [ R-Ni, Raney cobalt (R-Co), Raney copper (R-Cu), CoH, LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2CrH, FeH, MnH, NiH, ScH, VH, CuH, ZnH, AgH/KOH or NaOH (saturated); FeSO₄、AlCl₃、TiCl₃、CoCl₂、Ni(OH)₂、NiCO₃、Ni₃(PO₄)₂And NiSO₄At least one of PdC, CB or CoOOH + CB]。

Exemplary electrolytes, alone, in combination with a base (e.g., MOH, M = alkali metal), and in any combination, are halides, nitrates, perchlorates, carbonates, Na of alkali metals or ammonium₃PO₄Or K₃PO₄And sulfates and NH₄X (X = halide, nitrate, perchlorate, phosphate, and sulfate). The electrolyte may comprise mixtures or hydroxides or other salts, such as halides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates and nitrates. In general, an exemplary suitable solute, alone or in combination, is an MNO₃、MNO、MNO₂MX (X = halide), NH₃、MOH、M₂S、MHS、M₂CO₃、MHCO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、M₃PO₄、M₂HPO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂MoO₄、MNbO₃、M₂B₄O₇(tetraborate of M), MBO₂、M₂WO₄、M₂CrO₄、M₂Cr₂O₇、M₂TiO₃、MZrO₃、MAlO₂、MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_n、MZnO_n(M is an alkali metal or ammonium and n =1, 2, 3 or 4) and an organic basic salt (e.g. M acetate or M carboxylate). The electrolyte may also comprise various anions and any cations soluble In the solvent, such as alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, and other cations of group III, group IV, group V, and group VI elements (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Bi, and Te). Other suitable solutes are for example H₂O₂Isoperoxides (which may be added continuously in dilute amounts, e.g. about<0.001 wt% to 10 wt%), amide, organic base (e.g. urea or similar compound or salt and guanidine or similar compound, e.g. arginine derivative or salt), imide, aminal or aminoacetal, hemiaminal, ROH (R is an organic group of an alcohol) (e.g. ethanol, erythritol (C) ₄H₁₀O₄) Dulcitol, (2R,3S,4R,5S) -hexane-1, 2,3,4,5, 6-hexanol or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)), RSH (e.g., thiol), MSH, MHSe, MHTe, M_xH_yX_z(X is an acid anion, M is a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, or a rare earth metal, and X, y, z are integers including 0). The concentration can be any desired concentration, such as a saturated solution. Suitable solutes render the solution (e.g., aqueous solution) alkaline. OH group^-The concentration is preferably higher. An exemplary battery is [ R-Ni/aqueous solution containing a solute or combination of solutes from the following group: KOH, KHS, K₂S、K₃PO₄、K₂HPO₄、KH₂PO₄、K₂SO₄、KHSO₄、K₂CO₃、KHCO₃KX (X = halide), KNO₃、KNO、KNO₂、K₂MoO₄、K₂CrO₄、K₂Cr₂O₇、KAlO₂、NH₃、K₂S、KHS、KNbO₃、K₂B₄O₇、KBO₂、K₂WO₄、K₂TiO₃、KZrO₃、KCoO₂、KGaO₂、K₂GeO₃、KMn₂O₄、K₄SiO₄、K₂SiO₃、KTaO₃、KVO₃、KIO₃、KFeO₂、KIO₄、KClO₄、KScO_n、KTiO_n、KVO_n、KCrO_n、KCr₂O_n、KMn₂O_n、KFeO_n、KCoO_n、KNiO_n、KNi₂O_n、KCuO_nAnd KZnO_n(n =1, 2,3 or 4) (homo saturated) and acetate of K, dilute H₂O₂Additive, dilute CoCl₂Additives, amides, organic bases, urea, guanidine, iminates, aminals or aminoacetals, hemiaminals, ROH (R is an organic radical of an alcohol) (e.g. ethanol, erythritol (C)₄H₁₀O₄) Dulcitol, (2R,3S,4R,5S) -hexane-1, 2,3,4,5, 6-hexanol or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)), RSH (such as thiol), MSH, MHSe and MHTe/CB or CoOOH + CB]。

OH can be solvated by the H-bonding medium. H and possibly O can be exchanged in the medium. The hydrino reaction can be initiated during the exchange reaction. To enhance H-bond formation, the medium may comprise an H-bond forming solvent (e.g., water or alcohol) and optionally an H-bond forming solute (e.g., hydroxide). The concentration may be higher to facilitate H bond formation and increase the rate of fractional hydrogen reaction.

Other solvents or mixtures of the present invention may be used as well as the solvents or mixtures of the organic solvents section of MillsPCTUS09/052072 (which is incorporated herein by reference), and aqueous solutions or combinations with aqueous solutions. The solvent may be polar. The solvent may comprise pure water or a mixture of water and one or more other solvents, such as at least one of an alcohol, an amine, a ketone, an ether, and a nitrile. Suitable exemplary solvents may be selected from at least one of the following groups: water, dioxolane, Dimethoxyethane (DME), 1, 4-Benzodioxane (BDO), Tetrahydrofuran (THF), Dimethylformamide (DMF), Dimethylacetamide (DMA), Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), 1, 3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone (DMI), Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), N-methyl-2-pyrrolinone (NMP), methanol, ethanol, amines (e.g., tributylamine, triethylamine, triisopropylamine, N-dimethylaniline), furan, thiophene, imidazole, pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, quinoline, isoquinoline, indole, 2, 6-lutidine (2, 6-lutidine), 2-picoline (2-methylpyridine) and nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile and propionitrile), 4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde, acetone and acetone-1, 3-dicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester. Exemplary batteries are [ R-Ni/solvents or solvent combinations comprising a group from water, alcohols, amines, ketones, ethers, and nitriles and From KOH, K₃PO₄、K₂HPO₄、KH₂PO₄、K₂SO₄、KHSO₄、K₂CO₃、K₂C₂O₄、KHCO₃KX (X = halide), KNO₃、KNO、KNO₂、K₂MoO₄、K₂CrO₄、K₂Cr₂O₇、KAlO₂、NH₃、K₂S、KHS、KNbO₃、K₂B₄O₇、KBO₂、K₂WO₄、K₂TiO₃、KZrO₃、KCoO₂、KGaO₂、K₂GeO₃、KMn₂O₄、K₄SiO₄、K₂SiO₃、KTaO₃、KVO₃、KIO₃、KFeO₂、KIO₄、KClO₄、KScO_n、KTiO_n、KVO_n、KCrO_n、KCr₂O_n、KMn₂O_n、KFeO_n、KCoO_n、KNiO_n、KNi₂O_n、KCuO_nAnd KZnO_n(n =1, 2, 3 or 4) (homo-saturated) and K, or K]. Other exemplary cells are [ R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/Pt/Ti]、[R-Ni/K₂SO₄(saturated aqueous solution)/Pt/Ti]、[PtC(H₂) KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOHCB]、[PtC(H₂) KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/FePO₄CB]、[R-Ni/NH₄OH (saturated aqueous solution)/CB]。

In one embodiment, the at least two solvents are immiscible. The cell is oriented such that the layers are separated to provide different solvents to each cathode and anode half-cell compartment. The orientation of the solvent and the cell relative to the centrally directed gravitational force is selected to provide a solvent to each half-cell that stabilizes a particular species (e.g., OH or H) to enhance cell performance. The cell orientation is selected to partition immiscible solvents, thereby favoring the reactivity of at least one reactant or intermediate of the reaction that promotes the formation of hydrinos.

The cathode and anode materials can have very high surface areas to enhance kinetics and thus increase power. OH can decompose or react very quickly on the metal cathode, so that a carbon cathode may be preferred. Other suitable cathodes include cathodes that do not degrade OH or have a lower degradation rate, such as carbides, borides, nitrides, and nitriles. The anode may also comprise a support as one of the components. The support in various embodiments of the present invention may be a fluorinated carbon support. Exemplary cells are [ R-Ni, Raney cobalt (R-Co), Raney copper (R-Cu), LaNi ₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2CoH, CrH, FeH, MnH, NiH, ScH, VH, CuH, ZnH, AgH/KOH or NaOH (saturated)/carbon, carbides, borides and nitriles, CB, PdC, PtC, TiC, Ti₃SiC₂、YC₂、TaC、Mo₂C、SiC、WC、C、B₄C、HfC、Cr₃C₂、ZrC、CrB₂、VC、ZrB₂、MgB₂、NiB₂、NbC、TiB₂Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) and TiCN]. The anode can comprise a metal (e.g., Zn, Sn, Pb, Cd, or Co) or a hydride (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆) And supports (e.g. carbon, carbides, borides and nitriles, CB, steam carbon, activated carbon, PdC, PtC, TiC, Ti)₃SiC₂、YC₂、TaC、Mo₂C、SiC、WC、C、B₄C、HfC、Cr₃C₂、ZrC、CrB₂、VC、ZrB₂、MgB₂、NiB₂、NbC、TiB₂Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) and TiCN).

Hydrated MOH (M = alkali metal, e.g., K) can react directly to form hydrinos at a low rate, in the same mechanism as given by formulas (346) and (315), and containing OH^-And oxidation of H to H₂O and H₂Reduction of O to H and OH^-The reaction of (1). OH may act as a MH type catalyst as given in Table 3, or H may beActing as a catalyst for another H. NMR peaks at 1.22ppm and 2.24ppm in dDMF and H₂(1/4) and H₂(1/2) matching the corresponding catalyst products. In one embodiment, by using OH to supply H to the anode^-The scheme of oxidation reactions and the promotion of the reduction of water at the cathode by using a large surface area cathode can significantly increase the reaction rate, thereby utilizing the accelerated reaction to generate electricity.

The SH given in table 3 can act as a catalyst for the formation of H (1/4) by the same mechanism as OH catalysts. Form H ^-The subsequent reaction of (1/4) is consistent with the-3.87 ppm peak observed in liquid NMR of compounds such as NaHS and reaction mixtures that can form SH.

In one embodiment, SH may be formed in the cell to act as a fractional hydrogen catalyst according to the reaction given in table 3 (m = 7). Because H (1/4) is the preferred state, it can form with a hydrino transition energy margin in excess of 81.6eV delivered to the SH catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst SH may pass through SH at the anode^-Is formed by oxidation. The battery electrolyte may comprise at least one SH salt, such as MSH (M = alkali metal). The electrolyte may comprise H₂And O. The anodic reaction may be at least one of the following reactions

And (3) anode reaction:

SH^-→SH+e^-→S+H(1/p)(363)

and

MH_x+SH^-→H₂S+R-MH_x-1+e^-(364)

1/2H₂+SH^-→H₂S+e^-(365)

wherein MH_xIs a hydride or source of H, and during the anodic reaction some of the H is converted to hydrinos. In the latter reaction, H₂S can be dissociated, and H⁺Can be reduced to H at the cathode₂. The hydrogen that does not react to form hydrinos can be recycled. An exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or R-Ni/MSH (saturated aqueous solution) (M = alkali metal)/CB]. In another embodiment, SH is formed by reduction of a species other than H or a species comprising H at the cathode. These species may be sulfur or oxides of sulfur, e.g. sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid, SO ₂Sulfite, bisulfite, sulfate, bisulfate, or thiosulfate. The anode can be a hydride or acid stable metal suitable for this pH, such as Pt/Ti. Other compounds may form SH in the cell, such as SF₆. An exemplary cathodic reaction is

And (3) cathode reaction:

SOxHy+qe^-→SH+rH₂O→S+H(1/p)(366)

an exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2R-Ni or Pt/Ti/M₂SO₄、MHSO₄Or H₂SO₄(M = alkali metal)/CB]. The concentration of the SH source may be any soluble concentration. The optimum concentration optimizes the power output resulting from the formation of hydrinos. In other embodiments of the invention, SH and SH^-Can respectively replace OH and OH^-。

Hydrated MSH (M = alkali metal, such as Na) can react directly to form hydrinos at a low rate, the mechanism of which is the same as that given by formulas (365) and (354) and contains SH^-And oxidation of H to H₂S and H₂Reduction of S to H and SH^-The reaction of (1). SH may act as a MH type catalyst as given in table 3, or H may act as another catalyst for H. NMR Peak at-3.87 ppm in dDMF with H^-(1/4) matching the corresponding catalyst products. In one embodiment, byUsing SH supplied to the anode^-Scheme for oxidation reaction and promotion of H at cathode by use of large surface area cathode⁺Reduction, which can significantly increase the reaction rate, thereby generating electricity using an accelerated reaction. Because S is a stable solid, hydridoanions may be the preferred low energy product, such as Na with interstitial S ⁺H^-(1/4)。

In one embodiment, ClH may be formed in a cell to act as a fractional hydrogen catalyst according to the reaction given in table 3 (m = 3). In one embodiment, the catalyst ClH may be passed through Cl at the anode, which also supplies H^-Is formed by oxidation. The battery electrolyte may comprise at least one Cl salt, such as MCl (M = alkali metal). The electrolyte may comprise H₂And O. The anodic reaction may be at least one of the following reactions

And (3) anode reaction:

MH_x+Cl^-→ClH+R-MH_x-1+e^-(367)

and

1/2H₂+Cl^-→ClH+e^-(368)

wherein MH_xIs a hydride or source of H, and during the anodic reaction some of the H is converted to hydrinos. In the latter reaction, ClH may be dissociated, and H⁺Can be reduced to H at the cathode₂. The hydrogen that does not react to form hydrinos can be recycled. An exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or R-Ni/MCl (saturated aqueous solution) (M = alkali metal)/CB]. In another embodiment, the ClH is formed by reduction of a species other than H or a species comprising H at the cathode. These substances may be chlorine oxides, such as chlorates, perchlorates, chlorites, perchlorates or hypochlorites. The anode can be a hydride or acid-stabilized gold suitable for this pHOf the genus, e.g., Pt/Ti,. Other compounds may form ClH in the cell, such as SbCl₅. An exemplary cathodic reaction is

And (3) cathode reaction:

ClOxHy+qe^-→ClH+rH₂O→Cl+H(1/p)(369)

an exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2R-Ni or Pt/Ti/HClO₄、HClO₃、HClO₂、HClO、MClO₄、MClO₃、MClO₂MClO (M = alkali metal)/CB]. The concentration of the source of ClH can be any soluble concentration. The optimum concentration optimizes the power output resulting from the formation of hydrinos. In other embodiments of the invention, ClH may replace OH.

Hydrated MCl (M = alkali metal, e.g., Cs) can react directly to form hydrinos at a low rate, in the same mechanism as given by formulas (367) and (368) and (354), and containing Cl^-And oxidation of H to ClH and reduction of HCl to H and Cl^-The reaction of (1). ClH can act as a MH type catalyst as given in table 3, or H can act as another H catalyst. Electron Beam excitation emission Spectroscopy results and H with a series of peaks in CsCl with constant spacing of 0.25eV₂(1/4) matching the corresponding catalyst products. In one embodiment, by using Cl to supply H to the anode^-Scheme for oxidation reaction and promotion of H at cathode by use of large surface area cathode⁺Reduction, which can significantly increase the reaction rate, thereby generating electricity using an accelerated reaction.

In one embodiment, SeH may be formed in the cell to act as a fractional hydrogen catalyst according to the reaction given in table 3 (m = 4). Because H (1/4) is the preferred state, it can form with a hydrino transition energy margin in excess of 81.6eV delivered to the SeH catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst SeH may pass through the anode SeH of (A)^-Is formed by oxidation. The battery electrolyte may comprise at least one SeH salt, such as MSeH (M = alkali metal). The anodic reaction may be at least one of the following reactions

And (3) anode reaction:

SeH^-→SeH+e^-→Se+H(1/p)(370)

and

MH_x+SeH^-→H₂Se+R-MH_x-1+e^-(371)

1/2H₂+SeH^-→H₂Se+e^-(372)

wherein MH_xIs a hydride or source of H, and during the anodic reaction some of the H is converted to hydrinos. In the latter reaction, H₂Se can be dissociated and H + can be reduced to H at the cathode₂Or H₂Se can be reduced to SeH^-. The hydrogen that does not react to form hydrinos can be recycled. An exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or R-Ni/MSeH (saturated aqueous solution) (M = alkali metal)/CB]. In another embodiment, SeH is formed by reduction of a species other than H or a species comprising H at the cathode. These species may be Se or oxides of selenium (e.g., SeO)₂Or SeO₃) Compounds (e.g. M)₂SeO₃、M₂SeO₄、MHSeO₃(M = alkali metal)) or acids (e.g. H)₂SeO₃Or H₂SeO₄). The anode can be a hydride or acid stable metal suitable for this pH, such as Pt/Ti. Other compounds may form SeH in the cell, e.g. SeF₄. An exemplary cathodic reaction is

And (3) cathode reaction:

SeOxHy+qe^-→SeH+rH₂O→Se+H(1/p)(373)

an exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2R-Ni or Pt/Ti/SeO₂Or SeO₃、M₂SeO₃、M₂SeO₄、MHSeO₃(M = alkali metal), H₂SeO₃Or H₂SeO₄(aqueous solution)/CB]. SeH can pass through SeH^-Is formed at the anode, which may further react with H to form SeH ₂. Alternatively, SeH can be derived from H and Se^2-Reacted and oxidized to SeH. Some H may be formed₂And (5) Se. The source of H can be H permeable membrane and H₂A gas. The battery may include a salt bridge (e.g., BASE) and a cathode reactant that may include a molten salt (e.g., a eutectic mixture). An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂)Na₂Se/BASE/LiCl-BaCl₂Or NaCl-NiCl₂Or NaCl-MnCl₂]. The concentration of the SeH source can be any soluble concentration. The optimum concentration optimizes the power output resulting from the formation of hydrinos. In another embodiment of the present invention, SeH and SeH^-Can respectively replace OH and OH^-。

In a general embodiment, H₂O is used to supply H or receive H from at least one of a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent to form an MH-type catalyst of table 3. In one embodiment, H₂O acts as a solvent for the reactants and products. In one embodiment, no H is consumed in the reaction₂O; but instead consumes a source of H to form hydrinos, such as hydrides or hydrogen and a dissociating agent. In other embodiments, H₂The role of O may be replaced by other suitable solvents of the present invention known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

By the same general mechanism of the exemplary catalysts OH, SH, ClH and SeH, MH (e.g., the species given in table 3) can act as a catalyst for the formation of H (1/p). In one embodiment, according to Reaction given in Table 3, by MH^-Upon oxidation at the anode, MH may form in the cell to act as a fractional hydrogen catalyst. The battery electrolyte may comprise at least one MH salt or source MH thereof^-. The anodic reaction may be at least one of the following reactions:

and (3) anode reaction:

MH^-→MH+e^-(374)

and

MH_x+MH-→H₂M+MH_x-1+e^-(375)

1/2H₂+MH^-→H₂M+e^-(376)

wherein MH_xIs a hydride or source of H, and during the anodic reaction some of the H is converted to hydrinos. In the latter reaction, H₂M can be dissociated, and H⁺Can be reduced to H at the cathode₂Or H₂M can be reduced to MH^-. The hydrogen that does not react to form hydrinos can be recycled. An exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2Or R-Ni/MH^-Source (non-reactive solvent)/CB]. In another embodiment, the MH is formed by reducing the species at the cathode alone or with a source of H. The species may be M or a compound comprising M that can be reduced to MH alone or with a source of H. The anode can be a hydride or acid stable metal suitable for this pH, such as Pt/Ti. An exemplary cathodic reaction is

And (3) cathode reaction:

MHX+qe^-→MH+X'(377)

wherein during the cathodic reaction some of the H is converted to hydrinos, X comprises one or more elements of the oxidant, and X' is a reduction product. Examples of the inventionThe positive battery is [ LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2R-Ni or Pt/Ti/Compounds reduced to MH by H Source (non-reactive solvent)/CB ]. The concentration of the MH source may be any soluble concentration. The optimum concentration optimizes the power output resulting from the formation of hydrinos. An exemplary battery is [ Zn, H ]₂RuS₂、R-Ni、LaNi₅H₆KOH, NaHS or NaHSe or KCl (saturated aqueous solution, organic or mixture)/steam carbon]。

At least one of the half cell reaction and the net reaction of the CIHT cell of the present invention may comprise a reaction for generating thermal energy. In embodiments, thermal energy and electrical energy may be generated. Thermodynamic may also be converted to electricity by the system of the present invention and systems known in the art.

In one embodiment, at least one of OH, SH, and ClH catalysts and hydrinos are formed by reacting H with O, S and a source of Cl, respectively. H can pass through H at the anode^-Is formed by oxidation of (a). The source of H is a cathode comprising: hydrides (e.g., transition metal, internal transition metal, or rare earth metal hydrides); hydrogen and a dissociating agent; or hydrogen and H permeable membranes (as given with other suitable sources of the invention). The cell may comprise a conductor H^-For example a molten salt such as a eutectic mixture of alkali metal halides. The source of O, S or Cl at the anode can be a compound or elements in contact with the anode or in a H-permeable sealed chamber as shown in FIG. 20. Exemplary batteries are [ Ni, V, Ti, SS or Nb (O) ₂S or Cl₂) Or S/LiCl-KCl/TiH₂、ZrH₂、CeH₂、LaH₂Or Ni, V, Ti, SS or Nb (H)₂)]. Alternatively, H reacted with O, S and a source of Cl can be reacted with H⁺Reduction at the cathode. The source of H may be an anode comprising hydrogen and a dissociating agent as set forth in the present disclosure. The cell may comprise a proton-conducting electrolyte,such as Nafion. The source of O, S or Cl at the cathode can be a compound or these elements in contact with the cathode or in an H-permeable sealed chamber as shown in fig. 20. An exemplary battery is [ PtC (H)₂) Or PdC (H)₂)/Nafion/O₂S or Cl₂]。

In one embodiment, MH^-Is the source of MH catalyst formed after oxidation. For example, OH may be oxidized at the anode^-、SH^-Or Cl^-Thereby forming OH, SH and ClH catalysts and fractional hydrogen, respectively. The anode half-cell reactant can comprise at least one of NaOH, NaHS, or NaCl. The anode half-cell reactant may further comprise a source of H, such as a hydride, hydrogen and a dissociating agent, or hydrogen and a hydrogen permeable membrane (e.g., Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂) A membrane, or a tube that can act as an electrode (e.g., an anode). The cell may contain a solid electrolyte salt bridge, such as BASE, in which the mobile ion is Na⁺In the case of (2), NaBASE is used, for example. The oxidation reaction to form the catalyst is given in the present invention. For example, OH is formed by the anodic reaction of formula (346) or (359). M of alkali MOH (M = alkali metal) ⁺Migrate through salt bridges such as BASE and reduce to Na, and may react with at least one cathode reactant in a synergistic manner or subsequently. The reactants may be melted at an elevated cell temperature maintained at least at the melting point of the cell reactants. The cathode half-cell reactant comprises at least one compound that reacts with the reduced mobile ion. The product sodium compound may be more stable than the sodium compound of the anode half-cell reactant. The cathode product may be NaF. The cathode reactant may comprise a fluorine source, e.g. fluorocarbon, XeF₂、BF₃、NF₃、SF₆、Na₂SiF₆、PF₅And other like compounds, such as like compounds of the invention. Other halogens may replace F in the cathode. For example, the cathode reactant may comprise I₂. Other cathode reactants include other halides, for example, metal halides, such as halides of transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, such as NiCl₂、FeCl₂、MnI₂、AgCl、EuBr₂、EuBr₃And other halides of the solid fuel of the present invention. Either cell compartment may contain a molten salt electrolyte, for example a eutectic salt, such as a mixture of alkali metal halide salts. The cathode reactant may also be a eutectic salt, such as a halide mixture that may include a transition metal halide. A suitable eutectic salt comprising a metal (e.g. a transition metal) is CaCl ₂-CoCl₂、CaCl₂-ZnCl₂、CeCl₃-RbCl、CoCl₂-MgCl₂、FeCl₂-MnCl₂、FeCl₂-MnCl₂、KAlCl₄-NaAlCl₄、AlCl₃-CaCl₂、AlCl₃-MgCl₂、NaCl-PbCl₂、CoCl₂-FeCl₂And other eutectic salts in table 4. Exemplary batteries are [ NaOH, NaHS, NaCl, R-Ni, LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2、CeH₂、LaH₂、PtC(H₂)、PdC(H₂)、Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂) At least one of the group of (1)/BASE/I₂、I₂+ NaI, fluorocarbon, XeF₂、BF₃、NF₃、SF₆、Na₂SiF₆、PF₅Metal halides (e.g. halides of transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Se and Te, e.g. NiCl₂、FeCl₂、MnI₂、AgCl、EuBr₂And EuBr₃) Co-molten salt (e.g. CaCl)₂-CoCl₂、CaCl₂-ZnCl₂、CeCl₃-RbCl、CoCl₂-MgCl₂、FeCl₂-MnCl₂、FeCl₂-MnCl₂、KAlCl₄-NaAlCl₄、AlCl₃-CaCl₂、AlCl₃-MgCl₂、NaCl-PbCl₂、CoCl₂-FeCl₂And other eutectic salts of Table 4]And [ NaOH + PtC (H)₂)、PdC(H₂)、Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂) BASE/NaX (X is an anion, e.g. halide, hydroxide, sulfate, nitrate, carbonate) + NaCl, AgCl, AlCl₃、AsCl₃、AuCl、AuCl₃、BaCl₂、BeCl₂、BiCl₃、CaCl₂、CdCl₃、CeCl₃、CoCl₂、CrCl₂、CsCl、CuCl、CuCl₂、EuCl₃、FeCl₂、FeCl₃、GaCl₃、GdCl₃、GeCl₄、HfCl₄、HgCl、HgCl₂、InCl、InCl₂、InCl₃、IrCl、IrCl₂、KCl、KAgCl₂、KAlCl₄、K₃AlCl₆、LaCl₃、LiCl、MgCl₂、MnCl₂、MoCl₄、MoCl₅、MoCl₆、NaAlCl₄、Na₃AlCl₆、NbCl₅、NdCl₃、NiCl₂、OsCl₃、OsCl₄、PbCl₂、PdCl₂、PrCl₃、PtCl₂、PtCl₄、PuCl₃、RbCl、ReCl₃、RhCl、RhCl₃、RuCl₃、SbCl₃、SbCl₅、ScCl₃、SiCl₄、SnCl₂、SnCl₄、SrCl₂、ThCl₄、TiCl₂、TiCl₃、TlCl、UCl₃、UCl₄、VCl₄、WCl₆、YCl₃、ZnCl₂And ZrCl₄One or more of the group of]. Other alkali metals may be substituted for Na, other halides may be substituted for Cl, and BASE may be matched to the mobile ion.

The cell may be regenerated electrolytically or mechanically. For example, a battery [ Ni (H)₂1atm)NaOH/BASE/NaCl-MgCl₂Eutectic]Generation of H₂O, in one embodiment, H₂O slave half powerAnd discharging the pool. At the cathode, from migrating Na⁺Na of (A) may be reacted with MgCl₂NaCl and Mg are formed by the reaction. A representative cell reaction is

Anode

NaOH+1/2H₂→H₂O+Na⁺+e^-(378)

Cathode electrode

Na⁺+e^-+1/2MgCl₂→NaCl+1/2Mg(379)

The anode half-cell may additionally contain a salt, for example an alkali or alkaline earth metal halide, such as sodium halide. After discharge, the anode can be regenerated by adding water or a water source. The battery can also be charged by adding H ₂O runs spontaneously in reverse direction because the free energy of the reaction given by formula (379) is +46 kj/mole (500 ℃). The water source may be steam, wherein the half-cell is sealed. Alternatively, the water source may be a hydrate. Exemplary hydrates are magnesium phosphate pentahydrate or octahydrate, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, sodium salt hydrate, aluminum salt hydrate, and alkaline earth metal halide hydrate, e.g., SrBr₂、SrI₂、BaBr₂Or BaI₂. The source may comprise a molten salt mixture comprising NaOH. In an alternative exemplary mechanical regeneration process, MgCl is formed when NaCl reacts with Mg₂And Na, MgCl is brought about by evaporation of Na₂And (4) regenerating. Na can react with water to form NaOH and H₂Which is the regenerated anode reactant. The cell may comprise a flow system in which the cathode and anode reactants flow through the respective half-cells and are regenerated in separate compartments and returned to the flow stream. Alternatively, in batteries [ Na/BASE/NaOH]In (b), Na may be used directly as an anode reactant. The cells may be cascaded.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a metal chalcogenide, such as MOH, MSH or MHSe (M = alkali metal), wherein the catalyst or source of catalyst may be OH, SH or HSe. The cathode may further comprise a source of hydrogen (e.g., a hydride, such as a rare earth or transition metal hydride or other hydride of the present invention) or a permeable membrane and hydrogen (e.g., Ni: (r) ((r)), (e.g., a hydrogen chloride, or a mixture thereof) or a mixture thereof H₂)、Fe(H₂)、V(H₂)、Nb(H₂) And other permeable membranes of the present invention with hydrogen). The catalyst or catalyst source may be derived from OH, respectively^-、SH^-Or HSe^-Oxidation of (2). The products of the anodic oxidation involving further reaction with H may each be H₂O、H₂S and H₂And (5) Se. The battery may include at least one of an electrolyte and a salt bridge, which may be a solid electrolyte, such as BASE (beta-alumina). The cathode may comprise mobile ions (e.g. M, respectively) which may be associated with the mobile ions or reduced mobile ions⁺Or M) react to form at least one of a solution, an alloy, a mixture, or an element, elements, compounds, metal, alloy, and mixtures thereof. The cathode may comprise a molten element or compound. Suitable melting simple substances are at least one of In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, S, I, Se, Bi and As. In the presence of Na⁺In an exemplary embodiment as a mobile ion across a salt bridge, such as Beta Alumina Solid Electrolyte (BASE), the cathode contains molten sulfur and the cathode product is Na₂And S. An exemplary battery is a source of [ NaOH + H (e.g., LaH)₂、CeH₂、ZrH₂、TiH₂Or Ni (H)₂)、Fe(H₂)、V(H₂)、Nb(H₂) At least one of BASE/S, In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, I, Se, Bi and As and optionally a carrier]. In another embodiment, the battery lacks salt bridges such as BASE because of, for example, H ₂Or hydrides, are confined to the anode, while the reaction between the half-cell reactants is energetically or kinetically unfavorable. In embodiments without a salt bridge, the anode half-cell reactant does not undergo a discharge reaction with the cathode half-cell reactant. An exemplary battery is a source of [ H (e.g., LaH)₂、CeH₂、ZrH₂、TiH₂Or Ni (H)₂)、Fe(H₂)、V(H₂)、Nb(H₂) Fused salt hydroxide (e.g. NaOH)/S, In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, I, Se, Bi and As and optionally a carrier]。

In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a species, such as an atom, a positively or negatively charged ion, a positively or negatively charged molecular ion, a molecule, an excited diatomic molecule, a compound, or any combination thereof, in a ground or excited state capable of accepting the energy of m · 27.2eV, m =1,2,3, 4. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within m.27.2 eV + -10%, preferably + -5%, have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalyzing a hydrino atom to a lower energy state, the enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (formula (5)) is corrected relationally by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom. In one embodiment, the catalyst receives energy from atomic hydrogen in a resonant and non-radiative manner. In one embodiment, the energy received reduces the magnitude of the catalyst potential by about the amount transferred from the atomic hydrogen. Energetic ions or electrons can be generated due to conservation of kinetic energy of the initially bound electrons. At least one atom H acts as a catalyst for at least another atom H, with the 27.2eV potential of the acceptor being eliminated by the 27.2eV transfer from the catalytic donor H atom. The kinetic energy of the acceptor catalyst H can be preserved as fast protons or electrons. In addition, the intermediate state formed in catalytic H (equation (7)) decays with the emission of continuous energy in the form of radiation or kinetic energy induced in a third body. These energy releases may generate current in the CIHT cell.

In one embodiment, at least one of a molecule or a positively or negatively charged molecular ion acts as a catalyst accepting about m27.2ev from the atom H, wherein the potential energy value of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion is reduced by about m27.2 ev. For example, H as given in Millsgutp₂O has a potential energy of

In one embodiment, the catalyst-forming reaction comprises forming H₂Reaction of O, H₂O acts as a catalyst for another H. Energy may be released as heat or light or electricity, where the reaction comprises a half-cell reaction. In the formation of H acting as catalyst₂In embodiments where O, the reactant may comprise a material that may be oxidized to H₂OH of O^-. Exemplary reactions are given in the present invention. The reaction may take place in a CIHT cell or an electrolytic cell. Using H in the transition state of the product formation₂O, may facilitate the catalyst reaction. The cell further comprises a source of atomic H. The source may be a hydride, hydrogen gas, electrolytically generated hydrogen, hydroxide, or other source as set forth in the present disclosure. For example, the anode may comprise a metal, such as Zn or Sn, wherein the half-cell reaction comprises OH^-Oxidized to water and metal oxides. H in formation ₂In the presence of O, the reaction also forms atomic H, where H₂O acts as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The anode may comprise a hydride, e.g. LaNi₅H₆Wherein the half-cell reaction contains OH^-By oxidation to H₂O, wherein H is provided by a hydride. By oxidation in the presence of H from hydrides, from the H formed₂O catalyzes the formation of H to fractional hydrogen. The anode may comprise a combination of a metal and a hydride, wherein OH^-By oxidation to H₂O, with the formation of a metal oxide or hydroxide, and H is provided by a hydride. From H in formation₂O acts as a catalyst, catalyzing the formation of H to form a fractional hydrogen. In another embodiment, such as CO₂The oxidizing agent or the reducing agent such as Zn or Al of R-Ni can be reacted with OH^-Reaction to form H₂O and H as intermediates, wherein during the reaction H is substituted by₂O catalyzes the formation of hydrinos from some H. In another embodiment, H₂At least one of O and H can be introduced by at least one species comprising at least one of O and H (e.g., H)₂、H、H⁺、O₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、Andis formed by the reduction reaction of (a). In another embodiment, H₂At least one of O and H can be introduced by at least one species comprising at least one of O and H (e.g., H)₂、H、H⁺、O₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、Andis formed by oxidation reaction of (a). The reaction may comprise one of the reactions of the present invention. The reaction may take place in a CIHT cell or an electrolytic cell. The reaction may be a reaction that occurs in a fuel cell, such as a proton exchange membrane, phosphoric acid, and solid oxide fuel cell. The reaction may occur at the anode of a CIHT cell. The reaction may occur at the cathode of a CIHT cell. Takes place in an aqueous medium to form H in the cathode and/or anode ₂O catalyst and H or forming H₂A representative cathodic reaction of an intermediate species of O catalyst and H is

O₂+4H⁺+4e^-→2H₂O(381)

O₂+2H⁺+2e^-→H₂O₂(382)

O₂+2H₂O+4e^-→4OH^-(383)

O₂+H⁺+e^-→HO₂(384)

O₂+2H₂O+2e^-→H₂O₂+2OH^-(386)

H₂O₂+2H⁺+2e^-→2H₂O(390)

2H₂O₂→2H₂O+O₂(391)

In one embodiment, the H-bond formation of a catalyst capable of forming H-bonds may alter the energy it may accept from atomic hydrogen when acting as a catalyst. H bond formation can affect catalysts that contain H bonds to negatively charged atoms (e.g., O, N and S). The ionic bond forming a junction may also change energy. In general, the net enthalpy that a catalyst can accept from H can vary based on its chemical environment. The chemical environment and interactions with other species, including other catalyst species, can be altered by changing the reaction composition or conditions. The composition of the reaction mixture (e.g., the composition of a solid fuel or CIHT half-cell) can be adjusted to adjust the catalyst energy. For example, the composition of the solute and solvent, as well as conditions such as temperature, may be adjusted as given in the present invention. Thereby adjusting the catalyst rate and the power from fractional hydrogen formation. In a CIHT cell, the current may be additionally adjusted to control the rate of catalysis. For example, the current can be optimized by adjusting the load to provide a high concentration of H formed by the half-cell reaction₂O and H, so that the product H is formed ₂O can catalyze the formation of hydrinos from H at high rates. From CIHT cells (e.g. [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon + air](ii) a M = metal (e.g. Zn, Sn, Co, LaNi)₅H₆La, Pb, Sb, In and Cd) by oxidizing OH at the anode^-Form H₂O) Large H at 1.25ppm after extraction in dDMF₂(1/4) the presence of NMR peaks demonstrates this mechanism. Other exemplary batteries are [ M/K ]₂CO₃(saturated aqueous solution)/SC]、[M/KOH10-22M+K₂CO₃(saturated aqueous solution)/SC](M=R-Ni、Zn、Co、Cd、Pb、Sn、Sb、In、Ge)、[LaNi₅H₆LiOH (saturated aqueous solution) LiBr/CB-SA]And [ LaNi ]₅H₆KOH (saturated aqueous solution) Li₂CO₃/CB-SA]. H acting as catalyst in addition to hydrino₂The product of O is ionized H₂O, which can be recombined to H₂And O₂(ii) a Thus, H₂O catalysis can produce these gases commercially available. This H₂The source may be used to maintain the power output of the CIHT cell. It can directly supply H₂Or supply H₂As a reactant to regenerate a CIHT half-cell reactant, such as an anode hydride or metal. In one embodiment, R-Ni acts as H which reacts to form hydrinos₂Sources of O and H. H₂The source of O and optionally H may be hydrated alumina, such as Al (OH)₃. In one embodiment, R-Ni may be rehydrated and rehydrogenated to form hydrinos in repeated cycles. The energy may be released in the form of heat or electricity. In the former case, the reaction may be initiated by heating.

In one embodiment, the reduced oxygen species is a source of HO, such as OH^-It may be produced chemically in the anode oxidation of a CIHT cell or in a solid fuel reaction. The cell reactant (e.g., anode reactant for a CIHT cell) further comprises H₂。H₂Reacting with OH to form H and H in active state₂O, to make H₂O acts as a catalyst to form hydrinos by reacting with H. Alternatively, the reactant comprises a source of H, e.g. hydride or H₂With a dissociating agent to react H with OH to form active H₂An O hydrino catalyst which further reacts with another H to form hydrino. An exemplary battery is [ M + H [ ]₂KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon + O₂]And [ M + H₂+ dissociating agent (e.g. PtC or PdC)/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon + O₂]；M=Zn、Sn、Co、LaNi₅H₆Cd, Pb, Sb and In. In an embodiment of the thermal reactor, hydrogen combines with oxygen to form H on the metal surface₂O catalyst and H, bothThe reaction forms hydrinos. The metal promotes oxidative recombination of H with O to form water, which acts as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos from H, wherein the oxidized metal may form a hydroxide or an oxide. Suitable exemplary metals are Zn, Sn, Co, LaNi₅H₆Cd, Pb, Sb and In.

[Na/BASE/NaOH]And [ NaOH + Ni (H) ]₂)/BASE/MgCl₂+NaCl]The load steady state voltage of the battery is about 0.4V, and H ₂The H bond energy of O matches. Thus, in one embodiment, when the CIHT cell voltage breaks H bonds such that H₂The cell is active when the O molecule spontaneously causes H to catalyze the formation of hydrinos, where H₂O accepts an enthalpy of 3 × 27.2 eV.

In one embodiment, the ionic strength of the electrolyte is adjusted to break the H bonds between water molecules so that each can act as a catalyst for H. The ionic strength can be adjusted by adding other solutes or solvents. Alternatively, the reactant comprises H separated by absorption₂O molecules and H. The support may be a carbon nanotube, fullerene or similar cage or void compound. The support may be a cage compound composed of a non-carbon element (e.g., at least one of Al and Si), such as zeolite. The zeolite may be doped with a conductor. The support may be an anode half-cell reactant, which may further comprise an OH group^-Reaction to form H₂Reducing agents for O, e.g. Zn, Co, Pb, LaNi₅H₆At least one of Cd, Sn, Sb and In. The carrier may comprise a compound having a certain dielectric constant and a metal oxide and H₂O interaction to reduce H₂Dielectric constant of O.

In one embodiment, the isolated H₂The O molecule is formed by a chemical reaction (e.g., oxidation or reduction) of a reactant comprising at least one of O and H, which chemical reaction forms H in an active catalytic state ₂O to catalyze the formation of H as a fractional hydrogen. In one embodiment, the reaction may comprise a dehydration step to at least transiently form isolated H₂And (3) O molecules. Biological systems can use water formation in the electron transport chain and in photosynthesis asAn energy source wherein the water formed reacts with H to form hydrinos. In embodiments, a similar chemical system is used to generate electricity in a CIHT cell.

In one embodiment, H₂O is formed in an environment separated from other water molecules to avoid the formation of H bonds, making it useful as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. OH group^-Can oxidize and react with H to form H within channels, cages, or other geometries that do not include water accumulations, or hydrophobic or other thermodynamic environments₂And O. Can absorb single H₂Suitable anode reactants for O molecules or excluding water accumulations are carbon nanotubes, fullerenes or similar cage-like or hole-forming compounds, e.g. zeolites, which may be mixed with a conductor, such as carbon, or doped with a conductor, e.g. Pt/nano Ti, Pt/Al₂O₃Zeolite, Y zeolite, HY zeolite and Ni-Al₂O₃-SiO₂. Vapor carbon or activated carbon having some hydrophilic functional groups may serve as a support, for example, a support for an anode. Cellulose, carbon fiber, Nafion, cation or anion exchange resin, molecular sieves (e.g., 4A or 13X), or conducting polymers (e.g., polyaniline, polythiophene, polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyvinylferrocene, polyvinylnickelocene, or polyvinylcobaltocene) can be added to the anode. A source of H can be added, e.g. H ₂And (4) qi. OH may be produced by oxidizing OH^-To form the composite material. H₂The gas may react with OH to form H₂And O. Alternatively, the H atom may be replaced by H₂A dissociating agent (e.g., activatable Pt/C or Pd/C).

In one embodiment, at least one half-cell reaction mixture comprises a surfactant. The surfactant may be ionic, for example anionic or cationic. Suitable anionic surfactants are based on permanent anions (sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate) or pH-dependent anions (carboxylate). Exemplary sulfates are alkyl sulfates (e.g., ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate, or Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)), alkyl ether sulfates (e.g., Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate (SLES), and sodium myristyl polyether sulfate). Exemplary sulfonates are docusate salts (e.g., dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate), sulfonate fluorosurfactants (e.g., Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorobutanesulfonate), and alkylbenzene sulfonates. Exemplary phosphates are alkyl aryl ether phosphates and alkyl ether phosphates. Exemplary carboxylates are alkyl carboxylates (e.g., fatty acid salts (soaps), such as sodium stearate and sodium lauroyl sarcosinate), carboxylate fluorosurfactants (e.g., perfluorononanoate and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA or PFO)). Suitable cationic surfactants are cationic surfactants based on: a pH-dependent primary, secondary or tertiary amine (wherein, for example, the primary amine is positively charged at pH <10 and the secondary amine is charged at pH <4, such as octenidine dihydrochloride); permanently charged quaternary ammonium cations, for example alkyltrimethylammonium salts (such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC)), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), benzethonium chloride (BZT), 5-bromo-5-nitro-1, 3-dioxane, dimethyldioctadecylammonium chloride and dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB). Exemplary zwitterionic (ampholytic) surfactants are based on: primary, secondary or tertiary amines; or quaternary ammonium cations with sulfonates (e.g., CHAPS (3- [ (3-cholamidopropyl) dimethylammonio ] -1-propanesulfonate)), sulfonic acid betaines (e.g., cocamidopropyl hydroxysulfonic acid betaine), carboxylic acid bases (e.g., amino acid, imino acid), betaines (e.g., cocamidopropyl betaine), and phosphates (e.g., lecithin). The surfactant may be nonionic, for example, fatty alcohols (e.g., cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol, e.g., cetearyl alcohol consisting essentially of cetyl alcohol and stearyl alcohol, oleyl alcohol), polyoxyethylene glycol alkyl ethers (e.g., caprylyl glycol monolauryl ether, pentylene glycol monolauryl ether), polypropylene glycol alkyl ethers, glycoside alkyl ethers (e.g., decyl glycoside, lauryl glycoside, and octyl glycoside), polyoxyethylene glycol octylphenol ethers (e.g., triton x-100), polyoxyethylene glycol alkylphenol ethers (e.g., nonylphenol-9), glycerol alkyl esters (e.g., glyceryl laurate), polyoxyethylene glycol sorbitol alkyl esters (e.g., polysorbate), sorbitol alkyl esters (e.g., spans), cocamide MEA, cocamide DEA, dodecyldimethylamine oxide, and block copolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol (e.g., poloxamers). The cation may comprise metals such as alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and polyatomic species or organics such as ammonium, pyridinium, and Triethanolamine (TEA). The anion may be inorganic (e.g., halide) or organic (e.g., tosylate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, and methylsulfate).

The battery temperature may be maintained at any desired temperature. At H₂In embodiments where O acts as a catalyst, the formation of H bonds is disrupted to make H₂The potential of O is better matched to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. The formation of H bonds can be disrupted by at least one of the following means: maintaining a high concentration of electrolyte; maintaining the cell at an elevated temperature, for example in the range of about 30 ℃ to 100 ℃; and adding other gases or solvents to the water, e.g. NH, respectively₃Amine or inert gas and DMSO and other gases or solvents given in this invention. Other suitable gases are CO₂、NO₂、NO、N₂O、NF₃、CF₄、SO₂、SF₆、CS₂At least one of He, Ar, Ne, Kr and Xe. In one embodiment, NH is added to the electrolyte₃Is about 1mM to 18M. Exemplary electrolytes are saturated KOH (e.g., up to about 22M) and saturated NH₃(e.g., up to about 18M). The dissolved gas concentration may be increased by applying a high pressure gas in a pressure range of, for example, about 1atm to 500 atm. The formation of H-bonds can also be disrupted by applying an external stimulus, such as the source given in the present invention. The gas mixture may comprise O₂Or a source of oxygen.

In one embodiment, a boost potential (boost potential) is applied to the cell, which may exceed or fall below a threshold for water electrolysis. The potential may be in the range of about 1V to 3.5V, taking into account the overpotential of the electrodes. The source of the reinforcing potential may be loaded with a high resistance and connected to the CIHT electrode, or its current may be limited to a lower value relative to the current of a loaded CIHT cell lacking the reinforcing potential. The potential may be applied intermittently while the CIHT cell is open circuit. The boosted potential can then be generated in the open circuit while loading the CIHT cell. When CIHT battery is connected The voltage contribution provided by the load when it is brought to the load causes current to flow in its circuit through the load, which is of relatively much smaller resistance, so that the dissipated power is substantially that of the CIHT cell. In one embodiment, a layer such as H is formed₂The reaction of catalysts such as O and H can propagate in environments where the rates may be undesirably low or prohibitive. In one embodiment, H₂O can be reduced to OH at the cathode^-And OH^-Can be oxidized into H at the anode₂O (assisted by charging of the external potentionboost supply). Hydrinos are produced during the reaction, with useful power being produced by the CIHT cell and dissipated in its load with minimal power from the source of the intensification potential. An exemplary battery is [ LaNi₅H₆Enhanced potential of/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC]. The frequency at which the reinforcing potential is applied may be a frequency that increases the net output energy of the CIHT cell, and may be in the range of 1mHz to 100 GHz.

In one embodiment, the electric field, which appears as the cell voltage of a CIHT cell, is generated by catalyzing the formation of hydrinos from H. The voltage and corresponding electric field vary with the load and unload of the battery, with current flowing with the battery load. The frequency of opening and closing the circuit causes water molecules to break and break H bonds in response to the changing electric field, such that H ₂O may act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. Alternatively, causing the voltage application frequency to cause water molecules to disperse and break H bonds in response to a varying electric field causes H to occur₂O may act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos.

In embodiments of a CIHT cell, H may be reduced by applying a pulsed or alternating electric field to the electrodes₂H bond formation of O, thereby forming an active state H as a catalyst₂And O. The frequency, voltage and other parameters may be the corresponding parameters given in the present invention. In one embodiment, H is reduced₂An electric field is applied at a frequency of permittivity of at least one of O and the electrolyte. A suitable frequency is a frequency corresponding to about the minimum permittivity.

Involving excitation by electromagnetic radiation (e.g. RF or microwave)In embodiments of (a), the water vapor pressure is maintained at a low pressure and the temperature is maintained at a high value to minimize H-bond formation, thereby further facilitating the formation of separated H₂O molecule, the H₂The O molecule is in an active state to catalyze the formation of hydrinos from the H also present. The reactant may comprise a mixture containing isolated H₂Water vapor plasma of O molecules and H atoms, wherein H₂Acts as a catalyst to accept about 3 x 27.2eV from H to form H (1/4). The temperature can be 35 ℃ to 1000 ℃ and the pressure can be 600 torr to 1 mtorr.

Like H₂O, amide functional group NH as given in Millsgutp₂Has a potential of-78.77719 eV. By CRC, from each respective Δ H_fCalculated NH₂Forming KNH₂Δ H of the reaction of (1) was (-128.9-184.9) kj/mole = -313.8 kj/mole (3.25 eV). By CRC, from each respective Δ H_fCalculated NH₂Formation of NaNH₂Δ H of the reaction of (1) was (-123.8-184.9) kj/mole = -308.7 kj/mole (3.20 eV). By CRC, from each respective Δ H_fCalculated NH₂Formation of LiNH₂Δ H of the reaction of (1) was (-179.5-184.9) kj/mole = -364.4 kj/mole (3.78 eV). Thus, the alkali metal amide MNH, which acts as a hydrino-forming H catalyst, corresponds to the sum of the potential energy of the amine groups and the energy of the amide formation from the amine groups₂(M = K, Na, Li) acceptable net enthalpies are about 82.03eV, 81.98eV and 82.56eV, respectively (M =3 in equation (5)). Extraction from MNH later in dDMF₂Large H at 1.25ppm of₂(1/4) the presence of NMR peaks demonstrates this mechanism. In one embodiment of the method of the present invention,may be NH₂And (4) source. H⁺An exemplary cell that reduces at the cathode and oxidizes H at the anode is [ LaNi₅H₆Or Ni (H)₂)/CF₃CO₂NH₄/PtC]。

Like H₂O, H given in Millsgutp₂The potential of the S function is-72.81 eV. The elimination of this potential energy is also The energy associated with 3p shell hybridization was removed. The hybridization energy of 7.49eV is obtained by multiplying the total energy of the shell by the ratio of the hydride orbital radius to the initial atom orbital radius. In addition, the energy change of the S3p shell due to the formation of two S-H bonds of 1.10eV is included in the catalyst energy. Thus, H₂The net enthalpy of the S catalyst is 81.40eV (m =3 in formula (5)). H₂The S catalyst can be formed from MHS (M = alkali metal) by the following reaction:

2MHS→M₂S+H₂S(392)

this reversible reaction can form H in the form of the product₂H in the active catalyst state in the transition state of S₂S, the H₂S can catalyze the formation of H to form fractional hydrogen. The reaction mixture may comprise formation of H₂S and atomic H. Large H at-3.86 ppm from MHS after extraction in dDMF^-(1/4) the presence of NMR peaks demonstrates this mechanism.

The cell or reactor may contain a material such as H₂O、MNH₂Or H₂S or a catalyst derived therefrom, a source of H and₂O、MNH₂or H₂S or a source thereof acts as a building block for the hydrino forming catalyst. In one embodiment, such as H₂O、MNH₂Or H₂Catalysts such as S are activated by external excitation. Suitable exemplary external excitations include the application of ultrasound, heat, light, RF radiation or microwaves. The applied excitation may cause e.g. H₂Rotation, vibration or electronic excitation of a catalyst such as O. The microwave or RF excitation may be of an aqueous electrolyte, for example an aqueous base solution (e.g. MOH) or an aqueous alkali metal halide solution (e.g. NaCl). The RF excitation frequency may be about 13.56MHz and may include polarized RF radiation. The solution may be of any concentration. Suitable exemplary concentrations range from about 1M to saturation. External excitation can also be from e.g. H ₂Or H₂O, etc. form H. H may also be H acting as a catalyst₂Products of O, wherein H₂The O molecules ionize during the process of receiving energy from H. H can also be formed by other systems and methods of the present invention, such as H from H₂And solution ofAnd (4) forming a chaotropic agent.

Comprising H₂O、H₂S or MNH₂A continuous or pulsed DC or other frequency plasma of (M = alkali) may have any desired waveform, frequency range, peak voltage, peak power, peak current, duty cycle, and offset voltage. The plasma may be DC, or the applied voltage may be alternating or have a waveform. The application may be pulsed at a desired frequency, and the waveform may have a desired frequency. Suitable pulse frequencies are in the range of about 1 to about 1000Hz and the duty cycle may be about 0.001% to about 95%. The peak voltage may be at least one in a range of about 0.1V to 10V. In another embodiment, the applied high voltage pulse may be in the range of about 10V to 100kV, but may be in a narrower range of orders of magnitude increase within this range. The frequency of the waveform may be in at least one of a range of about 0.1Hz to about 100MHz, about 100MHz to 10GHz, and about 10GHz to 100 GHz. The duty cycle may range from about 0.001% to about 95% and from about 0.1% to about 10%, but may be in the narrower range of 2 increments within this range. In one embodiment, the frequency disrupts H bond formation or causes H ₂Dispersion of the O permittivity. The frequency is in a range where the real part of the water permittivity (realpart) is reduced. Suitable values are in the range of 1/2-2 times the minimum permittivity. The frequency may be in the range of 1GHz to 50 GHz. The peak power density of the pulses may be about 0.001W/cm³To 1000W/cm³Within a range, but can be within a narrower range of orders of magnitude increase within this range. The average power density of the pulses may be about 0.0001W/cm³To 100W/cm³Within a range, but can be within a narrower range of orders of magnitude increase within this range. The gas pressure may be in the range of about 1 to 10 torr, but may be in a narrower range that increases by orders of magnitude within this range, such as in the range of about 1 to 10 mtorr.

In one embodiment, the synergistic reaction between the anode and cathode half-cell reactants causes H and H₂At least one energy match between the O catalysts, thereby forming hydrinos and providing activation energy for hydrino catalytic reactions. In an exemplary embodiment, [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/H₂O or O₂Reduction catalyst + airQi (Qi)](M=Zn、Co、Pb、LaNi₅H₆Cd, Sn, Sb, In or Ge, H₂O or O₂The CIHT in which the reduction catalyst is, for example, Steam Carbon (SC) or Carbon Black (CB)) functions to at least one of cause energy matching and provide activation energy. In one embodiment, H is formed in the active catalyst state ₂The reactants of O and H can be used to generate thermal energy. The half-cell reactants can mix to directly release thermal energy. Exemplary reactants may be M + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + H₂O or O₂Reducing the catalyst + air mixture; m can be Zn, Co, Pb, LaNi₅H₆Cd, Sn, Sb, In or Ge, and H₂O or O₂The reduction catalyst may be carbon, carbide, boride or nitrile. In another embodiment, the anode can be a metal M', such as Zn, and the cathode can be a metal hydride MH_xFor example LaNi₅H₆. An exemplary CIHT cell may comprise [ Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/LaNi₅H₆R-Ni or PtC + air or O₂]. An exemplary general electrode reaction is

Cathode:

MH_x+1/2O₂+e^-→MH_x-1+OH^-(393)

anode:

2M'+3OH^-→2M'O+H+H₂O+3e^-；H→H(1/p)(394)

suitable exemplary thermally reactive mixtures are Sn + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + CB or SC + air and Zn + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + LaNi₅H₆R-Ni or PtC + air.

Removing OH^-In addition to the oxidation and reaction with H, H is formed₂The reaction of the O catalyst may be a dehydration reaction. Suitable exemplary reactions are the dehydration of metal hydroxides to form metal oxides, e.g., Zn (OH)₂→ZnO+H₂O、Co(OH)₂→CoO+H₂O、Sn(OH)₂→SnO+H₂O or Pb (OH)₂→ZnO+H₂And O. Another example is Al (OH)₃→Al₂O₃+H₂O, wherein R-Ni may comprise Al (OH)₃And acts as a source of H which can be catalyzed to form a fractional hydrogen, of which OH and H₂At least one of the O acts as a catalyst. The reaction can be initiated and propagated by heating.

In one embodiment, the battery comprises a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide. The electrolyte may comprise a salt mixture. In one embodiment, the salt mixture may comprise metal hydroxides and the same metals with other anions of the present invention, such as halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates and phosphates. Suitable salt mixtures are CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH and RbNO₃-RbOH. The mixture may be a eutectic mixture. The battery may operate at a temperature of about the melting point of the eutectic mixture, but may operate at a higher temperature. Catalyst H₂O can pass through OH^-Oxidation at the anode and reaction with H from, for example, penetrating metal films (e.g., Ni, V, Ti, Nb, Pd, PdAg, or Fe)₂Sources of gas, etc. (denoted as Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂) ) of hydrogen is reacted. The metal of the hydroxide, the cation (e.g., metal) of the hydroxide, or other cation M may be reduced at the cathode. An exemplary reaction is

Anode

1/2H₂+OH^-→H₂O+e^-Or H₂+OH^-→H₂O+e^-+H(1/p)(395)

Cathode electrode

M⁺+e^-→M(396)

M may be a metal, such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal or a rare earth metal, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and may be other elements such as S or P. Reduction of cations other than hydroxide cations can result in anion exchange between salt cations. An exemplary battery is [ M' (H) ₂)/MOHM″X/M′″]Wherein M, M ', M' and M '″ are cations such as metals, X is an anion which can be hydroxide or other anions such as halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates and phosphates, and M' is H₂Is permeable. Another example is [ Ni (H)₂)/M(OH)₂-M'X/Ni]Where M = alkaline earth metal, M' ═ alkali metal and X = halide, for example [ Ni (H)₂)/Mg(OH)₂-NaCl/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)/Mg(OH)₂-MgCl₂-NaCl/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)/Mg(OH)₂-MgO-MgCl₂/Ni]And [ Ni (H) ]₂)/Mg(OH)₂-NaF/Ni]。H₂O forms with H and reacts at the anode to further form hydrinos, and metallic Mg is the thermodynamically most stable product obtained from the cathode reaction. Another suitable exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂) Halide of/MOH-M'/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)/M(OH)₂Halides of-M'/Ni]、[M″(H₂) Halide of/MOH-M'/M]And [ M' (H)₂)/M(OH)₂Halide of-M'/M]Where M = alkali or alkaline earth metal, M' ═ metal, whose hydroxides and oxides are less stable or have low water reactivity than those of alkali or alkaline earth metals, for example one from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W, and M "is a hydrogen permeable metal. Alternatively, M' may be an electropositive metal, such as one or more of the group of Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Se, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, In and Pb. In another embodiment, at least one of M and M' may comprise a compound selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. In one embodiment, the cation may be common to the anions of the salt mixture electrolyte, or the anion may be common to the cations. Alternatively, the hydroxide may be stable to other salts of the mixture. An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH-LiX、NaOH-NaX、KOH-KX、RbOH-RbX、CsOH-CsX、Mg(OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH and RbNO₃-RbOH/Ni]And [ Ni (H) ]₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH、NaOH、KOH、RbOH、CsOH、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂+AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni]. Other suitable H₂The permeable metal can replace the Ni anode and the stable cathode can replace Ni. In one embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise an oxyhydroxide or a mixture of salts such as one or more of hydroxides, halides, nitrates, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, and oxyhydroxides. In one embodiment, the battery may comprise a salt bridge, such as BASE or NASICON.

In one embodiment, oxygen is reacted with H₂A source of at least one of O is supplied to the cell and may optionally be supplied to the cathode. In one embodiment, H may be selectively substituted ₂Is supplied to the anode such that the anodic reaction is given by equation (395). In one embodiment, O may be₂And H₂At least one of O is supplied to the battery. In one embodiment, O₂Or H₂O may be added to the cathode half cell so that the reaction is

Cathode electrode

M⁺+e^-+H₂O→MOH+1/2H₂(397)

M⁺+2e^-+1/2O₂→M₂O(398)

H may then be added₂O, so that the reaction is

M₂O+H₂O→2MOH(399)

In the provision of O₂In the case of (3), the overall equilibrium reaction may be H₂Combustion of H₂By electrolysis of H alone₂And O is regenerated. In one embodiment, H is supplied at the anode₂And H is supplied at the cathode₂O and optionally O₂。H₂Can be selectively applied through a permeable membrane, and H₂O may be selectively applied by bubbling steam. In one embodiment, controlled H is maintained over the molten electrolyte₂The vapor pressure of O. H₂An O-sensor may be used to monitor and control the vapor pressure. H₂The O vapor pressure may be supplied from a heated water reservoir and by an inert carrier gas (e.g., N)₂Or Ar), wherein the reservoir temperature and flow rate determine the vapor pressure monitored by the sensor. The battery may continue to operate in the following manner: collecting steam and H from the cell₂(e.g. unreacted supply and gases formed at the anode and cathode, respectively), by means of a gas such as H₂O condensation or the like to separate the gas and resupply H to the anode ₂And resupplying H to the cathode₂And O. In one embodiment, the cation may be common to the anions of the salt mixture electrolyte, or the anion may be common to the cations. Alternatively, the hydroxide may be stable to other salts of the mixture. The electrode may comprise a high surface area electrode, for example a porous or sintered metal powder, such as Ni powder. An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂)/Mg(OH)₂NaCl/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]、[Ni(H₂)/Mg(OH)₂-MgCl₂NaCl/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]、[Ni(H₂)/Mg(OH)₂-MgO-MgCl₂/Ni capillary core (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]、[Ni(H₂)/Mg(OH)₂NaF/Ni capillary wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH-LiX、NaOH-NaX、KOH-KX、RbOH-RbX、CsOH-CsX、Mg(OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH and RbNO₃-RbOH/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]And [ Ni (H) ]₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH、NaOH、KOH、RbOH、CsOH、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂+AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni capillary wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]. Such as [ Ni (H) ]₂) /MOH (M = alkali metal) M' X₂(M ═ alkaline earth metal) and optionally MX (X = halide)/Ni]The cell can be operated at high temperatures, making the reactants thermodynamically stable against hydride-halide ion exchange.

In one embodiment, the battery may comprise a salt bridge, such as BASE or NASICON. The cathode may comprise H₂O or O₂The catalyst is reduced. H ₂O and optionally O₂By permeating through a porous electrode (e.g. from a tightly bonded Ni porous body within an outer alumina tube)The assembly (a porous electrode made of Celmet #6, sumitomo electric industries, Ltd.) was supplied with dispersed bubbles. In another embodiment, H is₂O is injected or dropped into the bulk of the electrolyte and is held for a time sufficient to maintain the cell voltage before it evaporates due to solvation of the electrolyte. Can be combined with H₂The O is added back periodically or continuously. In one embodiment, an anode, such as a hydrogen permeable anode, is cleaned. Exemplary Ni (H)₂) The anode may be formed by rubbing or dipping in 3% H₂O₂/0.6MK₂CO₃Followed by rinsing with distilled water for cleaning. Friction also increases the surface area. At least one of morphology and geometry of the anode is individually selected to increase anode surface area.

In one embodiment, the anode of the molten salt electrolyte battery comprises at least one hydride (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆And other hydrides (e.g., hydrides of aqueous alkaline batteries) from the present invention, as well as metals (e.g., one from the group of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W). Exemplary batteries are [ M or MH/Mg (OH) ₂NaCl/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)], [ M or MH/Mg (OH)₂-MgCl₂NaCl/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)], [ M or MH/Mg (OH)₂-MgO-MgCl₂/Ni capillary core (H)₂O and optionally O₂)], [ M or MH/Mg (OH)₂NaF/Ni capillary wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)][ M or MH/LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaX, KOH-KX, RbOH-RbX, CsOH-CsX, Mg (OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)][ M or MH/CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH and RbNO₃-RbOH/Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]And [ M or MH/LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg (OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂+AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I)/Ni capillary wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)]Where MH = LaNi₅H₆And other hydrides from the present invention; m = one from the group of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. Such as H₂、O₂And air (e.g. H applied to the cell)₂、O₂And air), H) gas pressure, H₂The osmotic pressure or the pressure of any gas emitted into the cell may be any desired pressure. Suitable pressures range from about 0.001 torr to 200,000 torr, from about 1 torr to 50,000 torr, and from about 700 torr to 10,000 torr. The reactant concentration ratio can be any desired ratio. Suitable concentration ratios are those known to maximize power, minimize cost, increase durability, increase regeneration capacity, and enhance performance to one skilled in the art Concentration ratios of other operating characteristics. These criteria apply to other embodiments of the present invention as well. A suitable exemplary concentration ratio of the electrolyte is about that of the eutectic mixture. In another embodiment, the battery is configured to inhibit the addition of O for the entire period of time₂Or H₂O batch mode operation. H₂It may be added to the cell, or it may also prohibit the addition of H during the batch₂. H formed at the anode₂O and H₂The reaction can be performed at the cathode in an internal circulation, or the gaseous products at the anode can be removed dynamically. The reaction mixture can be regenerated after the batch.

Another form of the reaction represented by equations (355) and (217) is as follows, which relates to an exemplary cell [ Na/BASE/NaOH ] and can also operate in electrolytic cells following similar mechanisms as equations (322-325) and (334):

Na+3NaOH→2Na₂O+H₂O+1/2H₂；H→H(1/p)(400)

OH and H₂At least one of the O may act as a catalyst. In one embodiment, H may be formed₂Batteries of hydroxide of O (e.g. [ Na/BASE/NaOH)]) May further comprise BaI₂2H₂O, etc. or H₂O is added to the cathode. The cell may further comprise a source of H, for example a hydride or H supplied via a permeable membrane₂Gas (e.g. Ni (H)₂))。

In one embodiment, the cathode comprises at least one of a water source and an oxygen source. The cathode can be hydrate, oxide, peroxide, superoxide, oxyhydroxide and hydroxide. The cathode may be a metal oxide that is insoluble in the electrolyte (e.g., molten salt electrolyte). A suitable exemplary metal oxide is PbO ₂、Ag₂O₂、RuO₂、AgO、MnO₂And oxides of the group of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. Suitable exemplary metal oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH),YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). Suitable exemplary hydroxides are the hydroxides of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. In one embodiment, the anode of the molten salt electrolyte battery comprises at least one hydride (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆And other hydrides from the present invention, such as hydrides of aqueous alkaline batteries), as well as metals (e.g., one from the group of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W). Suitable hydrides or metals are suitably insoluble in the molten electrolyte. An exemplary battery is [ hydride (e.g., LaNi) ₅H₆) Molten salt electrolyte containing hydroxide/Ni or Ni wick (H)₂O and optionally O₂)][ hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) Or M (H)₂) Fused salt electrolyte (containing hydroxide)/oxide (e.g. PbO)₂、Ag₂O₂、RuO₂、AgO、MnO₂And one of the group consisting of oxides of the group consisting of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W)](wherein M is H)₂Permeable metals, e.g. Ni, Ti, Nb, V or Fe, [ hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) Or M (H)₂) Hydroxide-containing molten salt electrolytes/oxyhydroxides (such as AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (Ni)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3One of the groups of O (OH)](whereinM is H₂Permeable metals, e.g. Ni, Ti, Nb, V or Fe) and [ hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) Or M (H)₂) Hydroxide-containing molten salt electrolyte/hydroxide (e.g., one of hydroxides containing a cation from the group of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W) ](wherein M is H)₂A permeable metal such as Ni, Ti, Nb, V, or Fe).

In one embodiment, the electrolyte, such as an aqueous solution of a molten salt or base, may comprise an ionic compound, for example a salt having cations that may exist in more than one oxidation state. A suitable exemplary cation that can be multivalent is Fe³⁺(Fe²⁺)、Cr³⁺(Cr²⁺)、Mn³⁺(Mn²⁺)、Co³⁺(Co²⁺)、Ni³⁺(Ni²⁺)、Cu²⁺(Cu⁺) And Sn⁴⁺(Sn²⁺) Transition metal, internal transition metal and rare earth metal cations (e.g. Eu)³⁺(Eu²⁺)). The anion may be a halide, hydroxide, oxyanion, carbonate, sulfate, or other anion of the present invention. In one embodiment, OH^-Oxidizable and reacting with H at the anode to form H₂And O. OH and H₂At least one of the O may act as a catalyst. The hydride anodic reaction can be given by formula (313). Cations capable of being multivalent may be reduced at the cathode. An exemplary overall reaction is

LaNi₅H₆+KOH+FeCl₃Or Fe (OH)₃→ KCl or

KOH+FeCl₂Or Fe (OH)₂+LaNi₅H₅+H₂O(401)

Where the compound comprising a cation capable of being multivalent is insoluble, it may comprise the cathode half cell reactant. It may be mixed with a conductive support, such as carbon, carbide, boride or nitrile. Other hydrides of the inventionOr a metal may serve as the anode, such as one of the group of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W, wherein the anodic reaction may be given by formula (337). The metal can react with an electrolyte (e.g., hydroxide) to form hydrogen and a catalyst (e.g., OH and H) ₂At least one of O). Other hydroxides may serve as electrolytes, such as the electrolytes of the present invention, and may replace KOH. Other salts having cations capable of being multivalent (e.g. K)₂Sn(OH)₆Or Fe (OH)₃) Replaceable FeCl₃. In one embodiment, the compound has a reduction potential greater than H₂Reduction potential of O. Exemplary batteries are [ oxidizable metals (e.g., one of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W) ], metal hydrides (e.g., LaNi₅H₆) Or H₂With a hydrogen permeable membrane (e.g., V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, and Pd-coated Ti)/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + a salt having a cation capable of being polyvalent (e.g., K, Nb, Fe-Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, and Pd-₂Sn(OH)₆、Fe(OH)₃Or FeCl₃) Conductor (e.g. carbon or powdered metal)][ oxidizable metal (e.g., one of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W) ], metal hydride (e.g., LaNi₅H₆) Or H₂With a hydrogen permeable membrane (e.g., V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, one of Pd-coated V and Pd-coated Ti)/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/a salt having a cation capable of being polyvalent (e.g., Fe (OH)) ₃、Co(OH)₃、Mn(OH)₃、Ni₂O₃Or Cu (OH)₂) And mixed with a conductor (e.g. carbon or powdered metal)]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH-LiX、NaOH-NaX、KOH-KX、RbOH-RbX、CsOH-CsX、Mg(OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I) and salts with cations capable of being multivalent (e.g. K)₂Sn(OH)₆、Fe(OH)₃Or FeCl₃)/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH and RbNO₃Salts of RbOH + with cations capable of being multivalent (e.g. K)₂Sn(OH)₆、Fe(OH)₃Or FeCl₃)/Ni]、[Ni(H₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂) Or Fe (H)₂)/LiOH、NaOH、KOH、RbOH、CsOH、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂+AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄One or more (it)Wherein X = F, Cl, Br or I) + salts with cations capable of being multivalent (e.g. K)₂Sn(OH)₆、Fe(OH)₃Or FeCl₃)/Ni]、[LaNi₅H/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/organometallic species (e.g. ferrocenium ion SC)]And [ LaNi ]₅H₆KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/organometallic species (e.g. ferrocenium ion)]. The cell may be regenerated electrolytically or mechanically.

In one embodiment, the source of hydrogen (e.g., H) at the electrode of a CIHT cell₂Permeable membrane and H₂Gas (e.g. Ni (H)₂) Or hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) Can be supplied by a hydrogen source (e.g., H)₂Bubbling metal tubes, in which the metal may be porous, e.g. H consisting of sintered metal powder (e.g. Ni powder)₂Perforated pipe). H₂The sparging electrode can be replaced with the anode or cathode of a cell having hydrogen as a reactant at the corresponding electrode or corresponding half-cell. For example, H₂The bubbling electrode may replace an electrode of a battery of the present invention, such as an anode of an aqueous alkaline battery, an anode of a battery comprising a molten salt containing a hydroxide, or an anode comprising a metal salt having H ^-A cathode of a cell that transports a molten salt of ions. An exemplary battery is a [ conductor (blister H)₂) KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC + air]And [ conductor (bubble H)₂) Eutectic salt electrolyte containing alkali metal hydroxide (such as LiOH-NaOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaX (X = halide or nitrate) or LiOH-Li₂X or NaOH-Na₂X (X = sulfate or carbonate))/conductor + may be O₂Air for catalyst reduction]。

In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction is propagated by an activation energy source. The activation energy may be provided by at least one of heat and a chemical reaction. In embodiments comprising an aqueous cell or solvent or reactant that volatilizes at an elevated cell operating temperature, the cell is pressurized, wherein the cell housing or at least one half-cell compartment comprises a pressure vessel. The chemical reaction providing activation energy may be an oxidation or reduction reaction, e.g. reduction of oxygen at the cathode or OH^-Oxidation and reaction with H at the anode to form H₂O。The source of H may be a hydride, such as LaNi₅H₆. The anodic reaction may also include oxidation of metals such as Zn, Co, Sn, Pb, S, In, Ge and other metals of the present invention. Cations capable of being multivalent (e.g. Fe)³⁺(Fe²⁺)、Cr³⁺(Cr²⁺)、Mn³⁺(Mn²⁺)、Co³⁺(Co²⁺)、Ni³⁺(Ni²⁺)、Cu²⁺(Cu⁺) And Sn⁴⁺(Sn²⁺) One) can provide activation energy. The permeation of H formed at the cathode, which permeates the hydrogen permeable membrane and forms a compound such as a metal hydride (e.g., LiH), can provide the activation energy. In one embodiment, the reactions of the CIHT cell are also used to generate heat for purposes such as maintaining cell operation (e.g., supplying reaction activation energy or maintaining molten electrolyte, if used). The heat output may also be used to heat an external load. Alternatively, the reaction may be conducted electrodeless to generate heat to sustain the hydrino reaction and supply the heat to an external load. In one embodiment, the oxygen species (e.g., O) ₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、Andcan be reacted with a H species (e.g., H)₂、H、H⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-HOOH and OOH^-At least one of) is subjected to an oxidation reaction to form OH and H₂At least one of the O's to act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The source of H species can be, for example, a hydride (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆) A compound such as a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide, H₂Or H₂Origin andhydrogen permeable membrane (e.g. Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂) At least one of the above-mentioned). O species can pass through H₂O or O₂Reduction at the cathode. O of O species₂The source may be from air. Alternatively, the O species may be supplied to the cell. O species (e.g. OH)^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、Andsuitable sources of (d) are oxides, peroxides (e.g., alkali metal peroxides), superoxides (e.g., alkali and alkaline earth metal superoxides), hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides (e.g., oxyhydroxides of the present invention). Exemplary oxides are transition metal oxides (e.g., NiO and CoO) and tin oxides (e.g., SnO), alkali metal oxides (e.g., Li)₂O、Na₂O and K₂O) and alkaline earth metal oxides (e.g., MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO). A source oxide such as NiO or CoO may be added to the molten salt electrolyte. Other exemplary oxides are one from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W. An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H) ₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂) Or hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H₆) Eutectic salt electrolyte containing alkali metal hydroxide (such as LiOH-NaOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaX (X = halide or nitrate) or LiOH-Li₂X or NaOH-Na₂X (X = sulfate or carbonate)) and Li₂O、Na₂O、K₂O, MgO, CaO, SrO or BaO or Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn or W oxide, peroxide (e.g. of alkali metals) or superoxide (e.g. of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals)/Ni or other metal which can be the same as the anode]。

In one embodiment, OH^-Can be oxidized at the anode and react with H to form H which can act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos from H₂And O. In both cases, H can be derived from, for example, hydrides (e.g., LaNi)₅H₆) Or H permeable to the membrane (e.g. Ni, Ti, V, Nb, Pd, PdAg or Fe)₂And the like from a source of hydrogen such as a tank or supply 640 (fig. 22) flowing through line 642 and regulator 644. The source may be an aqueous electrolytic cell 640 having H₂And O₂A partition to supply substantially pure H₂。H₂O can be reduced to H at the cathode₂And OH^-. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 22, a CIHT cell comprises H ₂O and H₂A collection and recirculation system. The CIHT650 cell comprises a container 651, a cathode 652, an anode 653, a load 654, an electrolyte 655 and a gas for collecting H from the CIHT cell₂O vapor (e.g. H formed at the anode)₂O vapor) system 657. H₂The O-collection system includes a first chamber 658 connected to the cell that draws H from the cell via a vapor channel 659₂O vapor is received to the collection chamber 658. The collection system comprises H₂O absorber and H₂At least one of O condensers 660. The collected water may be treated as H by means of the pump 663 or by means of pressure generated by heating the collected water with the heater 665₂O vapor or liquid water is returned to the CIHT cell via channel 661. The water flow rate and pressure of any vapor may be controlled in the chamber by valves 666, 667, and 668, and monitored by meter 669. The water may return to cathode 652, which may be returned H₂O permeate. The CIHT cell further includes a system 671 to collect H from the CIHT cell₂。H₂The collection system comprises a catalyst comprising H₂Second chamber 672 of absorbent 673 in which unreacted H from the anode source₂With H formed at the cathode₂Can be formed by H₂And collecting the absorbent. From H₂H after at least partial removal of water by O collection system₂From the first chamber to the second chamber via gas passage 675. In one embodiment, H ₂The selective membrane being present between the chambers to preventH stop₂O enters the second chamber and reacts with the absorbent. The absorber can include transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, combinations of metals, alloys, and hydrogen storage materials (e.g., the hydrogen storage materials of the present invention). By means of pump 678 or by heating the collected H with heater 680₂The pressure generated, the collected H₂Can be returned to the CIHT cell via channel 676. H₂The flow rate and pressure may be controlled in the chamber by valves 681 and 682 and monitored by meter 684. With valve 681 open to the cell and valve 682 closed to the cell, the absorbent can collect hydrogen, with the heater maintaining it suitable for reabsorption of H₂At the temperature of (c). Valve 681 can then be closed and the temperature raised to a temperature that causes hydrogen to be released to the desired pressure (as measured by gauge 684). Valve 682 may be opened to allow pressurized hydrogen to flow to the cell. Can flow to include H₂A permeable wall anode 653. During repeated cycles, valve 682 may be closed, the temperature of heater 680 decreased, and valve 681 opened to collect H with absorbent 673₂. In one embodiment, the power for the heater, valve and meter may be provided by a CIHT battery. In one embodiment, when H is added ₂Or H₂The temperature difference between the collection system and the cell can be used to achieve the desired pressure when O is introduced into the cell. For example, H₂The sealed chamber may be immersed in hot salt at a first temperature and pressure in the sealed chamber to achieve a second, higher pressure at a higher salt temperature. In one embodiment, a CIHT cell contains a plurality of hydrogen permeable anodes that can be supplied with hydrogen via a common gas supply manifold.

In another embodiment of the system shown in fig. 22, O is supplied at the cathode 651₂Sources, e.g. air, O₂Oxide, H₂O, HOOH, a hydroxide, and an oxyhydroxide. The source of oxygen may also be supplied to the cell via a selective valve or membrane 646, which may be multiple, where the membrane is O₂A permeable membrane, such as a Teflon membrane. Next, system 657 comprises H₂And other cell gases (e.g., at least one of nitrogen, water vapor, and oxygen), wherein the system 671 collectsUnused hydrogen and passing it through, for example, H₂Anode 653 can be passed back through to the cell. System 657 may condense water. System 667 can additionally or alternatively include selective H₂A permeable membrane and valve 668, which may be located at the outlet of system 657, retains O₂、N₂And possibly water and allow H ₂Optionally to a system 671.

In one embodiment, H₂Permeable electrode quilt H₂The bubble anode 653 is replaced. H₂Can not remove H₂In the case of O at least one pump (e.g. 678) is used for recirculation. If oxygen is passed through, for example, a selective valve or membrane 646 or at O₂The battery is supplied at the permeable cathode 652, which can then be fed from H through the system 657₂And (4) removing. Supplying H by diverging bubbles₂、H₂O, air and O₂An exemplary porous electrode of at least one of (a) comprises a tightly bonded Ni porous body assembly (Celmet #6, sumitomo electric industries, Ltd) within an outer alumina tube. If air is supplied to the battery, N is supplied₂From recycled H as appropriate₂Removing the gas. Formation of hydrino or any H lost in the system upon consumption₂May be permuted. H₂Can be formed by H₂And (4) performing electrolytic replacement on O. The electrolysis power may come from a CIHT battery.

In embodiments that generate thermal energy, the cell shown in fig. 22 may include a hydrogen permeable membrane 653 that supplies H and may lack a cathode 652. The solution may contain a base, e.g. MOH, M₂CO₃(M is an alkali metal), M' (OH)₂、M'CO₃(M 'is an alkaline earth metal), M' (OH)₂、MCO₃(M' is a transition metal), a rare earth metal hydroxide, Al (OH)₃、Sn(OH)₂、In(OH)₃、Ga(OH)₃、Bi(OH)₃And at least one of the group of other hydroxides and oxyhydroxides according to the invention. The solvent may be an aqueous solvent or other solvent of the invention. Hydrogen can permeate the membrane and react with OH ^-Reaction to form OH and H which can act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos₂At least one of O. The reaction mixture may further comprise promoting the formation of OH and H₂In O catalystAt least one of (a) and (b). The oxidant may comprise H₂O₂、O₂、CO₂、SO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、O₂Or other compounds or gases that act as a source of O or as an oxidizing agent as set forth in the present invention or known to those skilled in the art. Other suitable exemplary oxidizing agents are M₂S₂O₈、MNO₃、MMnO₄、MOCl、MClO₂、MClO₃、MClO₄(M is an alkali metal) and oxyhydroxides (e.g. WO)₂(OH)、WO₂(OH)₂、VO(OH)、VO(OH)₂、VO(OH)₃、V₂O₂(OH)₂、V₂O₂(OH)₄、V₂O₂(OH)₆、V₂O₃(OH)₂、V₂O₃(OH)₄、V₂O₄(OH)₂、FeO(OH)、MnO(OH)、MnO(OH)₂、Mn₂O₃(OH)、Mn₂O₂(OH)₃、Mn₂O(OH)₅、MnO₃(OH)、MnO₂(OH)₃、MnO(OH)₅、Mn₂O₂(OH)₂、Mn₂O₆(OH)₂、Mn₂O₄(OH)₆、NiO(OH)、TiO(OH)、TiO(OH)₂、Ti₂O₃(OH)、Ti₂O₃(OH)₂、Ti₂O₂(OH)₃、Ti₂O₂(OH)₄And NiO (OH)). The cell may operate at elevated temperatures, for example temperatures of about 25 ℃ to 1000 ℃ or about 200 ℃ to 500 ℃. The container 651 may be a pressure vessel. The hydrogen may be supplied at high pressure, for example in the range of about 2 to 800atm or about 2 to 150 atm. For example, about 0.1 to 10atmN may be added₂Or an inert gas such as Ar to prevent boiling of the solution such as an aqueous solution. The reactants can be in any desired molar ratio. An exemplary battery is Ni (H)₂50～100atm)KOH+K₂CO₃Wherein the KOH concentration is in the molar range of 0.1M to saturation, K₂CO₃At a concentration of 0.1M to saturated molsIn the range of about 200 to 400 ℃ and the working temperature of the container.

In one embodiment, the aqueous alkaline cell comprises a single membrane dual chamber cell as shown in fig. 20, with the variation that the anode membrane and compartment 475 may not be present. The anode may be comprised of a material which reacts with OH ^-Reaction to H₂The metal oxidized in O is given by formula (337). OH and H₂At least one of the O may act as a catalyst. The anode metal may be one of the group of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. Alternatively, the anode may comprise a hydride, such as LaNi₅H₆And other hydrides of the invention which provide H and which convert OH to OH^-By oxidation to H₂O, as given by formula (313). The anode may also comprise H which may be in the compartment 475₂Permeable membrane 472 and a hydrogen source (e.g., H)₂Gas), compartment 475 provides H and oxidizes OH "to H₂O, as given by equation (346). At the cathode, H₂O can be reduced to H₂And OH^-As given by equation (315). Cathode 473 can comprise a metal that has a high permeability to hydrogen. The electrode may comprise a geometry that provides a higher surface area (e.g., a tubular electrode), or it may comprise a porous electrode. To increase at least one of the rate and yield of water reduction, a water reduction catalyst may be used. In another embodiment, the cathode half-cell reactant comprises an H reactant that forms a compound with H and releases energy to raise H₂At least one of O reduction rate and yield. The H reactant may be contained in the cathode compartment 474. H formed by reduction of water may permeate the hydrogen permeable membrane 473 and react with the H reactant. The H-permeable electrode may comprise V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloys, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, Pd-coated Ti, rare earth metals other refractory metals, and other such metals known to those skilled in the art. The H reactant can be a hydride-forming element or compound, such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth metals, alloys or mixtures thereof, and a hydrogen storage material, such as the present invention The hydrogen storage material of (1). An exemplary reaction is

Outer wall of cathode

H₂O+e-→1/2H₂+OH^-(402)

Cathode inner wall

1/2H₂+M→MH(403)

The chemical may be thermally regenerated by heating any hydride formed in the cathode compartment to thermally decompose it. Hydrogen may be flowed or pumped to the anode compartment to regenerate the initial anode reactant. The regeneration reaction may take place in the cathode compartment and the anode compartment, or the chemicals in one or both of these compartments may be delivered to one or more reaction vessels for regeneration. Alternatively, the initial anodic metal or hydride and cathodic reactant (e.g., metal) can be regenerated by in situ or remote electrolysis. Exemplary batteries are [ oxidizable metals (e.g., one of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W) ], metal hydrides (e.g., LaNi₅H₆) Or H₂And a hydrogen permeable film (e.g., V, Nb, Fe-Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, one of Pd-coated V and Pd-coated Ti)/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/M (M')]Where M = hydrogen permeable membrane, such as one of V, Nb, Fe — Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Ni, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, and Pd-coated Ti, and M' is a hydride-forming metal, such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, and a rare earth metal, an alloy, or a mixture thereof, or a hydrogen storage material. The battery can operate at high temperature and high pressure.

In one embodiment, the mobile ion is an oxyanion that reacts with the source of H to form OH and H that can act as a catalyst with the source of H₂At least one of O. The cathode may comprise an oxyanion source, for example, oxygen or an O-containing compound (e.g., an oxide). The battery may compriseAt least one of an electrolyte and a salt bridge. The electrolyte may be a hydroxide, for example an alkali metal hydroxide, such as KOH, having a high concentration (e.g., in the range of about 12M to saturation). The salt bridge may be selective for oxygen anions. Suitable salt bridges are Yttria Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ), gadolinia doped Ceria (CGO), lanthanum gallate and bismuth copper vanadium oxides (e.g., BiCuVO)_x). Some perovskite materials (e.g.Mixed oxides and electronic conductivity are also shown. The source of H can be hydrogen and a dissociating agent, a hydrogen permeable membrane, or a hydride. An exemplary battery is [ PtC (H)₂)、Ni(H₂)、CeH₂、LaH₂、ZrH₂Or LiH/YSZ/O₂Or oxides of]。

In one embodiment, a CIHT cell includes a cogeneration system that generates electrical and thermal energy for a load. The at least one of the electrical load and the thermal load may be at least one of an inner portion and an outer portion. For example, at least a portion of the thermal or electrical energy generated by the formation of hydrinos may maintain the cell temperature, such as the temperature of a molten salt of a CIHT cell comprising a molten salt electrolyte or molten reactants. The electrical energy may at least partially supply electrolysis power to regenerate the initial cell reactants from the products. In one embodiment, an electrolyte, such as an aqueous electrolyte or a molten salt electrolyte, may be pumped through or across a heat exchanger that removes heat and ultimately transfers the heat to a load.

In one embodiment, the oxyhydroxide cathode reactant is stable in acidic solutions (e.g., acidic aqueous, organic acidic, or inorganic acidic electrolytic solutions). Exemplary acids are acetic acid, acrylic acid, benzoic acid or propionic acid or acidic organic solvents. The salt may be one of the salts of the present invention, for example, an alkali metal halide, nitrate, perchlorate, dihydrogen phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, hydrogen sulfate, or sulfate. Protons are formed by oxidation at the anode and hydrogen is formed at the cathode, with at least some of the hydrogen reacting to form hydrinos. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode electrode

H⁺+MO(OH)+e^-→MO₂+H₂(1/p)(404)

Anode

M'H→M'+H⁺+e^-(405)

M is a metal such as a transition metal or Al, and M' is a metal of a metal hydride. The cathode may comprise oxyhydroxide and the anode may comprise H⁺A source, such as at least one of a metal hydride, hydrogen, a metal hydride and dissociating agent (e.g., Pt/C, Pd/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C), and hydrogen and dissociating agent. The hydrogen source may also be a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂Gases, e.g. Ti (H)₂) Pd-Ag alloy (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ta(H₂)、Ni(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂). The at least one half-cell reactant may further comprise a support, such as carbon, carbide or boride. Comprising H material with intercalation and H as mobile ion ⁺The cell of (a) can be continuously regenerated, wherein at least some of the migrating H is intercalated in the cathode material while other intercalated H is consumed to form at least hydrogen and hydrinos. The cathode material may also comprise H in the matrix⁺E.g. H⁺Doped zeolites, such as HY. In other embodiments, the zeolite may be doped with metal cations, such as Na in NaY, where the metal cations are replaced by or react with migrating H. An exemplary battery is [ H ]₂And Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C or metal hydride (e.g., alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal hydride)/H⁺Conductor (e.g. aqueous electrolyte, ionic liquid, Nafion or solid proton conductor)/mo (oh) (M = metal, e.g. Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, Al), HY or NaYCB]And [ proton source (e.g. PtC (H))₂) Proton conductor (e.g. HCl-LiCl-KCl molten salt)/oxyhydroxide (e.g. CoO (OH))]。

In one embodiment, the source of H comprises hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen can be in the range of, for example, Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/CAnd the like are formed on the dissociating agent. The hydrogen source may also be a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂Gases, e.g. Ti (H)₂) Pd-Ag alloy (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ta(H₂)、Ni(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂). The cell can comprise an aqueous cation exchange membrane (e.g., H) ⁺Ion-conducting membranes such as Nafion) and aqueous acidic solutions. The acidic electrolyte may be an aqueous acid solution, such as HX (X = halide), HNO₃Or an aqueous solution of an organic acid such as acetic acid. The anode can be an oxyhydroxide such as AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH), manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and manganese oxide (I-O) (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). In an acidic solution, the reaction is

Anode

H₂+→2H⁺+2e(406)

Cathodic reaction of formula (404) or from any H⁺An alternative cathodic reaction of origin may be

CoOOH+2e^-+2H⁺→Co(OH)₂+H(1/p)(407)

An exemplary battery is [ H ]₂And Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C or metal hydrides (e.g. alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal hydrides)/acid in water (e.g. HX (X = halide) or HNO₃)、H⁺Conductors (e.g. Nafion, ionic liquids, solid H)⁺Conductor or HCl-LiCl-KCl fused salt)/MO (OH) (M = metal, e.g., Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, Al) (e.g., AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (α -MnO (OH) manganese sphene and γ -MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (Ni), (Mn), (Al) (e.g., AlO), (OH), ScO (ScO), (OH), YO), (OH), GaO (OH), and Ca (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH)) or other H-intercalated chalcogenides, HY or NaY ]. In other embodiments, the electrolyte may be an ionic liquid or a salt in an organic solvent. The battery may be recharged or chemically activatedTreated to regenerate.

In another embodiment, H⁺Can migrate from the anode to the cathode to form H by reduction at the cathode. H may bind to a hydride acceptor or acceptor (e.g., a metal) to form a hydride, or it may bind to form a hydrogenated compound. The H atoms may interact in a suitable environment to form hydrinos. The environment may contain an H atom acceptor, for example a hydride-forming metal such as an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, noble metal or rare earth metal. Alternatively, the H acceptor may be a hydrogenated compound, for example a compound of the M-N-H system, such as Li₃N or Li₂And (4) NH. The H acceptor may be an intercalation compound lacking the metal. H may replace a metal at a metal site, such as a Li site, or may replace a metal, such as Li. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/ ₃Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂)、LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides and some of these compounds with Li replaced with H or at least one of these compounds lacking Li. The electrolyte may be an inorganic liquid proton conductor. The H source can be Pt/C and H ₂Gas and other negative electrodes of PEM fuel cells, e.g. H₂Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C and Ru/C. The hydrogen source may also be a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂Gases, e.g. Ti (H)₂) Pd-Ag alloy (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ta(H₂)、Ni(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂). Form H⁺H of (A) to (B)₂The source may be a hydride, e.g. an alkali metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydride (e.g. MgH)₂) Transition metal hydrides, internal transition metal hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides that can contact anode half-cell reactants, such as Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C and Ru/C. An exemplary battery is [ Pt (H)₂)、Pt/C(H₂) Borane, aminoborane and borane amines, AlH₃Or H-X compound (X = element V, VI or VII)/inorganic salt mixture comprising liquid electrolyte (e.g. ammonium nitrate-ammonium trifluoroacetate)/Li₃N、Li₂NH or M (M = metal, e.g. transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal), comprising Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And at least one Li-deficient compound of the group of other Li-layered chalcogenides]。

In another embodiment, H⁺Can migrate from the anode to the cathode and form H-intercalated compounds by reduction at the cathode. Such as H ₂The gas and a source of H such as Pt, Re, Rh, Ir, or Pd on a support (e.g., carbon) can be oxidized to H at the anode⁺，H⁺By H⁺The conducting electrolyte (e.g., Nafion, ionic liquid, solid proton conductor, or aqueous electrolyte) migrates to the cathode half-cell where H⁺And reduced to H during intercalation. The cathode material is an intercalation compound capable of intercalating H. In one embodiment, H⁺Substitution of Li⁺Or Na⁺As the mobile ion, intercalation and reduction occur. The product compound may comprise intercalated H. The cathode compound may comprise a chalcogenide, e.g. a layered oxide, e.g. CoO₂Or NiO, which forms the product of intercalation of the corresponding H, e.g. CoO (OH) (also known as HCoO), respectively₂) And NiO (OH). The cathode material may comprise an alkali metal intercalation chalcogenide with at least some and possibly all of the alkali metal removed. The cathode half-cell compound can be a layered compound, such as a layered chalcogenide that is deficient or depleted in alkali metal, such as a layered oxide that removes at least some of the intercalated alkali metal (e.g., Li), such as LiCoO₂Or LiNiO₂. In one embodiment, at least some H and possibly some alkali metal (e.g., Li) intercalates during discharge. A suitable intercalation compound with at least some of the Li removed is one that comprises the anode or cathode of a Li or Na ion battery, for example an intercalation compound of the invention. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds include at least one of the following group: li-graphite, Li _xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Other Li-layered chalcogenides that have at least some and possibly all of the Li removed. An exemplary cell is [ Pt/C (H)₂)、Pd/C(H₂) Alkali metal hydrides, R-Ni/proton conductors (e.g., Nafion), eutectic compounds (e.g., LiCl-KCl), ionic liquids, aqueous electrolyte/H intercalation compounds, such as one of the following: CoO₂，NiO₂And Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄At least one of the group of other Li-layered chalcogenides with at least some and possibly all of the Li removed]. In other embodiments, the alkali metal is replaced with another alkali metal.

In another embodiment, the cathode material may comprise an alkali metal intercalated chalcogenide. The cathode half-cell compound can be a layered compound, for example an alkali metal chalcogenide, such as a layered oxide, e.g., LiCoO₂Or LiNiO₂. In one embodiment, at least some H and possibly some alkali metal (e.g., Li) intercalates during discharge, where H displaces Li, and Li optionally forms LiH. Suitable intercalation compounds are those comprising the anode or cathode of a Li or Na ion battery, for example an intercalation compound of the invention. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds include at least one of the following group: li-graphite, Li _xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides )LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And other Li-layered chalcogenides. An exemplary cell is [ Pt/C (H)₂)、Pd/C(H₂) Alkali metal hydrides, R-Ni/proton conductors (e.g., Nafion), eutectic compounds (e.g., LiCl-KCl), ionic liquids, aqueous electrolyte/H intercalation compounds, such as one of the following: CoO₂，NiO₂And Li-graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And at least one of the group of other Li-layered chalcogenides]. In other embodiments, the alkali metal is replaced with another alkali metal.

In one embodiment, the H acceptor is a hydride-forming metal, such as a transition metal, an internal transition metal, a rare earth metal, or a noble metal. In other embodiments, the H acceptor is a compound comprising a basic salt or having an acid anion. May contain H⁺Cathode half-cell reactant or H for migrating ions^-Exemplary compounds of the anode half-cell reactant that are mobile ions are one or more of the following group: MNO ₃、MNO、MNO₂、M₃N、M₂NH、MNH₂、MX、NH₃、MBH₄、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆、MOH、M₂S、MHS、MFeSi、M₂CO₃、MHCO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、M₃PO₄、M₂HPO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂MoO₄、MNbO₃、M₂B₄O₇(tetraborate of M), MBO₂、M₂WO₄、MAlCl₄、MGaCl₄、M₂CrO₄、M₂Cr₂O₇、M₂TiO₃、MZrO₃、MAlO₂、MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MCuCl₄、MPdCl₄、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_nAnd MZnO_n(wherein M is a cation, e.g., a metal such as Li, Na or K, and n =1, 2, 3 or 4), an oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidizing agent, a molecular oxidizing agent (e.g., V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂、I₂O₄、I₂O₅、I₂O₉、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₄、N₂O₅、Cl₂O、ClO₂、Cl₂O₃、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅)、NH₄X (where X is nitrate or other suitable anion known to those skilled in the art) and an anion having a structure that forms a H compound (e.g., comprising F)^-、Cl^-、Br^-、I^-、NO₃ ^-、NO₂ ^-、SO₄ ^2-、HSO₄ ^-、CoO₂ ^-、IO₃ ^-、IO₄ ^-、TiO₃ ^-、CrO₄ ^-、FeO₂ ^-、PO₄ ^3-、HPO₄ ^2-、H₂PO₄ ^-、VO₃ ^-、ClO₄ ^-And Cr₂O₇ ^2-And one of the other such anion group). The cell may further comprise a negative electrode, separator or salt bridge, as a source of protons (e.g., a source of hydrogen, such as a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride) or hydrogen gas and a dissociating agent (e.g., Pt/C or Pd/C)), and an electrolyte (e.g., a proton conducting electrolyte, such as Nafion or an ionic liquid). The hydrogen source may also be a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂Gases, e.g. Ti (H)₂) Pd-Ag alloy (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ta(H₂)、Ni(H₂) Or Nb (H)₂). An exemplary cell is [ Pt/C (H)₂)、Pd/C(H₂) Alkali metal hydrides, R-Ni/proton conductors (e.g., Nafion), eutectic (e.g., LiCl-KCl), ionic liquids/rare earth metals (e.g., La), basic salts (e.g., Li)₂SO₄) Hydride-forming metals (e.g., transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, or noble metals); one or more of the group of: MNO₃、MNO、MNO₂、M₃N、M₂NH、MNH₂、MX、NH₃、MBH₄、MAlH₄、M₃AlH₆、MOH、M₂S、MHS、MFeSi、M₂CO₃、MHCO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、M₃PO₄、M₂HPO₄、MH₂PO₄、M₂MoO₄、MNbO₃、M₂B₄O₇(tetraborate of M), MBO ₂、M₂WO₄、MAlCl₄、MGaCl₄、M₂CrO₄、M₂Cr₂O₇、M₂TiO₃、MZrO₃、MAlO₂、MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MCuCl₄、MPdCl₄、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_nAnd MZnO_n(wherein M is a cation, e.g., a metal such as Li, Na or K, and n =1, 2, 3 or 4), an oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidizing agent, a molecular oxidizing agent (e.g., V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂、I₂O₄、I₂O₅、I₂O₉、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₄、N₂O₅、Cl₂O、ClO₂、Cl₂O₃、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅)、NH₄X (where X is nitrate or other suitable anion known to those skilled in the art) and an anion having a structure that forms a H compound (e.g., comprising F)^-、Cl^-、Br^-、I^-、NO₃ ^-、NO₂ ^-、SO₄ ^2-、HSO₄ ^-、CoO₂ ^-、IO₃ ^-、IO₄ ^-、TiO₃ ^-、CrO₄ ^-、FeO₂ ^-、PO₄ ^3-、HPO₄ ^2-、H₂PO₄ ^-、VO₃ ^-、ClO₄ ^-And Cr₂O₇ ^2-And one of the other such anion groups) of a compound]。

Suitable compounds are, for example, salts of acids, for example to form LiHSO₄Li of (2)₂SO₄Or can form Li₂HPO₄Li of (2)₃PO₄. An exemplary reaction is

Cathode reaction

2H⁺+Li₂SO₄+2e^-→Li+H(1/p)+LiHSO₄(408)

Anodic reaction

H₂+→2H⁺+2e^-(409)

Regeneration

Li+LiHSO₄+→1/2H₂+Li₂SO₄(410)

General reaction

H → H (1/p) + energy (411) at least partially in the form of electricity

In another embodiment, the metal hydride may be decomposed or formed in at least one half-cell reaction, wherein the formation of H or H vacancies resulting from the half-cell reaction may form H atoms that react to form hydrinos. For example, a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride) at the cathode can be reduced to form H^-And vacancies are formed at the hydride lattice sites, causing H to interact to form hydrinos. In addition or alternatively, H^-Migrate to the anode and oxidize to H. The H atoms may interact in a suitable environment to form hydrinos. The environment may contain an H atom acceptor, for example a metal, such as an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, noble metal or rare earth metal, which forms a hydride. Alternatively, the H acceptor may be a hydrogenated compound, for example a compound of the M-N-H system, such as Li ₃N or Li₂NH。HThe receiving agent may be an intercalation compound lacking the metal. H may be substituted at a metal site such as a Li site, or may replace a metal such as Li. Suitable exemplary intercalation compounds are Li graphite, Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄And some of these compounds having Li substituted with H or at least one of these compounds lacking Li. Other anode materials are chalcogenides intercalated with H or forming a hydrosulfide, e.g. layered transition metal oxides, such as CoO₂And NiO₂Which form CoO (OH) and NiO (OH), respectively. An exemplary battery is [ Li ]₃N、Li₂NH or M (M = metal, such as alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal), Li-deficient Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F (M = Fe, Ti) and other Li layered chalcogenides and layered oxides (e.g., CoO)₂And NiO₂)/H^-Conducting electrolytes (e.g. molten eutectic salts, e.g. LiCl-KCl)/H permeable cathodes with H ₂(e.g., Ni (H)₂) And Fe (H)₂) Hydrides (e.g. of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals or rare earth metals, the latter being, for example, CeH)₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂) And M-N-H compounds (e.g. Li)₂NH or LiNH₂)]. In another embodiment, the anode reactant may comprise an oxyhydroxide or corresponding oxide or partially alkali metal intercalated chalcogenide. Suitable exemplary oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and mixtures thereof_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). Exemplary cells are [ oxyhydroxides (e.g., AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH), manganese sphene, and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and NiO (I-O) (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH), other layered chalcogenides, H intercalated layered chalcogenides, and layered oxides (e.g., CoO)₂And NiO₂) At least one of the group of/H^-Conducting electrolytes (e.g. molten eutectic salts, e.g. LiCl-KCl)/H permeable cathodes with H₂(e.g., Ni (H)₂) And Fe (H)₂) Hydrides (e.g. of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals or rare earth metals, the latter being, for example, CeH) ₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂) And M-N-H compounds (e.g. Li)₂NH or LiNH₂)]。

Thus, the cell contains a source of hydrogen, where the hydrogen acts as a catalyst and reactant for the formation of hydrinos. The hydrogen source may be hydrogen or a hydride. Hydrogen may permeate the membrane. The cell reaction may involve H^-By oxidation to form H or H⁺Reducing to form H. An exemplary cell reaction is

Cathode reaction

H+e^-→H^-(412)

Anodic reaction

nH^-→n-1H+H(1/p)+ne^-(413)

General reaction

H→H(1/p)(414)

Cathode reaction

nH⁺+ne^-→n-1H+H(1/p)(415)

Anodic reaction

H→H⁺+e^-(416)

General reaction

H→H(1/p)(417)

The cell may further comprise an electrolyte, for example a molten salt, such as a eutectic mixture of alkali metal halides. The at least one half-cell reactant may comprise a support, for example a high surface area conductive support such as a carbide, boride or carbon. In one embodiment, the anode reactant may comprise a reducing agent other than H or H-, for example a metal such as Li or Li alloy. The cathode reactant may comprise a source of H, e.g. a hydride, e.g. a conductive hydride, more or less stable than LiH, e.g. CeH₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂At least one of (1). An exemplary battery is [ Li/KCl-LiCl/LaH₂TiC]. At least one half-cell reaction mixture comprises at least one of a hydride mixture, a metal hydride, and a source of hydrogen (e.g., hydrogen gas or hydrogen supplied through a metal membrane). The hydrogen source or hydride may also be a component of the electrolyte or salt bridge. An exemplary battery is [ Li/KCl-LiClLiCH/LaH ₂TiC]、[Li/KCl-LiCl/LaH₂MgTiC]、[Li/KCl-LiClLiH/LaH₂MgTiC]、[Li/KCl-LiCl/LaH₂ZrH₂TiC]、[Li/KCl-LiClLiH/LaH₂ZrH₂TiC]、[LiM/LiX-LiH/M₁H₂M₂H₂Carrier]Where LiM is Li, Li alloy or Li compound, LiX-LiH is a eutectic mixture of lithium halides (X) where other eutectic salt electrolytes may be substituted, M₁H₂And M₂H₂Are first and second hydrides, each of which may be from the group: CeH₂、DyH₂、ErH₂、GdH₂、HoH₂、LaH₂、LuH₂、NdH₂、PrH₂、ScH₂、TbH₂、TmH₂And YH₂、TiH₂、VH、VH_1.6、LaNi₅H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2、CrH、CrH₂、NiH、CuH、YH₂、YH₃、ZrH₂、NbH、NbH₂、PdH₀₇、LaH₂、LaH₃TaH, lanthanide hydride (MH)₂(fluorite) M = Ce, Pr, Nb, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Lu; MH₃(cubic) M = Ce, Pr, Nd, Yb; MH₃(hexagonal) M = Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Lu), actinide hydride (MH)₂(fluorite) M = Th, Np, Pu, Am; MH₃(hexagonal) M = Np, Pu, Am, and MH₃(cubic composite structure) M = Pa, U), alkali metal hydride, alkaline earth metal hydride, transition metal hydride, internal transition metal hydride, rare earth metalHydrides, noble metal hydrides, LiAlH₄、LiBH₄And the like hydrides. At least one hydride or metal (e.g., LiH, Li, NaH, Na, KH, K, RbH, Rb, CsH, or Cs) can serve as a catalyst or catalyst source. The catalyst or H that reacts to form hydrinos may be formed during cell operation. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst.

In one embodiment, an integer number of H atoms acts as a catalyst for at least one other H atom. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The cell may include a source of H that forms hydride ions at the cathode. The source of H can be a hydride, hydrogen that is accessible through a metal (e.g., a metal tube or membrane cathode), a hydrogen storage material, a hydride material (e.g., hydrogenated carbon), and an M-N-H system compound. The battery may comprise a battery for H ^-A migrating electrolyte of ions. Suitable electrolytes are eutectic molten salts, e.g. eutectic molten salts comprising a mixture of alkali metal halides, such as LiCl-KCl or LiF-LiCl, NaHNaAlEt₄And KH-KOH. The anode may comprise a acceptor of at least one of hydride, hydrogen and protons. The hydride may be oxidized to H at the anode. H may serve as a reactant and catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The H acceptor may be at least one of: hydride-forming metals, hydrogen storage materials (e.g., the hydrogen storage materials of the present invention), M-N-H system compounds, nitrides or imines that form at least one of an imide or an amide, and intercalation compounds (e.g., carbon, chalcogenides, and other compounds of the present invention, such as intercalation compounds of lithium ion batteries). Exemplary batteries include metal hydrides, e.g., rare earth metal hydrides, TiH, at the cathode₂Or ZrH₂And at the anode a metal that can form a hydride, such as a rare earth metal, Ti or Nb metal powder, or an alkaline earth metal or an alkali metal. Alternatively, the anode reactant comprises, for example, Li₃And N, activated carbon, and the like as an H acceptor. The cell may further comprise a support, for example carbon, carbide or boride, such as carbon black, TiC, WC, YC, in either half cell ₂、TiB₂Or MgB₂. Specific exemplary batteries are [ Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, rare earth metal powders, hydrogen storage materials, R-Ni, Ti, Nb, Pd, Pt, carbon, Li₃N、Li₂NH/molten eutectic salt H^-Conductors (e.g. LiCl-KCl)/TiH₂、ZrH₂、MgH₂、LaH₂、CeH₂R-Ni, hydrogen permeable tube H source (e.g. Ni (H)₂) Or other metals (including rare earth coated Fe)]。

In one embodiment, an integer number of H atoms acts as a catalyst for at least one other H atom. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The cell may include a source of H that can form protons at the anode. The H source can be a hydride, hydrogen that is accessible through a metal (e.g., a metal tube or membrane cathode), a hydrogen storage material, a hydride material (e.g., hydrogenated carbon), and an M-N-H system compound. The battery may comprise a battery for H⁺A migrating electrolyte of ions. The electrolyte may comprise a proton conductor. The system may be aqueous or non-aqueous. The cathode may comprise a acceptor of at least one of hydride, hydrogen and protons. The mobile protons may be reduced to H or H at the cathode^-. H may serve as a reactant and catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The H acceptor may be at least one of: hydride-forming metals, hydrogen storage materials (e.g., the hydrogen storage materials of the present invention), M-N-H system compounds, nitrides or imines that form at least one of an imide or an amide, and intercalation compounds (e.g., carbon, chalcogenides, and other compounds of the present invention, such as intercalation compounds of lithium ion batteries). Exemplary cells include metal hydrides, e.g., rare earth metal hydrides, TiH, at the anode ₂Or ZrH₂And at the cathode a metal which can form a hydride, such as a rare earth metal, Ti or Nb metal powder or an alkaline earth metal or an alkali metal. Alternatively, the cathode reactant comprises, for example, Li₃And N, activated carbon, and the like as an H acceptor. The cell may further comprise a support, for example carbon, carbide or boride, such as carbon black, TiC, WC, YC, in either half cell₂、TiB₂Or MgB₂. A specific exemplary battery is [ TiH ]₂、ZrH₂、MgH₂、LaH₂、CeH₂R-Ni, hydrogen permeable tube H source (e.g. Ni (H)₂) Or other metals (including rare earth coated Fe)/H⁺conductor/Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, rare earth metal powder, hydrogen storage material, R-Ni, Ti, Nb, Pd, Pt, carbon, Li₃N、Li₂NH]。

For systems using H as a catalyst and which may lack alkali metal or alkali metal hydride as a catalyst or source of catalyst, electrolytes reactive with these species may be used, such as MAlCl₄(M is an alkali metal). An exemplary battery is [ Li/LiAlCl ]₄/TiH₂Or ZrH₂]、[K/KAlCl₄/TiH₂Or ZrH₂]、[Na/NaAlCl₄/TiH₂Or ZrH₂]And [ Ti or Nb/NaAlCl₄/Ni(H₂)、TiH₂、ZrH₂Or LaH₂]And [ Ni (H) ]₂)、TiH₂、ZrH₂Or LaH₂/NaAlCl₄/Ti or Nb]. The H catalyst battery can be decomposed and respectively added with H₂To hydrides and metal products. Alternatively, the reduced mobile ion or hydride thereof can serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst.

In one embodiment, the battery comprises an electrolyte, such as a molten eutectic salt electrolyte, which further comprises a hydride, such as LiH. The molten eutectic salt electrolyte may comprise a mixture of alkali metal halides (e.g., LiCl-KCl, LiF-LiCl, LiCl-CsCl, or LiCl-KCl-CsCl) and LiH dissolved in a range from 0.0001 mol% to saturation, or, as such, the molten eutectic salt electrolyte may comprise a mixture of LiH and one or more alkali metal halides (e.g., LiCl, LiBr, and LiI). The electrolyte may be selected to achieve a desired operating temperature for the reaction that favors the formation of hydrinos. The temperature may be controlled to control the activity of one or more species, the thermodynamic equilibrium between species (e.g., a mixture of hydrides), or the solubility of a species (e.g., the solubility of LiH in the electrolyte). The battery cathode and anode may comprise two different materials, compounds, or metals. In one embodiment, the cathodic metal may form a specific electric potentialHydrides where the hydride of the electrolyte is more stable; however, the anodic metal can form a more unstable hydride. The cathode can include, for example, one or more of Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ho, La, Lu, Nd, Pr, Sc, Tb, Tm, and Y. The anode may comprise a transition metal, such as Cu, Ni, Cr or Fe, or stainless steel. Hydrogen may be H ₂The gaseous form is supplied, for example, through a membrane, which may comprise a cathode or an anode, or by, for example, diffusing gas bubbles through a porous electrode, such as a porous electrode consisting of an assembly of tightly bonded Ni porous bodies (Celmet #6, sumitomo electric industries, Ltd.) inside an outer alumina tube.

In other embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise an organic solvent (Li for mobile ions)⁺Examples of the ion include ions (e.g., Li) which are mobile ions in dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate and ethylene carbonate⁺An electrolyte, such as a lithium salt, such as lithium hexafluorophosphate). The salt bridge may then be glass (e.g. with Li)⁺Electrolyte-impregnated borosilicate glass) or ceramics, (e.g. Li)⁺Implanted beta alumina). The electrolyte may also include at least one or more of a ceramic, a polymer, and a gel. An exemplary cell comprises (1)1cm²And a 75 μm thick composite positive electrode disk containing 7-10 mg of metal hydride (e.g., LaH mixed with TiC)₂Or LaH mixed with 15% carbon SP (carbon black for MM)₂)；(2)1cm²A Li metal disk as a negative electrode; and (3) with 1MLiPF₆Whatman GF/D borosilicate glass fiber plate impregnated with a solution of electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate as separator/electrolyte. Other suitable electrolytes are lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF) in organic solvents such as ethylene carbonate ₆) Lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF)₆) Lithium perchlorate (LiClO)₄) Lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF)₄) And lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiCF)₃SO₃). In addition, H₂Gas may be added to the cell, for example to the cathode compartment.

The cell may contain ions as catalysts or sources of catalysts, e.g. alkali metal ions, such as Li as a source of Li catalyst⁺. Should leaveThe sub-sources may be the corresponding metals, alkali metal alloys or alkali metal compounds. The cell may comprise a salt bridge or separator and may further comprise an electrolyte and possibly a support (e.g. a carbide, boride or carbon, all as given in the present invention). In one embodiment, m H atoms (m being an integer) act as catalysts for other H atoms. The H atoms may be maintained on a support such as a carbide, boride or carbon. The source of H can be H gas, H permeating the membrane, hydride, or a compound such as an amide or imide. In one embodiment, the support has a large surface area and is in molar excess relative to the source of H (e.g., hydride or compound). An exemplary battery is [ Li/1 MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass fiber board/TiC impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution ][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Borosilicate glass fiber plate/Fe powder impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Polyolefin sheet/TiC 10mol% LaH impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution₂][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Polyolefin sheets impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution/WC 10mol% LaH₂][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Polypropylene film/TiC 10mol% LaH impregnated with a solution of electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate₂][ Li/use 1MLiPF₆Polypropylene film impregnated with electrolyte in 1:1 dimethyl carbonate/ethylene carbonate solution/WC 10mol% LaH₂]And [ Li source/salt bridge or separator-electrolyte/support and H source]。

In one embodiment, the battery forms a mixed metal M-N-H system compound, such as an amide, imide, or nitride, during discharge or charge, where M is at least two metals in any ratio. Suitable metals are alkali metals such as Li, Na and K and alkaline earth metals such as Mg. Alternatively, the mixed metal M-N-H system compound is the starting material for at least one half-cell. During charging or discharging, the compounds react to gain or lose H. In one embodiment, at least one of the following conditions causes the formation of hydrinos to produce electricity: h and catalyst generation Generation of vacancies by means such as substitution, reaction or displacement, and addition of H. In the latter case, one or more H may act as a catalyst for another H. In embodiments, the metal ion (e.g., alkali metal ion) may be a mobile ion. In other embodiments, H^-Or H⁺May be mobile ions. The battery may comprise an anode, a cathode, a salt bridge, a support, a matrix, and an electrolyte of the invention, wherein the additional feature is that the metal is a mixture. In other embodiments, the half-cell reactants or products comprise a mixture of at least two of the following: M-N-H system compounds, boranes, aminoboranes and boramines, aluminum hydrides, alkali metal alanates, alkali metal borohydrides, alkali metal hydrides, alkaline earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrides, internal transition metal hydrides and rare earth metal hydrides. The cell may include an electrolyte and optionally a salt bridge that confines the electrolyte in at least one half-cell. The electrolyte may be a eutectic salt. The electrolyte may be an ionic liquid, which may be in at least one half cell. The ionic liquid can be at least one of the present invention, such as ethylammonium nitrate, ethylammonium nitrate doped with dihydrogen phosphate (e.g., doped with about 1%), hydrazine nitrate, NH ₄PO₃-TiP₂O₇And LiNO₃-NH₄NO₃Co-dissolving the salt. Other suitable electrolytes may comprise at least one salt from the following group: LiNO₃Ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Tf ═ CF)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium trifluoroacetate (TFAc = CF)₃COO^-) Ammonium tetrafluoroborate (BF)₄ ^-) Ammonium methane sulfonate (CH)₃SO₃ ^-) Ammonium Nitrate (NO)₃ ^-) Ammonium thiocyanate (SCN)^-) Ammonium Sulfamate (SO)₃NH₂ ^-) Ammonium bifluoride (HF)₂ ^-) Ammonium Hydrogen Sulfate (HSO)₄ ^-) Ammonium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (TFSI = CF)₃SO₂)₂N^-) Ammonium bis (perfluoroethanesulfonyl) imide (BETI = CF)₃CF₂SO₂)₂N^-) Hydrazine nitrate, and may further comprise a mixture, e.g., further comprising NH₄NO₃、NH₄Tf and NH₄A eutectic mixture of at least one of TFAc. Other suitable solvents include acids such as phosphoric acid. An exemplary battery is [ M = Li, Na, K/olefin separator M = Li, Na, KPF₆ECDEC mixture, BASE or eutectic salt/M' NH₂、M'₂NH (M ' = Li, Na, K, where M is different from M ') and optionally an electrolyte (e.g. an ionic liquid) or eutectic salt (e.g. alkali metal halide salt mixture), hydride (e.g. M or M ' AlH)₄Or M' BH₄M or M 'H or M' H₂Where M and M ═ alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal or rare earth metal) and a support (e.g. carbon, carbide or boride)]And [ at least M₃N、M₂NH、M'₃N and M'₂Mixture of at least two of the group of NH (M, M '= Li, Na, K, where M is different from M')/eutectic salt (such as LiCl-KCl)/hydride (e.g. M or M 'H, or M' H) ₂(wherein M and M ═ alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, or rare earth metal), M or M' AlH₄Or M' BH₄) And a support (e.g. carbon, carbide or boride)]. Since one or more of the H's act as a catalyst, the products are H (1/p), H₂(1/p) and H^-(iii) (/1/p), wherein p depends on the number of H atoms serving as catalysts for other H transition forming fractional hydrogens (formulas (6-9) and (10)). Such as H₂(1/p) and H^-The product (/1/p) can be determined by proton NMR according to the formulae (20) and (12), respectively.

Another suitable intercalation compound of the invention is LiNi_1/3Al_1/3Mn_1/3O₂、LiAl_1/3-xCo_xNi_1/3Co_1/3O₂(0≤x≤1/3)、LiNi_xCo_1-2xMn_xO₂(0≤x≤1/3)、Li_xAl_yCo_1-yO₂、Li_xAl_yMn_1-yO₂、Li_xAl_yCo_zMn_1-y-zO₂、LiNi_1/2Mn_1/2O₂And other combinations and mixtures of metals that form intercalation compounds.In embodiments as in the present invention for other such compounds, Li may be at least partially replaced by H, or may be at least partially to completely removed. Other alkali metals such as Na may be substituted for Li.

Suitable oxyhydroxides of the invention have octahedrally coordinated M ions (e.g., M)³⁺= Al, Sc, Y, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, Ga and In) and alloys and mixtures thereof (e.g. Ni_1/2Co_1/2And Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3). Corresponding exemplary oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and mixtures thereof _1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). The oxyhydroxide can include intercalated H. The oxyhydroxide compound may have a strong hydrogen bond. Suitable oxyhydroxides having strong H bonds are those containing Al, Sc, Y, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, Ga and In, and alloys and mixtures thereof (e.g. Ni)_1/2Co_1/2And Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3) An oxyhydroxide of the group (b). Corresponding exemplary oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (I-O) (OH), and mixtures thereof_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). Exemplary cells are [ Li, Li alloy, K, K alloy, Na or Na alloy/CelgardLP 30/AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (Ni)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3At least one member of the group of O (OH)]. The anode may contain a reactant, such as a metal, that reacts with water during discharge to form a hydroxide. An exemplary CIHT cell comprising an aqueous electrolyte and a oxyhydroxide cathode is [ PtC (H)₂)、PdC(H₂) Or R-Ni/KOH (6M to saturated aqueous solution) (where the base may act as a catalyst or catalystsSources, e.g. K or 2K ⁺) Or ammonium hydroxide/MO (OH) (M = metal, e.g., Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, Al) (e.g., oxyhydroxides, e.g., AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), (alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), and mixtures thereof_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH)) and HY]、[NiAl/KOH/CoOOH]、[R-Ni/K₂CO₃(aqueous solution)/CoOOH]And [ metals that form hydroxides or oxides with water during discharge (e.g., Al, Co, Ni, Fe, or Ag metals)/aqueous KOH solution (6M to saturation) or ammonium hydroxide/mo (oh) (M = metals such as Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, Al) (e.g., alo (oh), sco (oh), yo (oh), vo (oh), cro (oh), mno (oh) (α -mno (oh) manganite and γ -mno (oh) manganite), feo (oh), coo (oh), nio (oh), rho (oh), gao (oh), ino (oh), Ni (oh), and_1/2Co_1/2o (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH)) or HY]. In embodiments, H intercalated in compounds (e.g., oxyhydroxides and metal chalcogenides) comprises H⁺And at least one covalent O-H hydrogen bonded to O. By at least reducing mobile ions or reducing metal ions (e.g. metal ions M)³⁺Reduction to M²⁺) To achieve neutrality of the cathode material. In other embodiments, another chalcogenide is substituted for O. In one embodiment, the O-H … H distance may be between about 2 and about 78H In the range of about 2.2 toWithin the range. In one embodiment, the H-bonded cathode reactant (e.g., oxyhydroxide or metal chalcogenide) further comprises some water of crystallization that provides at least one of participation in H-bond formation, modification of the crystal structure (where the modification may increase H-bond formation in the crystal), and an increase in the rate of hydrinos formation. H-bond formation is sensitive to temperature; thus, in one embodiment, the temperature of the H-bonded reactant is controlled toThe hydrino reaction rate is controlled, thereby controlling one of the voltage, current, power, and energy of the CIHT cell. Batteries with oxyhydroxide cathodes can operate at high temperatures controlled by heaters.

In one embodiment, H intercalates into the chalcogenide, where the reaction causes the formation of hydrinos, and the released energy in turn contributes to the battery energy. Alternatively, the mobile ions react with H intercalated chalcogenides, wherein the reaction causes formation of hydrinos, and the released energy in turn contributes to the battery energy. The mobile ion may be OH^-、H⁺、M⁺(M = alkali metal) and H^-At least one of (1). Transformations of a chalcogenide reactant capable of intercalating H and undergoing H intercalation during discharge and a chalcogenide reactant that is at least partially H-intercalated and undergoing a reaction such as H-displacement during discharge are embodiments of the present invention in which the chalcogenide reactant and other reactants (e.g., reactants participating in the intercalation or displacement reaction) are reactants of the present invention as can be determined by one skilled in the art.

In particular, the mobile ion may be OH^-Wherein the anode comprises a source of H, such as a hydride (e.g., at least one of hydrides of an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, and a rare earth metal, and R-Ni), the cathode comprises a layered chalcogenide capable of intercalating H, and the electrolyte is OH^-Conductors, e.g. aqueous alkaline solutions, e.g. aqueous KOH solutions, wherein the base can act as a catalyst or catalyst source, e.g. K or 2K⁺. The cell may further comprise OH^-Permeable barriers, such as CG 3401. Exemplary batteries are [ hydride (e.g., R-Ni, e.g., (4200#, slurry)) or hydrogen source (e.g., PtC (H)₂) Or PdC (H)₂) KOH (6M to saturated) + CG 3401/layered chalcogenide capable of intercalating H (e.g. CoO)₂、NiO₂、TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂)]. Alternatively, the cathode reactant comprises a layered chalcogenide sandwiched by H layers. Exemplary batteries are [ hydride (e.g., R-Ni (4200#, slurry)) or hydrogen source (e.g., PtC (H))₂) Or PdC (H)₂) KOH (6M to saturated) + CG3401/H intercalated layered chalcogenide (e.g. CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS)₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂)]。

The mobile ion may be H⁺Wherein the anode comprises a source of H, such as hydrogen and a dissociating agent (e.g., Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C), the cathode comprises a layered chalcogenide capable of intercalating H, and the electrolyte is H ⁺A conductor. An exemplary battery is [ H ]₂And Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C/H⁺Conductors (e.g. acidic aqueous electrolytes, ionic liquids, Nafion or solid proton conductors)/layered chalcogenides capable of intercalating H (e.g. CoO)₂、NiO₂、TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂)]. Alternatively, the cathode reactant comprises an H-intercalated layered chalcogenide. An exemplary battery is [ H ]₂And Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C/H⁺Conductor (e.g. acidic aqueous electrolyte, ionic liquid, Nafion or solid proton conductor)/H intercalated layered chalcogenide (e.g. CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS)₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂)]。

The mobile ion may be H^-Wherein the cathode comprises a source of H, e.g. a hydride (e.g. alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition gold)At least one of hydrides of metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, and R-Ni) and at least one of hydrogen and a dissociating agent (e.g., Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C) and hydrogen and a hydrogen permeable film, the cathode comprises a layered chalcogenide capable of intercalating H, and the electrolyte is H^-Conductors, such as molten eutectic salts, e.g., mixtures of alkali metal halides. An exemplary battery is [ a layered chalcogenide capable of intercalating H (e.g., CoO)₂、NiO₂、TiS₂、ZrS₂、HfS₂、TaS₂、TeS₂、ReS₂、PtS₂、SnS₂、SnSSe、TiSe₂、ZrSe₂、HfSe₂、TaSe₂、TeSe₂、ReSe₂、PtSe₂、SnSe₂、TiTe₂、ZrTe₂、VTe₂、NbTe₂、TaTe₂、MoTe₂、WTe₂、CoTe₂、RhTe₂、IrTe₂、NiTe₂、PdTe₂、PtTe₂、SiTe₂、NbS₂、TaS₂、MoS₂、WS₂、NbSe₂、NbSe₃、TaSe₂、MoSe₂、VSe₂、WSe₂And MoTe₂) Hydride-conductive molten salts (e.g., LiCl-KCl)/H sources (e.g., hydrides (e.g., TiH) ₂、ZrH₂、LaH₂Or CeH₂) Or H₂Permeable cathode and H₂(e.g., Fe (H)₂)、Ta(H₂) Or Ni (H)₂)))]. Alternatively, the anode reactant comprises an intercalated layered chalcogenide of H. An exemplary cell is [ H intercalated layered chalcogenide (e.g., CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS)₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂) Hydride-conductive molten salts (e.g., LiCl-KCl)/H sources (e.g., hydrides (e.g., TiH)₂、ZrH₂、LaH₂Or CeH₂) Or H₂Permeable cathode and H₂(e.g., Fe (H)₂)、Ta(H₂) Or Ni (H)₂)))]。

The mobile ion may be M⁺(M = alkali metal), wherein the anode comprises M⁺Sources, e.g. M metals or alloys, such as Li, Na, K or alloys (e.g. LiC, Li)₃Mg or LiAl), the cathode comprises an H-intercalated layered chalcogenide and the electrolyte is M⁺A conductor. An exemplary battery is [ alkali metal or alkali metal source M (e.g., Li, LiC, or Li)₃Mg)/M⁺Conductors (e.g., Celgard and organic solvents) and M salt (e.g., LP30)/H intercalated layered chalcogenides (e.g., CoOOH, NiOOH, HTiS)₂、HZrS₂、HHfS₂、HTaS₂、HTeS₂、HReS₂、HPtS₂、HSnS₂、HSnSSe、HTiSe₂、HZrSe₂、HHfSe₂、HTaSe₂、HTeSe₂、HReSe₂、HPtSe₂、HSnSe₂、HTiTe₂、HZrTe₂、HVTe₂、HNbTe₂、HTaTe₂、HMoTe₂、HWTe₂、HCoTe₂、HRhTe₂、HIrTe₂、HNiTe₂、HPdTe₂、HPtTe₂、HSiTe₂、HNbS₂、HTaS₂、HMoS₂、HWS₂、HNbSe₂、HNbSe₃、HTaSe₂、HMoSe₂、HVSe₂、HWSe₂And HMoTe₂)]。

In other embodiments, H^-Or H⁺Can be migrated and dividedOxidation or reduction occurs, wherein H is incorporated into the chalcogenide, not necessarily as intercalated H. For example, H may reduce the oxide. Exemplary batteries are [ hydride (e.g., R-Ni (4200#, slurry)) or hydrogen source (e.g., PtC (H))₂) Or PdC (H)₂) KOH (6M to saturated) + CG3401/SeO₂、TeO₂Or P₂O₅]、[H₂And Pd/C, Pt/C, Ir/C, Rh/C or Ru/C/H ⁺Conductor (e.g. acidic aqueous electrolyte, ionic liquid, Nafion or solid proton conductor)/SeO₂、TeO₂Or P₂O₅]And [ SeO ]₂、TeO₂Or P₂O₅/H^-Conducting electrolytes (e.g. molten eutectic salts, such as LiCl-KCl)/hydrides (e.g. ZrH)₂、TiH₂、LaH₂Or CeH₂) Or a H-permeable cathode and H₂(e.g., Ni (H)₂) And Fe (H)₂))]。

In an embodiment, at least one of the following occurs: (i) OH bond of hydroxyl group or OH bond (OH) of hydride anion^-) Cleavage to form H, allowing some of the H to further react to form hydrinos; (ii) h reacts with O of a compound to form OH or OH^-Groups such that some of the H reacts to form a transition state of hydrido, rather than to form OH or OH^-A group; and (iii) H is derived from H and OH or OH^-Wherein the latter reacts with the element or compound and at least some of the H further reacts to form hydrinos. The anode and the electrolyte comprise the anode and the electrolyte of the invention. The mobile ion can be a metal ion (M)⁺) (e.g. alkali metal ions) or H species (e.g. OH)^-、H^-Or H⁺) Wherein at least one of the cathode and anode reactions involves one of these species. OH group^-、H^-Or H⁺And the source of H can be water, and H^-Or H⁺The source of (a) may be a hydride, wherein at least one of the anode or cathode reactants may be a hydride. Anodic reaction can form H ⁺Including H or H^-With OH^-Form H₂Reaction of O, including H^-A reaction to form H, or oxidation of an element including, for example, a metal. The cathodic reaction may include M⁺Reaction ofForm M, H⁺Reacting to form H or H₂O reacts to form OH^-The reaction of (1). The anode can be a source of a metal, such as an alkali metal or a hydroxide-forming metal, or a source of H, such as a hydride. The electrolyte, such as an aqueous electrolyte, may be H, H⁺、H₂O and OH^-A source of at least one of (a). The electrolyte may be a mixture of a salt with an organic solvent, an aqueous solution (e.g., of a base), or a molten salt (e.g., a co-soluble salt such as an alkali metal halide).

In the above case (i) involving the cleavage of H — O bonds, H can be cleaved off by reaction with the metal formed at the cathode by reduction of the corresponding mobile ion. The metal atom may be a catalyst or a source of a catalyst, such as Li, Na or K. OH or OH^-The oxygen of (A) may then form a compound having OH or OH^-Very stable compounds of origin of the radicals. The very stable compound may be an oxide (e.g., an oxide of a transition metal, an internal transition metal, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or a rare earth metal) and other stable oxides (e.g., one of the oxides of Al, B, Si, and Te). Exemplary cells are [ Li, Na or K or their source (e.g., alloy)/CelgardLP 30/rare earth or alkaline earth metal hydroxides (e.g., La (OH)) ₃、Ho(OH)₃、Tb(OH)₃、Yb(OH)₃、Lu(OH)₃、Er(OH)₃、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂、Ba(OH)₂) Or oxyhydroxides (e.g., HoO (OH), TbO (OH), YbO (OH), LuO (OH), ErO (OH), YO (OH), AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganesene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganesene, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), NiO (OH), and NiO (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH))]. In case (ii) above, such as H⁺、H^-Or H₂The source of H, such as O, can be reduced or oxidized at the electrode to form OH groups from the O groups of the compound, or from a source such as H₂O, etc. directly to form OH or OH^-A group. The compound comprising a reactant that forms at least one of a hydroxyl group or a hydroxyl group can be an oxide or a hydroxylAn oxide based. The oxide may be at least one of an alkali metal intercalated layered oxide, an alkali metal deficient layered oxide, and a corresponding layered oxide deficient in an alkali metal. Suitable layered oxides or metal-intercalated oxides are the corresponding oxides of the invention, for example of Li-ion batteries, e.g. CoO₂、NiO₂、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Wherein the compound may lack at least some or all Li. In other embodiments, other layered chalcogenides may be substituted for the oxide, and other alkali metals may be substituted for the given alkali metal. An exemplary cell is an aqueous solution of [ hydride (e.g., R-Ni)/base (e.g., KOH (6M to saturated)), where the base can be used as a catalyst or catalyst source, e.g., K or 2K ⁺) Oxyhydroxides (e.g. HoO (OH), TbO (OH), YbO (OH), LuO (OH), ErO (OH), YO (OH))]Aqueous solutions of [ hydrides (e.g., R-Ni)/bases (e.g., KOH (6M to saturated))/oxyhydroxides (e.g., AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganese sphene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganite, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (Ni), and mixtures thereof_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH))]An aqueous solution of [ hydride (e.g., R-Ni)/base (e.g., KOH (6M to saturated))/oxide (e.g., MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, TiO)₂、SnO₂、Na₂O、K₂O、MNiO₂(M = alkali metal, e.g. Li or Na)And CoO₂、NiO₂、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Wherein the compound may lack at least some or all Li) or Fe (VI) ferrite (e.g., K₂FeO₄Or BaFeO₄)]、[PtC(H₂)、PdC(H₂) Or R-Ni/proton conductor (e.g. H)⁺Al₂O₃) Rare earth metal or alkaline earth metal hydroxides (e.g. La (OH))₃、Ho(OH)₃、Tb(OH)₃、Yb(OH)₃、Lu(OH)₃、Er(OH)₃、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂、Ba(OH)₂) Or oxyhydroxides (e.g., HoO (OH), TbO (OH), YbO (OH), LuO (OH), ErO (OH), YO (OH), AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganesene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganesene, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), NiO (OH), and NiO (OH) _1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH)) or oxides (e.g. MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, TiO₂、SnO₂、Na₂O、K₂O、MNiO₂(M = alkali metal, e.g. Li or Na) and CoO₂、NiO₂、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Wherein the compound may lack at least some or all Li) or Fe (VI) ferrite (e.g., K₂FeO₄Or BaFeO₄)]And [ rare earth metal or alkaline earth metal hydroxides (e.g. La (OH))₃、Ho(OH)₃、Tb(OH)₃、Yb(OH)₃、Lu(OH)₃、Er(OH)₃、Mg(OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂、Ba(OH)₂) Or oxyhydroxides (e.g., HoO (OH), TbO (OH), YbO (OH), LuO (OH), ErO (OH), YO (OH), AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganesene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganesene, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), NiO (OH), and NiO (OH)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH)) or oxides (e.g. MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, TiO₂、SnO₂、Na₂O、K₂O、MNiO₂(M = alkali metal, e.g. Li or Na) and CoO₂、NiO₂、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Wherein the compound may lack at least some or all Li) or Fe (VI) ferrite (e.g., K₂FeO₄Or BaFeO₄) /LiCl-KCl/hydride (e.g. TiH)₂、ZrH₂、LaH₂Or CeH₂)]. Or, in the above case (iii), OH ^-The groups can form hydroxides with elements such as metals (e.g., transition metals, internal transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and rare earth metals, as well as Al). An exemplary cell is an aqueous [ Al, Co, Ni, Fe, Ag/base solution (e.g., KOH (6M to saturated)), where the base can be used as a catalyst or catalyst source, such as K or 2K⁺) Oxide (e.g. MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, TiO)₂、SnO₂、Na₂O、K₂O、MNiO₂(M = alkali metal, e.g. Li or Na) and CoO₂、NiO₂、Li_xWO₃、Li_xV₂O₅、LiCoO₂、LiFePO₄、LiMn₂O₄、LiNiO₂、Li₂FePO₄F、LiMnPO₄、VOPO₄System, LiV₂O₅、LiMgSO₄F、LiMSO₄F (M = Fe, Co, Ni, transition metal), LiMPO₄F(M=Fe、Ti)、Li_x[Li_0.33Ti_1.67O₄]Or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂Layered transition metal oxides (e.g. Ni-Mn-Co oxides, such as LiNi)_1/3Co_1/ ₃Mn_1/3O₂And Li (Li)_aNi_xCo_yMn_z)O₂) And LiTi₂O₄Wherein the compound may lack at least some or all Li) or Fe (VI) ferrite (e.g., K₂FeO₄Or BaFeO₄) Or oxyhydroxides (e.g., HoO (OH), TbO (OH), YbO (OH), LuO (OH), ErO (OH), YO (OH), AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH), alpha-MnO (OH) manganesene and gamma-MnO (OH) manganesene, FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), NiO (OH), and NiO (OH)_1/ ₂Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH))]. The above-mentioned mechanism (ii) of forming hydrids may also occur when oxyhydroxides react to form hydroxides.

In one embodiment, the reactants of at least one half-cell are magnetized. Magnetic materials such as magnetized particles, for example iron, Alnico (Alnico), rare earth metals (e.g., neodymium or samarium-cobalt), or other such magnetic particles, may be mixed with the reactant. In one embodiment, the magnetic particles do not participate in the half-cell reaction, but provide a source of magnetic field. In another embodiment, the reactant is magnetized by a magnet external to the reactant. Magnetization can increase the rate of the hydrino reaction.

Reactant H and catalyst (H is included in the term catalyst of the present invention) are formed by the migration of ions and electrons of the CIHT cell, thereby causing the formation of hydrinos. The transition of H to a state below n =1 results in the emission of continuous radiation. In one embodiment, the emission is converted to a flow of electrons at the anode. The positive anode is capable of oxidizing the anode half-cell reactant and the electrons are capable of reducing the cathode half-cell reactant. An exemplary cell is an anode and a photo-assisted electrolytic material (e.g., a semiconductor, such as SrTiO)₃) Contacting cells of the invention, e.g. [ NaSrTiO ]₃/BASE/NaOH]、[LiSrTiO₃Olefin partition LP40/CoO (OH)][ CNa and C ]_yNaH_xAt least one of, SrTiO₃Na salt solution/CNa, C_y'NaH_x'HY, R-Ni and Na₄Mn₉O₁₈At least one + carbon (H)₂)]、[LiV₂O₅CB(H₂) Or R-NiSrTiO₃/LiNO₃Aqueous solution/CB (H)₂)LiMn₂O₄]And [ LiV ]₂O₅SrTiO₃Aqueous LiOH solution/R-Ni]。

In one embodiment, the hydrinos formed from the disclosed hydrino reaction mixture under hydrogen catalysis serve as the oxidizing agent. HydrinoAs opposed to electrons at the cathode 405 of the fuel cellShould, thus, form hydrino anions H^-(1/p). The reducing agent reacts with the anode 410, supplying electrons to flow through the load 425 to the cathode 405, and the appropriate cations form a complete circuit by migrating from the anode compartment 402 to the cathode compartment 401 via the salt bridge 420. Alternatively, a suitable anion, such as a hydrido anion, forms a complete circuit by migrating from the cathode compartment 401 to the anode compartment 402 via the salt bridge 420.

The cathode half-reaction of the cell is:

the anode half-reaction is as follows:

reducing agent → reducing agent⁺+e^-(419)

The overall cell reaction is:

the reducing agent can be any electrochemical reducing agent, such as zinc. In one embodiment, the reducing agent has a high oxidation potential and the cathode may be copper. In one embodiment, the reducing agent comprises a source of protons, wherein protons may form a complete circuit by migrating from the anode compartment 402 to the cathode compartment 401 via the salt bridge 420, or hydrogen anions may migrate in reverse. Proton sources include hydrogen, compounds containing hydrogen atoms, molecules, and/or protons, such as hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy, water, molecular hydrogen, hydroxides, common hydride anions, ammonium hydroxide, and HX (where X is^-As a halide ion). In one embodiment, oxidation of the reductant comprising a source of protons produces protons and gases that may be vented during operation of the fuel cell.

In another fuel cell embodiment, the hydrino source 430 is in communication with the vessel 400 via a hydrino passage 460.The hydrino source 430 is a hydrino producing cell of the present invention. In one embodiment, the cathode compartment is provided with a compound having an increased hydrino or binding energy produced by the hydrino reaction from the reactants disclosed herein. Hydrino may also be supplied to the cathode from an oxidant source by thermal or chemical decomposition in combination with an increased energy hydrogen compound. An exemplary oxidant source 430 produced from the hydrino reactant comprises Having a cation M bound to a hydridic anionⁿ⁺(wherein n is an integer) so that the cation or atom M^(n-1)+Has a binding energy less than that of the hydrido anionThe binding energy of (1). Other suitable oxidizing agents reduce or react to produce at least one of the following: (a) a hydrogen compound having an increased binding energy which is stoichiometrically different from the reactant; (b) hydrogen compounds of the same stoichiometry and comprising one or more species of increased binding energy (which have higher binding energy than the corresponding species of the reactants); (c) hydrido or hydrido compounds; (d) binding a hydrogen having a binding energy greater than a reactant hydrogen; or (e) binds hydrinos having energies higher than the hydrinos of the reactants.

In certain embodiments, the power, chemistry, battery, and fuel cell systems disclosed herein that regenerate reactants and sustain reactions that form lower energy hydrogen, in addition to only hydrogen consumed in forming hydrinos that need to be replaced, may be closed, where the consumed hydrogen fuel is available from water electrolysis. Fuel cells can be used in a wide variety of applications, such as power generation, such as utility power, cogeneration of heat and electricity, prime movers, marine power, and aviation. In the latter case, the CIHT battery may charge the battery for power storage of the electric vehicle.

Power can be controlled by controlling the cathode and anode half-cell reactants and reaction conditions. Suitable controlled parameters are hydrogen pressure and operating temperature. The fuel cell may be a member of a plurality of cells that make up a stack. The fuel cell members may be stacked and may be interconnected in series by interconnections at various junctions. The interconnect may be a metal interconnect or a ceramic interconnect. Suitable interconnects are conductive metals, ceramics and cermet composites.

In one embodiment, the polarity of the cell is periodically reversed at an optional applied voltage to remove at least one of the redox reaction products and the hydrino products, thereby eliminating product inhibition. The product may also be removed by physical and thermal methods (e.g., ultrasound and heat, respectively).

X. chemical reactor

The invention also relates to other reactors for producing the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the invention, such as di-hydrino and hydrino anionic compounds. Other catalytic products are power and optionally present (depending on the cell type) plasma and light. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells". The hydrogen reactor contains a cell for producing hydrinos. The cells used to generate the hydrinos may take the form of chemical reactors or gas fuel cells (such as gas discharge cells, plasma torch cells or microwave power cells) and electrochemical cells. Exemplary embodiments of the cell for producing hydrinos may take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, and CIHT cells. Each of these cells comprises: (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst for producing hydrino, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof; and (iii) a vessel for reacting the hydrogen with a catalyst to produce hydrino. As used herein and as encompassed by the present invention, unless otherwise indicated, the term "hydrogen" includes not only protium (l: (l)) ¹H) And comprises deuterium (²H) And tritium (f)³H) In that respect In the case of deuterium as a reactant for the hydrino reaction, relatively trace amounts of tritium or helium production are expected for heterogeneous and solid fuels.

Because of the alkaliThe metal is a covalent diatomic molecule in the gas phase, so in one embodiment, the catalyst that forms the hydrogen compound with increased binding energy is formed from the source by reaction with at least one other element. By dispersing the metal K or Li in an alkali metal halide such as KX or LiX, a catalyst such as K or Li can be generated to form KHX, LiHX (where X is a halogen). The catalyst K or Li can also be produced by: by vaporization of K₂Or Li₂React with atomic H to form KH and K or LiH and Li, respectively. The hydrogen compound having an increased binding energy may be MHX, wherein M is an alkali metal, H is a hydrido anion, and X is a negatively charged ion, preferably a halide andone kind of (1). In one embodiment, the reaction mixture forming KHI or KHCl, wherein H is a hydridotion, comprises K metal covered with KX (X = Cl, I) and a dissociating agent, preferably nickel metal, such as nickel mesh and R-Ni, respectively. The reaction is carried out by maintaining the reaction mixture at an elevated temperature, preferably in the range of 400 to 700 c, and adding hydrogen. The hydrogen pressure is preferably maintained at a gauge pressure of about 5 PSI. Thus, MX is placed on K such that the K atoms migrate through the halide lattice, and the halide serves to disperse K and act as K ₂With H from a dissociating agent (e.g., nickel mesh or R-Ni) at the interface to form KHX.

Suitable reaction mixtures for synthesizing the hydrino anionic compounds comprise at least two species of the group of a catalyst, a source of hydrogen, an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent and a carrier, wherein the oxidizing agent is a source of at least one of sulfur, phosphorus and oxygen, such as SF₆、S、SO₂、SO₃、S₂O₅Cl₂、F₅SOF、M₂S₂O₈、S_xX_y(e.g. S)₂Cl₂、SCl₂、S₂Br₂、S₂F₂)、CS₂、Sb₂S₅、SO_xX_y(e.g., SOCl)₂、SOF₂、SO₂F₂、SOBr₂)、P、P₂O₅、P₂S₅、P_xX_y(e.g., PF)₃、PCl₃、PBr₃、PI₃、PF₅、PCl₅、PBr₄F or PCl₄F)、PO_xX_y(e.g., POBr)₃、POI₃、POCl₃Or POF₃)、PS_xX_y(e.g., PSBr₃、PSF₃、PSCl₃) Phosphorus-nitrogen compounds (e.g. P)₃N₅、(Cl₂PN)₃Or (Cl)₂PN)₄、(Br₂PN)_x(M is an alkali metal, X and y are integers, and X is a halogen)), O₂、N₂O and TeO₂. The oxidizing agent may further comprise a source of halogen, preferably fluorine, such as CF₄、NF₃Or CrF₂. The mixture may also contain an absorbent as a source of phosphorus or sulfur, such as MgS and MHS (M is an alkali metal). Suitable absorbers are atoms or compounds that produce NMR peaks of normal H that migrate to high magnetic fields and hydridoanion peaks of high magnetic fields that are located at the normal H peaks. Suitable absorbers include S, P, O, Se and Te simple substance or include compounds containing S, P, O, Se and Te. The general properties of suitable absorbents for the hydrino anions are: it forms chains, cages or rings in elemental form, in doped elemental form or together with other elements that trap and stabilize the hydrino anion. Preferably, H can be observed in solid or solution NMR ^-(1/p). In another embodiment, NaH, BaH, or HCl acts as a catalyst. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise MX and M' HSO₄Wherein M and M' are respectively alkali metals, preferably Na and K, and X is a halogen, preferably Cl.

A reaction mixture comprising at least one of the following is a system suitable for generating power and producing lower energy hydrogen compounds: (1) NaH catalyst, MgH₂、SF₆And Activated Carbon (AC); (2) NaH catalyst, MgH₂S and Activated Carbon (AC); (3) NaH catalyst, MgH₂、K₂S₂O₈Ag and AC; (4) KH catalyst, MgH₂、K₂S₂O₈And AC; (5) MH catalyst (M = Li, Na, K), Al or MgH₂、O₂、K₂S₂O₈And AC; (6) KH catalyst, Al, CF₄And AC; (7) NaH catalyst, Al, NF₃And AC; (8) KH catalyst, MgH₂、N₂O and AC; (9) NaH catalyst, MgH₂、O₂And Activated Carbon (AC); (10) NaH catalyst, MgH₂、CF₄And AC; (11) MH catalyst, MgH₂(M = Li, Na or K), P₂O₅(P₄O₁₀) And AC; (12) MH catalyst, MgH₂、MNO₃(M = Li, Na or K) and AC; (13) NaH or KH catalyst, Mg, Ca or Sr, transition metal halide (preferably FeCl)₂、FeBr₂、NiBr₂、MnI₂) Or a rare earth metal halide (e.g., EuBr)₂) And AC; and (14) NaH catalyst, Al, CS₂And AC. In other embodiments of the exemplary reaction mixtures given above, the catalyst cation comprises one of Li, Na, K, Rb, or Cs, and the other species of the reaction mixture is selected from the species of reactions 1 through 14. The reactants can be in any desired ratio.

The hydrino reaction product is at least one of hydrogen molecules and hydride anions having proton NMR peaks that migrate toward high magnetic fields of proton NMR peaks of normal molecular hydrogen or hydride anions, respectively. In one embodiment, the hydrogen product is combined with a non-hydrogen element, wherein the proton NMR peak shifts towards a high magnetic field of the proton NMR peak of a common molecule, species or compound having the same molecular formula as the product, or the common molecule, species or compound is unstable at room temperature.

After extraction of the product mixture with an NMR solvent (preferably deuterated DMF), using liquid NMR, molecular hydrinos and hydrinos anions of the product having the preferred 1/4 state were observed at about 1.22ppm and-3.86 ppm, respectively.

In another embodiment, the hydrogen compound with increased kinetic and binding energy is produced from a reaction mixture comprising two or more of the following species: LiH, NaH, KH, Li, Na, K, H₂A metal or metal hydride reducing agent (preferably MgH)₂Or Al powder), a support (e.g. carbon, preferably activated carbon) and a source of at least one of sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen (preferably S or P powder, SF)₆、CS₂、P₂O₅And MNO₃(M is an alkali metal)). The reactants may be in any molar ratio. The reaction mixture preferably contains 8.1 mol% MH, 7.5 mol% MgH ₂Or Al powder, 65 mol% AC and 19.5 mol% S (M is Li, Na or K), wherein the mol% of each species may vary within a range of up to 10 times the mol% given for each species. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise NaH, MgH in these molar ratios₂Or Mg, AC and S powders. After extraction of the product mixture with an NMR solvent (preferably deuterated DMF), using liquid NMR, molecular hydrinos and hydrinos anions of the product having the preferred 1/4 state were observed at about 1.22ppm and-3.86 ppm, respectively.

In another embodiment, the hydrogen compound having increased kinetic and binding energy is produced from a reaction mixture comprising NaHS. The hydrino anion can be separated from the NaHS. In one embodiment, the solid state reaction occurs within NaHS to form H^-(1/4)，H^-(1/4) can be reacted with a source of protons (e.g., solvent, preferably H)₂O) further reaction to form H₂(1/4)。

Exemplary reaction mixtures for forming molecular hydrids are 8gNaH +8gMg +3.4gLiCl, 8gNaH +8gMg +3.4gLiCl +32gWC, 4gAC +1gMgH₂+1gNaH+0.01molSF₆5gMg +8.3gKH +2.13gLiCl, 20gTiC +5gNaH, 3gNaH +3gMg +10gC nano-meter, 5gNaH +20gNi₂B. 8gTiC +2gMg +0.01gLiH +2.5gLiCl +3.07gKCl, 4.98gKH +10gC nano, 20gTiC +8.3gKH +5gMg +0.35gLi, 5gMg +5gNaH +1.3gLiF, 5gMg +5gNaH +5.15gNaBr, 8gTiC +2gMg +0.01gNaH +2.5gLiCl +3.07gKCl, 20gKI +1gK +15gR-Ni, 8gNaH +8gMg +16.64gBaCl ₂+32gWC、8gNaH+8gMg+19.8gSrBr₂+32gWC、2.13gLiCl+8.3gKH+5gMg+20gMgB₂、8gNaH+8gMg+12.7gSrCl₂+32gWC、8gTiC+2gMg+0.01gLiH+5.22gLiBr+4.76gKBr、20gWC+5gMg+8.3gKH+2.13gLiCl、12.4gSrBr₂+8.3gKH+5gMg+20gWC、2gNaH+8gTiC+10gKI、3.32g+KH+2gMg+8gTiC2.13g+LiCl、8.3gKH+12gPd/C、20gTiC+2.5gCa+2.5gCaH₂、20gTiC+5gMg、20gTiC+8.3gKH、20gTiC+5gMg+5gNaH、20gTiC+5gMg+8.3gKH+2.13gLiCl、20gTiC+5gMg+5gNaH+2.1gLiCl、12gTiC+0.1gLi+4.98gKH、20gTiC+5gMg+1.66gLiH、4.98gKH+3gNaH+12gTiC、1.66gKH+1gMg+4gAC+3.92gEuBr₃、1.66gKH+10gKCl+1gMg+3.92gEuBr₃、5gNaH+5gCa+20gCAII-300+15.45gMnI₂、20gTiC+5gMg+5gNaH+5gPt/Ti、3.32gKH+2gMg+8gTiC+4.95gSrBr₂And 8.3gKH +5gMg +20gTiC +10.4gBaCl₂. The reaction may be carried out at a temperature ranging from 100 ℃ to 1000 ℃ for 1 minute to 24 hours. Exemplary temperatures and times are 500 ℃ or 24 hours.

In one embodiment, the hydridoanion compound may be purified. The purification process may comprise at least one of extraction and recrystallization using a suitable solvent. The method may further comprise chromatography and other techniques known to those skilled in the art for separating inorganic compounds.

In one embodiment, the product molecular hydrinos are captured and stored in a cryogenic cooling membrane, such as liquid nitrogen cooled polyester film (Mylar). In one embodiment, the molecular fraction is hydrogen H₂(1/p), preferably H₂(1/4) is a product which upon further reduction forms the corresponding hydride, which can be used in applications such as hydride batteries and surface coatings. Molecular fraction hydrogen bonds can be broken by collision methods. H₂(1/p) can be dissociated via high energy collisions with ions or electrons in the plasma or electron beam. The dissociated hydrino atoms can then react to form the desired hydride.

In molten salt embodiments, the hydrogen compound with increased kinetic and binding energy is produced from a reaction mixture comprising a M-N-H system, where M can be an alkali metal. Suitable metals are Li, Na and K. For example, the reaction mixture may comprise LiNH in a molten salt (e.g., a molten eutectic salt, such as a LiCl-KCl eutectic mixture) ₂、Li₂NH、Li₃N and H₂At least one of (1). Exemplary reaction mixtures are in molten eutectic salts (e.g., LiCl-KCl)LiNH₂(400 ℃ to 500 ℃). The molecular hydrido and hydrido products can be extracted with solvents such as d-DMF and analyzed by proton NMR to identify hydrido species products.

In one embodiment, the hydridoanion compound is formed from a reaction mixture of CIHT cell or cathode and anode half-cell reactants. Exemplary reaction mixtures for forming hydrino and hydrino anionic compounds for a cathode and anode half-cell reactants for a CIHT cell or cathode and anode half-cell are [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + CG 3401/steam carbon + air or O₂](M=R-Ni、Zn、Sn、Co、Sb、Pb、In、Ge)、[NaOHNi(H₂)/BASE/NaClMgCl₂]、[Na/BASE/NaOH]、[LaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + CG 3401/steam carbon + air or O₂]、[Li/CelgardLP30/CoO(OH)]、[Li₃Mg/LiCl-KCl/TiH₂Or ZrH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂CB]And [ Li/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]. After extraction of the product mixture with an NMR solvent (preferably deuterated DMF), using liquid NMR, molecular hydrinos and hydrinos anions of the product having the preferred 1/4 state were observed at about 1.22ppm and-3.86 ppm, respectively.

The anode can be an absorbent and mobile ion (e.g., Li)⁺) The source of (a). A suitable anode is Li₃And Mg. The cathode may be modified carbon, such as HNO₃Intercalated carbon, and may further contain hydrogen. HNO₃Can react with the hydrion anion at a slower rate according to the stability thereof, thereby selecting the hydrion anion with high p quantum number, such as hydrion anion H ^-(1/9)。

In one embodiment, the hydrino species (e.g., molecular hydrino or hydrino anion) is bound to OH and H via H₂At least one of O catalysts. The hydrino species may be produced from at least two of the following groups: metals such As alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb and Te; metal hydrides, e.g. LaNi₅H₆And other metals of the inventionBelongs to hydride; aqueous hydroxide solutions, for example alkali metal hydroxides, such as 0.1M to saturated concentration KOH; a support such as carbon, Pt/C, steam carbon, carbon black, carbides, borides, or nitriles; and oxygen. Suitable reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species (e.g. molecular hydrino) are: (1) CoPtCKOH (saturated) (containing O)₂And does not contain O₂) (ii) a (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi₅H₆+ KOH (saturated); (3) co, Sn, Sb or Zn + O₂+ CB + KOH (saturated), (4) AlCBKOH (saturated), (5) SnNi-coated graphite KOH (saturated) (containing O)₂And does not contain O₂) (ii) a (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (saturated) + O₂(ii) a (7) ZnPt/CKOH (saturated) O₂(ii) a (8) ZnR-NiKOH (saturated) O₂；(9)SnLaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂；(10)SbLaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂(ii) a And (11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb or Sb + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K₂CO₃+ CB-SA. The large 1.23ppm peak in dDMF from these reaction mixtures confirms H ₂(1/4) generation. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxidizing agent, such as PtO₂、Ag₂O₂、RuO₂、Li₂O₂YOOH, LaOOH, GaOOH, InOOH, MnOOH, AgO and K₂CO₃At least one of (1). In one embodiment, can be at any H₂And H₂Gas is collected after O evolution, wherein H₂(1/p) gas is still liberated from the reactants. The liberation is attributable to H^-(1/p) formation of H with water₂Slow reaction of (/ p), e.g. reaction H^-(1/4)+H₂O→H₂(1/4)。

In one embodiment, the hydrino species (e.g., molecular hydrino or hydrino anion) is formed by the reaction of H with MNH₂(M = alkali metal) or SH₂At least one of the catalysts. The hydrino species may be produced from at least two of the following groups: metals such As alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb and Te; sources of hydrogen, e.g. metal hydrides, such as alkali metal hydrides, e.g. LiH, NaH or KH, and also other hydrogens of the inventionCompounds of formula (I), or H₂A gas; sources of sulfur, e.g. SF₆、S、K₂S₂O₈、CS₂、SO₂、M₂S, MS (M is a metal such as an alkali metal or a transition metal), Sb₂S₅Or P₂S₅(ii) a From N, e.g. N₂Gas, urea, NF₃、N₂O、LiNO₃、NO、NO₂、Mg(NH₂)₂、Mg₃N₂、Ca₃N₂、M₃N、M₂NH or MNH₂(M is an alkali metal); a support such as carbon, Pt/C, steam carbon, carbon black, carbides, borides, or nitriles. Suitable reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species (e.g. molecular hydrinos) are LiH, KH or NaH; SF ₆、S、K₂S₂O₈、CS₂、SO₂、M₂S, MS (M is a metal such as an alkali metal or a transition metal), Sb₂S₅、P₂S₅One of them; n is a radical of₂Gas, urea, NF₃、N₂O、LiNO₃、NO、NO₂、Mg(NH₂)₂、Mg₃N₂、Ca₃N₂、M₃N、M₂NH and MNH₂(M is an alkali metal); and a support such as carbon, Pt/C, steam carbon, carbon black, carbides, borides, or nitriles.

In one embodiment, the hydrino gas is released from a solid or liquid containing hydrino (e.g., hydrino reaction products) by heating. Any gas other than molecular hydrido (e.g. solvents such as H)₂O) may be condensed using, for example, a condenser. The condensate may be refluxed. The molecular fraction hydrogen gas free of other gases can be collected by fractional distillation. H can also be removed by recombiners or by combustion and distillation₂O to remove common hydrogen. The hydrino species (e.g. molecular hydrino) may be extracted in a solvent such as an organic solvent (e.g. DMF) and purified from the solvent by means such as heating and optionally distilling the molecular hydrino gas from the solvent. In one embodiment, the products containing hydrino species are used such asSolvent extraction with organic solvents (such as DMF) and heating and optionally refluxing the solvent to release the collected fractional hydrogen gas. Fractional hydrogen gas can also be obtained by using a reaction mixture comprising carriers or additives that do not absorb the gas to a large extent, such as carbides like TiC or TaC or LaN.

Transfer of an integer multiple of 27.2eV from atomic H or hydrino to another H or hydrino causes formation of fast protons, thereby conserving kinetic energy. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction is used to produce fast H⁺、D⁺Or T⁺To cause fusion of the energetic nuclei. The reaction system may be a solid fuel of the present invention, which may further comprise hydrinos, such as at least one of molecular hydrinos, hydrino anionic compounds, and hydrino atoms that may undergo further catalysis to form fast H upon initiation of the hydrino reaction. The initiation may be by heating or by particle, plasma or photon bombardment. An exemplary reaction is a solid fuel doped with potassium iron oxide in a low pressure deuterium gas chamber, where the hydrino reactions involving some inherent hydrino species are initiated by high power laser pulses. An exemplary pressure range is about 10^-5To 1 mbar. An exemplary laser is a Nd at 10Hz and 564nm YAG laser with a power of about 100mJ using a lens of f-400 mm. Other high power density lasers are sufficient as known to those skilled in the art.

Experiment XI

A. Water flow batch calorimetry

Using about 130.3cm³Volume (1.5 "Internal Diameter (ID), 4.5" long and 0.2 "wall thickness) or 1988cm ³A cylindrical stainless steel reactor of volume (3.75 "Inside Diameter (ID), 11" long and 0.375 "wall thickness) and containing a vacuum chamber (containing each cell) and an external water coolant coil (99 +% of the energy released in the cell was collected to achieve error<± 1%) of the water flow, the energy and kinetic balance of the catalyst reaction mixture listed to the right of each entry below was obtained. By temporally correlating the total output power P_TIntegrate to determine energy recovery. The power is given by

WhereinFor mass flow rate, C_pIs the water specific heat and Δ T is the absolute temperature change between inlet and outlet. The reaction is initiated by applying precise power to an external heater. Specifically, the power of 100 to 200W (130.3 cm)³Battery) or 800-1000W (1988 cm)³A battery) is provided to the heater. During this heating, the reactants reach a fractional hydrogen reaction threshold temperature, wherein the start of the reaction is typically confirmed by a sharp increase in cell temperature. Once the battery temperature reaches about 400-500 ℃, the input power is set to zero. After 50 minutes, the program indicates that the power is zero. To increase the rate of heat transfer to the coolant, the chamber was re-pressurized with 1000 torr helium and the maximum water temperature change (outlet minus inlet) was about 1.2 ℃. The assembly was allowed to reach complete equilibrium for 24 hours, as confirmed by the observation of complete equilibrium in the flow thermistor.

In each trial, the energy input and energy output were calculated by integrating the respective powers. The thermal energy in the coolant stream in each time increment was calculated using equation (421) by multiplying the volumetric flow rate of water by the density of water at 19 ℃ (0.998kg/l), the specific heat of water (4.181kJ/kg ℃), the corrected temperature difference, and the time interval. The values throughout the experiment were added to obtain the total energy output. Total energy E from the battery_TMust be equal to the energy input E_inAdding any net energy E_net. Thus, the net energy is given by:

E_net＝E_T-E_in(422)

from the energy balance, the maximum theory E is determined by_mtAny excess heat of E_ex

E_ex＝E_net-E_mt(423)

Calibration test results show greater than 98% thermal coupling of the resistive input to the output coolant, and a zero excess heat control shows the calorimeter accurate to within less than 1% error under application calibration. The results are given below, where Tmax is the maximum battery temperature, Ein is the input energy, and dE is the output energy measured in excess of the input energy. All the energy is exothermic. The positive values given represent energy magnitudes. In experiments using a bulk catalyst (e.g. Mg) and a support (e.g. TiC), H₂The presence of the metal due to dehydrogenation of the vessel was confirmed by mass spectrometry and gas chromatography.

Results of calorimetric determination

Battery number 4056 + 092310WFCKA 4: 1.5' LDC; 5.0g of NaH-16+5.0g of Mg-17+19.6g of BaI₂-6+20.0g tic-141; TSC: none; tmax: 459 ℃; ein: 193 kJ; dE: 7 kJ; theoretical energy: 1.99 kJ; energy gain: 3.5

Battery number 3017-: 1.5' LDC; 5.0g of NaH-16+5.0g of Mg-16+10.45g of EuF₃-1+20.0g tic-135; TSC: small; tmax: 474 ℃; ein: 179 kJ; dE: 16 kJ; theoretical energy: 8.47 kJ; energy gain: 1.9

Battery No. 3004-: 1.5' LDC; 8.0g of NaH-17+8.0g of Mg-2+3.4g of LiCl-3+32.0g of TiC-1331g of the mixture was used for XRD; TSC: none; tmax: 408 ℃; ein: 174 kJ; dE: 10 kJ; theoretical energy: 2.9 kJ; energy gain: 3.4

Battery number 2088-: 1.5' LDC; 5.0g of NaH-16+5.0g of Mg-16+15.6g of EuBr₂-3+20.0g tic-137; TSC: none; tmax: 444 ℃ of; ein: 179 kJ; dE: 12 kJ; theoretical energy: 1.48 kJ; energy gain：8.1

Battery number 2087-: 1.5' LDC; 5.0g of NaH-16+5.0g of Mg-16+15.6g of EuBr₂-3+20.0g tic-137; TSC: none; tmax: 449 deg.C; ein: 179 kJ; dE: 10 kJ; theoretical energy: 1.48 kJ; energy gain: 6.7

Battery number 2005 + 062910WFCKA 1: 1.5' LDC; 8.3gKH-32+5.0g Mg-15+7.2g AgCl-AD-6+20.0g TiC-132; TSC: 200-430 ℃; tmax: 481 ℃; ein: 177 kJ; dE: 21 kJ; theoretical energy: 14.3 kJ; energy gain: 1.5

Cell number 4870 + 062410WFJL3(1.5 "HDC): 20g TiC #129+8.3gKH #32+2.13g LiCl # 6; □ TSC: none; tmax: 434 ℃; ein: 244.2 kJ; dE: 5.36 kJ; theoretical energy: -3.03 kJ; gain: 1.77.

battery No. 1885-: 1.5' LDC; 8.3gKH-32+5.0gMg-15+10.4gBaCl₂-7+20.0g tic-129; TSC: none; tmax: 476 deg.C; ein: 203 kJ; dE: 8 kJ; theoretical energy: 4.1 kJ; energy gain: 1.95

Battery No. 1860-: 1.0 "HDC; 3.0g of NaH-19+3.0g of Mg-14+7.42g of SrBr₂-5+12.0g tic-128; TSC: none; tmax: 404 ℃; ein: 137 kJ; dE: 4 kJ; theoretical energy: 2.1 kJ; energy gain: 2.0

Battery number 579-: (<500C)8.3gKH-32+5gKOH-1+20 gTiC-127; TSC: none; tmax: 534 deg.C; ein: 292.4 kJ; dE: 8 kJ; theoretical energy: 0 kJ; energy gain: and infinite.

Battery number 1831-: 1.5' LDC; 8.3gKH-31+5.0gMg-13+12.37gSrBr₂-4+20.0g tic-126; TSC: none; tmax: 543 ℃; ein: 229 kJ; dE: 17 kJ; theoretical energy: 6.7 kJ; energy gain: 2.5

Battery number 1763-: 1.5' HDC; 13.2gKH-24+8.0gMg-9+16.64gBaCl₂-SD-7 test +32.0 gttic-105; TSC: none; tmax: 544 ℃; ein: 257 kJ; dE: 17 kJ; theoretical energy: 6.56 kJ; energy gain: 2.6

Battery No. 4650-: 20gMgB2#4+8.3gKH #28+0.83gKOH # 1; TSC: none; tmax: 544 ℃; ein: 311.0 kJ; dE: 9.31 kJ; theoretical energy: 0.00 kJ; gain: and (7) obtaining the final product.

Battery number 4652-: 20g TiC #120+5g Mg #12+1g LiH #2+2.5g LiCl #4+3.07g KCl # 2; TSC: none; tmax: 589 deg.C; ein: 355.0 kJ; dE: 8.15 kJ; theoretical energy: 0.00 kJ; gain: and (7) obtaining the final product.

Battery number 1762-: 1.5' HDC; 13.2gKH-24+8.0gMg-9+19.8gSrBr₂-AD-3+32.0gTiC-124 test; TSC: none; tmax: 606 ℃; ein: 239 kJ; dE: 20 kJ; theoretical energy: 10.7 kJ; energy gain: 1.87

Battery number 504 + 043010WFRC 4: 0.83g of KOH-1+8.3gKH-27+20 gCB-S-1; TSC: none; tmax: 589 deg.C; ein: 365.4 kJ; dE: 5 kJ; theoretical energy: 0 kJ; energy gain: and infinite.

Cell number 4513-: 20gB₄C #1+8.3gKH #26+0.83gKOH # 1; TSC: no observation was made; tmax: 562 ℃; ein: 349.2 kJ; dE: 8.85 kJ; theoretical energy: 0.00 kJ; gain: and (7) obtaining the final product.

Battery number 403-: 8.3gKH-23+5gKOH-1+20 gTiC-112; TSC: none; tmax: 716 ℃; ein: 474.9 kJ; dE: 13 kJ; theoretical energy: 0 kJ; energy gain: and infinite.

B. Fuel solution NMR

A representative reaction mixture for forming hydrinos comprises: (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source and hydrogen, for example one selected from Li, Na, K, LiH, NaH and KH; (ii) at least one oxidizing agent, e.g. selected from SrCl₂、SrBr₂、SrI₂、BaCl₂、BaBr₂、MgF₂、MgCl₂、CaF₂、MgI₂、CaF₂、CaI₂、EuBr₂、EuBr₃、FeBr₂、MnI₂、SnI₂、PdI₂、InCl、AgCl、Y₂O₃、KCl、LiCl、LiBr、LiF、KI、RbCl、Ca₃P₂、SF₆、Mg₃As₂And AlN; (iii) at least one reducing agent, e.g. selected from Mg, Sr, Ca, CaH₂、Li、Na、K、KBH₄And NaBH₄One of (1); and (iv) at least one support, for example selected from TiC, TiCN, Ti₃SiC₂、YC₂、CrB₂、Cr₃C₂、GdB₆Pt/Ti, Pd/C, Pt/C, AC, Cr, Co, Mn, Si Nanopowder (NP), MgO, and TiC. In other embodiments, the electrolyte of a CIHT cell comprises a reaction product. 50mg of the reaction product of the reaction mixture was added to TEFLON on glass^TM1.5ml of deuterated N, N-dimethylformamide-d 7(DCON (CD) in a valve-sealed vial₃)₂) In DMF-d7(99.5% cambridge isotope laboratories, Inc.), stirred and allowed to dissolve in a glove box under argon atmosphere for 12 hours. The solution without any solids was transferred to an NMR tube (5mm OD, 23cm long, Wilmad) by gas-tight connection, followed by fire sealing of the tube. NMR spectra were recorded with a deuterium locked 500mhz bruker NMR spectrometer. Chemical migration was compared to solvent frequency, for example DMF-d7 at 8.03ppm relative to Tetramethylsilane (TMS).

Fractional hydride anion H is predicted to be observed at about-3.86 ppm relative to TMS^-(1/4), and it is predicted that a molecular fraction H is observed at 1.21ppm relative to TMS₂(1/4). The position where these peaks appear as well as the shift and intensity for a particular reaction mixture are given in table 6.

TABLE 6 solvent extraction of the product of the hydrino catalyst system with DMF-d7¹NMR of H solution.

C. Exemplary regeneration reactions

The halide of an alkaline earth metal or lithium is formed by reacting a hydride of an alkaline earth metal or lithium (or lithium) with a corresponding alkali metal halide. The reactant loadings, reaction conditions and XRD results are given in table 7. Typically, a 2:1 molar mixture of alkali metal halide and alkaline earth metal or a 1:1 molar mixture of alkali metal halide and Li or LiH is placed in the bottom of a crucible made with a Stainless Steel (SS) tube (open at one end) about 25.4cm long by 1.27 to 1.9cm OD in a 2.54cm OD vacuum sealed quartz tube (open at one end). The open end of the SS tube was placed about 2.54cm outside the furnace so that any alkali metal formed during the reaction was cooled and condensed outside the heated zone to avoid any corrosive reaction between the alkali metal and the quartz tube. The device is horizontally oriented to increase the surface area of the heated chemical. The reaction is carried out at 700-850 ℃ for 30 minutes under vacuum or under 1atmAr gas, followed by evacuation of the alkali metal at similar temperature for 30 minutes. In another apparatus, the reactants were placed in a SS crucible and the melt was bubbled (10sccm) with dry Ar for mixing. Ar was supplied through a needle opening at the bottom of the melt. Alkali metal evaporates from the hot zone. After the reaction, the reactor was cooled to room temperature and transferred to a glove box to collect the product. XRD was used to identify the product. Samples were prepared in a glove box by crushing the product and loading it into a Panalytical holder sealed with a plastic cover film. The amounts of reactants, temperatures, durations, and XRD results are given in table 7, indicating that the halide hydride ion-hydrogen anion exchange reaction is thermally reversible.

TABLE 7 amount of reactants for the regeneration reaction, temperature, duration and XRD results. The oxides were from gas leaks in the disk XRD holder.

D. Exemplary CIHT Battery test results

Molten salt CIHT cells (each comprising an anode, a eutectic molten salt electrolyte and contained in an inert atmosphere) were assembled in a glove box with an oxygen-free argon atmosphereCathode in an alumina crucible) and heated in a glove box under argon atmosphere. Other molten cells were assembled and discharged under argon atmosphere, each cell containing a molten Na anode in a BASE tube and a NaOH cathode in a Ni crucible with a Ni electrode. In a third type of CIHT cell, Na is replaced by NaOH and H is derived from Ni (H)₂) Displaced and the cathode comprises a eutectic mixture (e.g., MgCl)₂NaCl) or molten simple substance (e.g. Bi). The fourth type comprises a saturated aqueous KOH electrolyte solution, a metal or metal hydride anode, and an oxygen-reducing cathode (e.g., steam carbon), where the cell is sealed in a membrane to retain H₂O, but may be O₂And (4) permeating. The fifth type comprises a hydrogen permeable anode (e.g. Ni (H)₂) A molten hydroxide electrolyte (e.g., LiOH — LiBr), and a Ni cathode open to the air. From the following are given the results expressed as [ anode/electrolyte/cathode ] ]Exemplary battery (e.g., [ Ni (H) ]₂) /MOH or M (OH)₂-M 'X or M' X₂/Ni](M and M' are one of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba; X is one of hydroxide, halide, sulfate and carbonate), [ M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + CG 3401/steam carbon, air](M is one of R-Ni, Zn, Sn, Co, Cd, Sb and Pb), [ NaOHNI (H)₂)/BASE/NaClMgCl₂]、[Na/BASE/NaOH]、[LaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + CG 3401/steam carbon, air]、[Li/CelgardLP30/CoO(OH)]、[Li₃Mg/LiCl-KCl/TiH₂]、[Li₃NTiC/LiCl-KCl/CeH₂CB]And [ Li/LiCl-KCl/LaH₂]) As a result of (1):

031111XY1-421(Ni(H₂) NaOH-NaI/Ni): molten salt battery

-an anode: ni pipe (1/8 inches) flowing through H₂

-a cathode: ni foil

-an electrolyte: 64.14g NaOH +59.46g NaI (molar ratio 0.8:0.2)

-temperature: 500 deg.C (450 deg.C for true T in the cell)

499 ohm load voltage (0-5 hours) = 0.85-0.86V; stable voltage = 0.55-0.58V for >5 hours

031011XY5-420(LaNi₅KOH/SC): demo battery, fourth cell

-an anode: LaNi₅Obtained from commercially available Ni-MH batteries

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge function: constant current 400mA

Discharge capacity: 7.62Ah, discharge energy: 4.46Wh

-031111GZC1-428：NaOH+Ni(H₂)/Na-BASE/NaCl+SrCl₂(MP=565℃)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 28.3g NaCl +82g SrCl₂(MP=565)

-an electrode: 1/8' H in Ni tubes₂(Anode), Ni foil (cathode)

-T =650 ℃ (true T in the melt: 600 ℃), PH2=1Psig

(1)H₂Lower OCV =1.44V

(2) CCV =0.2V (stable) at 106.5 ohms

-030911GZC6-423：Ni(H₂)/Sr(OH)₂(MP=375℃)/Ni

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 80g Sr (OH)₂(MP=375℃)

-an electrode: 1/8' H in Ni tubes₂(Anode), Ni foil (cathode)

-T =600 ℃ (true T in the melt: 378 ℃), PH2=800 torr

(1)OCV=0.96V。

(2) The CCV stabilizes at about 0.8V at a 100.1 ohm load. Addition of H₂O replaces the water lost from dehydration.

030911XY2-409(TiMn₂KOH/SC): is not sealed

-an anode: TiMn mixed with saturated KOH₂Powder, pure TiMn₂=0.097g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.132g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge function: constant current

The battery is frequently discharged/charged. The cell was charged at 1mA constant current for 2 seconds, and then discharged at 1mA constant current for 20 seconds.

Total energy = 32.8J; specific energy =93.8 Wh/kg; specific capacity =139.2 mAh/; energy gain = 10X.

030811XY1-396(Sn + KI/KOH/SC): is not sealed

-an anode: sn powder and KI powder (90:10 mass ratio) mixed with saturated KOH. Pure Sn =0.11 g.

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.182g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge load: 1000 ohm

Total energy = 91.6J; specific energy =231.4Wh/kg

030711XY1-391(Ni(H₂) LiOH-LiF/Ni): molten salt battery

-an anode: ni pipe (1/8 inches) flowing through H₂

-a cathode: ni foil

-an electrolyte: 38.40g LiOH +10.40g LiF (0.8:0.2 molar ratio)

-temperature: 550 deg.C (the true T in the battery is 500 deg.C)

Discharging at 499 ohms, and the battery voltage is between 0.90 and 1.0V.

Discharging at 249 ohm, and the battery voltage is between 0.80-0.9V.

Discharging at 100 ohm, and the battery voltage is between 0.55V and 0.65V.

The stabilized voltage was >45 hours and run.

HT cell: (hydroxide melt eutectic System)

-030911GZC6-423：Ni(H₂)/Sr(OH)₂(MP=375℃)/Ni

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 80g Sr (OH)₂(MP=375℃)

-an electrode: 1/8' H in Ni tubes₂(Anode), Ni foil (cathode)

-T =600 ℃ (true T in the melt: 378 ℃), PH2=800 torr

(1)OCV=0.96V

(2) The CCV stabilizes at about 0.8V at a 100.1 ohm load.

CIHT#022211JL1：[NaOH+Ni(H₂)/Na-BASE/Bi](theoretical E ° = -0.6372V)

-an anode: 1.5g NaOH #5+ about 0.8PSIgH₂Lower 1/16Ni pipe

-a cathode: 5gBi

-OCV->0.8706V

-CCV (1000) - > is stabilized at 0.2634V

Data collection >1400 minutes and stop

Battery number 030411RC 1-363: [ La ]₂Co₁Ni₉H_x(x<2)/KOH+TBAC/SC+PVDF]Sealed in a plastic bag (O)₂Permeable) medium, room temperature

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH solution +0.5 wt% TBAC (tetrabutylammonium chloride, cationic detergent)

-a separator: CG3501

-an anode: 250mg wet La with SS disk current collector ₂Co₁Ni₉H_x(containing about 200 mgLa)₂Co₁Ni₉H_x)

-a cathode: 126mgSC +14mgPVDF pellets with Ni disk current collector

-a resistor: 499 ohm

-V range: 0 to 1.37V

-V10 min =0.9V, V1 hr =0.9V, V3 hr =0.91V, V25 hr =0.15V

-electrical energy: 142.4J

030711XY5-395(LaNi₅KOH/SC): demo battery, first unit

-an anode: LaNi₅Obtained from commercially available Ni-MH batteries

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge function: constant current 500mA0.72V

6.4Ah capacity, 4.3Wh discharge energy was obtained. The battery is rechargeable at a constant current of 1A

030611XY2-390(Ni(H₂) LiOH/Ni): molten salt battery

-an anode: ni pipe (1/8 inches) flowing through H₂

-a cathode: ni foil

-an electrolyte: 50.0g LiOH

-temperature: 550 deg.C (the true T in the battery is 500 deg.C)

Discharging at 499 ohms, the battery voltage is between 0.90V and 1.0V and exceeds 100h

022711XY4-348 (Zn/KOH/SC): the cell was made with a newly designed plastic cell with an O-ring on the anode side, but no O-ring on the cathode side

-an anode: zn paste, obtained from a commercial Zn/air cell, 0.381g, pure Zn =0.201g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.178g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge load: 1000 ohm

Energy 717.3J; specific energy: 991.3Whkg^-1(ii) a Energy efficiency: 75.6 percent; specific capacity: 827.5mAhg^-1(ii) a Coulomb efficiency: 106.3 percent

030111JH1-400：Ni(H₂)|LiOH-NaOH|Ni(H₂O)

-an anode: h in Ni tube₂

-a cathode: LiOH-NaOH (Ni net)

Temperature at 350 ℃ and subsequent elevation to 400 ℃ (freezing point)

OCV: about 1.10V

500 ohm, load voltage 1.00V after 3 days

100 hours, energy: 533J

030211GC1/H₂(about 760 torr) Ni tube/LiBr ((R))99.4g) + LiOH (20.6g)/Ni foil wrapped crucible (open) T =440 ℃; OCV: introduction of H₂To 760 torr, OCV was gradually increased to 0.99V, load was 499 ohms, load voltage was still between 0.9 and 1V for 48 hours, and steady operation. The switching load was 249 ohms, and V was about 0.88V>Run for 350 hours. The control cell shows no voltage, and H₂The permeation rate is significantly too low to support this power.

022811GC1/H₂(about 1000 torr) Ni tube/LiBr (99.4g) + LiOH (20.6 g)/H wrapped in Ni sheet₂O(<1 ml)/(open) T =440 ℃; resistance =1K ohm

OCV: vin =0.27V, addition of H₂And 4 drops of H₂O, OCV suddenly increased to Vmax =1.02V after 5 minutes; the 1000 ohm load voltage was 0.82V, which dropped to about 0.4V in 17 hours, adding 3 drops of H₂O3 times and the load voltage increased to about 0.6V. The voltage dropped rapidly by adding 4 drops of water and was stopped at 40 hours V =0.2V

Eout=27.9J

022411XY8-334(LaNi₅KOH/SC): discharge-charge intermittently per cycle under constant current. Is not sealed

-an anode: LaNi₅Obtained from commercially available batteries, pure LaNi₅=0.255g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.195g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-discharge current: 1mA

The battery is frequently discharged/charged. The cell was charged at 1mA constant current for 20 seconds, followed by discharge at 1mA constant current for 2 seconds.

V (1 minute) = 0.951V; specific energy =310.2 Wh/kg; based on the measured composition LaNi₅H₃The theoretical specific energy of (1) is 227 Wh/kg.

022211GC3/Co(0.30g)+LaNi₅H₆B (B represents a battery source) (0.2g)/KOH (saturated) NH₃+ CG3501/SC (paste) (50mg)/RT cell; flat square battery with resistance =499 ohm sealed with plastic film, operated outside

OCV: vmax = 0.92; the load was 499 ohms.

Eout=464.7J

Specific energy: 430.2Wh/Kg for Co

Capacity: 608.3mAh/g for Co

030111XY1-357(Ni(H₂) NaOH-NaBr/Ni): molten salt battery (open)

-an anode: ni pipe (1/8 inches) flowing through H₂

-a cathode: ni foil

-an electrolyte: 65.92g NaOH +36.28g NaBr (0.82:0.18 molar ratio)

-temperature: 400 deg.C (the true T in the battery is 350 deg.C)

The OCV of the battery was 0.96V. Under a 1000 ohm discharge load (without adding water to the cathode), the voltage plateau is temporarily maintained at about 0.75V, and then drops to another discharge plateau of about 0.4-0.3V. After adding 4 drops of water to the cathode vessel, the cell voltage increased to 0.36V and stabilized for 17 hours. After addition of 8 drops of water, the voltage was raised to 0.9V, stabilized for 3 hours, then dropped to 0.55V and held stable for >30 hours.

030111XY2-358(Ni(H₂) LiOH-LiI/Ni): molten salt battery (open)

-an anode: ni pipe (1/8 inches) flowing through H₂

-a cathode: ni foil

-an electrolyte: 10.30g LiOH +73.03g LiI (0.45:0.55 molar ratio)

-temperature: 350 ℃ (the true T in the battery is 300 ℃)

The OCV of the battery was 0.75V. The voltage plateau was maintained at about 0.55V for 55 hours under a 1000 ohm discharge load and was still stable in operation.

-022111GZC3-367：0.2gCo/G3501+KOH+Li₂CO₃/60mgCB-SA (not airtight seal)

-a separator: CG3501

-a mixture of electrolytes: 3g of saturated KOH +0.1gLi₂CO₃

-an electrode: 0.2gCo (anode), 60mgCB-SA (cathode)

-resistor =1000 ohms; t = RT

Based on the results for 100% Co consumption: e =329J, coulomb =450.8C, capacity =456.9Wh/kg, energy efficiency =45.4%, coulomb efficiency = 68.9%. Li₂CO₃Significantly enhancing the efficiency of the Co anode. Analysis showed 30% Co unreacted.

-022411GZC5-378：1gNaOH+1PsiH₂/Na-BASE/42gNaCl+86.7gCaCl₂(MP =504 ℃ C.) (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE tube (newer and smaller tube) 1mm thick

-an electrode: NaOH + 1/4' Ni tube (anode), NaCl + CaCl₂Molten salt, nickel foil as current collector (cathode)

-resistor =100 ohms; t =600 deg.C (true T in melt: 550 deg.C)

(1)OCV=1.392V

(2) Under load, CCV slowly decreases and stabilizes at 0.49V

(3) At 550 ℃, 2NaOH + CaCl₂+H₂=2NaCl+Ca+2H₂OdG=+198.5kJ/molCaCl₂. The theoretical energy is 0; e =436.5J, coulomb =1043.7C

-020411GZC5-311：6gNaOH+1PsiH₂/Na-BASE/49.9gNaCl+61.4gMgCl₂(MP =459 ℃ C.) (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE tube with thickness of 1.3mm

-an electrode: NaOH + 1/4' Ni tube (anode), NaCl + MgCl₂Molten salt, nickel foil as current collector (cathode)

-resistor =100 ohms; t =550 deg.C (true T in melt: 500 deg.C)

E =815J, coulomb =3143C, capacity =37Wh/kg, anode energy efficiency = infinity, coulomb efficiency =22%

020311XY3-186 (MH-KOH-SC): is not sealed

-an anode: LaNi obtained from Ni-MH batteries₅Pure MH =0.900g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.160g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge load: 249 ohm

As a result: e =506.4J, specific energy =156.3Wh/kg, based on LaNi measured₅H₃Consumption: energy efficiency =72%, coulomb efficiency = 145%.

RT battery: (non-hermetic seal)

-020811GZC 6-321: 0.5gZn paste/CG 3501+ KOH/60mgCB-SA from alkaline cell (not hermetically sealed)

-a separator: CG3501

-a mixture of electrolytes: saturated KOH

-an electrode: 0.5gZn paste (anode), 60mgCB-SA (cathode)

-resistor =1000 ohms; t = RT

As a result: e =967.6J, coulomb =904C, capacity =1306.7Wh/kg, energy efficiency =74.1%, coulomb efficiency = 115%.

Na-BASE battery:

-020911GZC 1-322: 7.62g Na/Na-BASE in a 1.33mm thick BASE tube/120 g NaOH in a 2 "Ni crucible (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE tube with thickness of 1.3mm

-an electrode: 7.62g Na in a 1.33mm thick BASE tube (anode), 120g NaOH in a 2 "Ni crucible (cathode)

-resistor =10.2 ohms; t =500 ℃ (true T in melt: 450 ℃)

As a result: total E =5.9kJ

021111XY10-237(Sn + TaC-KOH-SC): is not sealed

-an anode: saturated KOH mixed Sn powder and TaC powder with (pure Sn: TaC =50:50), pure Sn + TaC =0.601g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.154g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge load: 499 ohm

Average V =0.89V, total E = 530J; 491Wh/kg, 84% energy efficiency

020911XY9-214(Zn + LaN-KOH-SC): is not sealed

-an anode: zn paste (from a commercially available battery) and LaN powder (pure Zn: LaN =50:50) mixed with saturated KOH, pure Zn + LaN =0.664g

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.177g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

-a discharge load: 499 ohm

Average V =1.1V, total E = 974J; 815Wh/kg, 62% energy efficiency

012811JH 2-357: NaOH + Ni (KH) | BASE | LiCl + CsCl (glove box)

-an anode: NaOH (4.0g) +1gKH in Ni tube

-a cathode: 60g LiCl-47+172.6g CsCl

Separator/electrolyte: Na-BASE

-OCV：1.3～1.5V

-200 ohms; CCV = 0.234V; energy =45.6J

Na-BASE-HT battery

-020111GZC3-294：6gNaOH+1PsiH₂Na-BASE/35.1gNaCl +135gNaI (MP =573 ℃ C.) (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 5Na-BASE tube

-an electrode: NaOH + 1/4' Ni tube (anode), NaCl + NaI molten salt, nickel foil as current collector (cathode)

-resistor =100 ohms; t =650 ℃ (true T in melt: 600 ℃)

(1) OCV = 0.937V. Day 2E = 35J. Theoretical energy: 0.

011011XY4-103(Zn-KOH-SC)：

-an anode: zn paste, 1.62g (including electrolyte) (0.81g pure Zn)

-a cathode: steam carbon mixed with saturated KOH, pure SC =0.188g

-a separator: celgard3501

-an electrolyte: saturated KOH

Discharge at 500 ohms

V1 min =1.281V, V5 min =1.201V, V30 min =1.091V, V24 hr =1.026V, V48 hr =1.169V, V72 hr =1.216V, V96 hr =1.236V, V168 hr =1.220V, V192 hr =1.201V, V216 hr =1.173V,

2350J, 805Wh/kg, 60% energy efficiency, 90% coulombic efficiency

Na-BASE-HT battery

-010611GZC 1-233: 36gNa/5 parallel Na-BASE tubes/50 gNaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 5Na-BASE tubes

-an electrode: na (anode), 5X 10g NaOH (cathode)

-resistor =10 ohms; t =500 deg.C

(1) CCV is about 0.1V, total E: 11.3kJ

012011JH1-342：NaOH+Ni(KH)|BASE|LiCl+BaCl₂(glove box)

-an anode: NaOH in Ni tube (about 4g) +1gKH

-a cathode: 40g of LiCl-47+64.5g of BaCl₂-3

Separator/electrolyte: Na-BASE

-OCV：0.57～0.62V

200 ohm

-V1 min =0.369V, V10 min =0.301V, V20 min =0.281V, V30 min =0.269V, V1 hr =0.252V, V2 hr =0.253V, V3 hr = 0.261V. Energy =475.3J

Na-BASE-HT battery

-010611GZC 1-233: 36gNa/5 parallel Na-BASE tubes/50 gNaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 5 Na-BASE tubes

-an electrode: na (anode), 5X 10g NaOH (cathode)

-resistor =10 ohms; t =500 deg.C

(1) It is in operation, with a CCV of about 0.26V. Energy of about 5kJ was collected

122010-RowanValidation-Na-BASE: 1g Na/Na-BASE/3.24g NaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE

-an electrode: na (anode), 3.24g NaOH (cathode)

-resistor =107 ohms; t =500 deg.C

-total E = 1071J. Energy gain: 53

CIHT #121310JL 2: [ RNi (4200)/CG3401+ saturated KOH/CoOOH + CB + PVDF ] (theoretical E ° =0.6300V)

-room temperature; prismatic cell design-semi-sealed

-an anode: about 500mg RNi (4200); dried RNi from glove box (4200) was used and saturated KOH as electrolyte was added via syringe and sealed vial

-a cathode: about 80mgCoOOH +20mgCB #4+ about 15 mgPVDF; pressing into pellets with an IR press at 23kPSI

-OCV: 0.826V and slowly increased

-CCV(1000)：

Relatively slow and smooth decay from the full-load voltage to 0V, with a slight slope change at about 11000 minutes and about 0.5V

Total energy: 327.6J

-C-SED：1137.5Wh/Kg

-A-SED：182.0Wh/Kg

CIHT #122210JL 2: [ RNi (2400)/CG3501+ saturated KOH/Pd/C-H1+ PVDF ] (theoretical E ° =0V)

-room temperature; square cell design-seal; no clamp is used; a Ni electrode;

-an anode: 150mgRNi (2400) #185+10mgPVDF, used dry and with addition of saturated KOH;

-a cathode: 53mgPd/C-H1+14 mgPVDF; pressing into pellets with an IR press at 23kPSI

OCV about 0.9249V and stable

-CCV(1000)：

-decrease to about 0.89 under load and slowly decrease

Relatively slow and smooth decay from the full load voltage towards 0V, with a slight slope change at about 3100 minutes and about 0.6V

Total energy: 128.8J

-C-SED：675.2Wh/Kg

-A-SED：238.6Wh/Kg

120110GZC1-185：1gNa/Na-BASE/3.3gNaOH+0.82gMgCl₂+0.67gNaCl (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE

-an electrode: na (anode), 3.3g NaOH +0.82g MgCl₂+0.67gNaCl (cathode)

-resistor =107 ohms; t =500 deg.C

(1) Stop, E =548J, 46 kWhr/kgNaOH.

Interlayer battery 112910XY 1-1-20: Li/LP30-CG2400/CoOOH (maintained on Ni mesh/Nafion/PtC (H)₂)

-an anode: li Metal (excess capacity)

-a cathode: 75% CoOOH +25 CB; pure CoOOH10mg

-barrier between Li/CoOOH: celgard2400

-spacers between CoOOH/ptc (h): nafion

-a third layer: PtC (H)

Discharge at 2000 ohms

-V1 min =2.2V, V1 hr =1.5V, V2 hr =1.18V, V10 hr =1.0V, V20 hr =0.99V, V25 hr =0.89V, V30 hr =0.72V, V35 hr = 0.54V.

The measured capacity was >1800 Whr/kg.

110910GZC 1-159: 1g Na/Na-BASE/3.24g NaOH #3+0.94g NaBr #1+1.5g NaI #1 (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE

-an electrode: na (anode),. 24g naoh #3+0.94g nabr #1+1.5g nai #1, MP =260 deg.c

-resistor =100 ohms; t =450 deg.C

(1) Total energy: 523J (45Whr/kg)

1102910JH1-1：Li|1MLiPF₆-DEC-EC|CoOOH

-an anode: li (about 25mg)

-a cathode: CoOOH (fresh preparation, oven drying, 150mg)

-a separator: celgard2400

-OCV range =3.6 ~ 3.5V

2000 ohms (when OCV = 3.5V); CCV =1.08V

Total energy: 520.6J; total specific energy: 964 Wh/kg. The cell was open and contained a cathode CoOOH material as the cathode, but weighed less than 125 mg. Therefore, the specific energy was 1156 Wh/kg.

102710GZC1-143：1gNa₃Mg/Na-BASE/3.28g NaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE

-an electrode: na (Na)₃Mg (anode), 3.28g naoh (cathode), MP =323 deg.c

-resistor =100 ohms; t =450 ℃ (true T in melt: 400 ℃)

(1) It is still running. CCV = 0.300V.

(2) Checked OCV =0.557V

The total energy is: 0.69 kJ. Na-BASE tubes were intact.

102110GZC 1-138: 1g Na/Na-BASE/1.85g NaBr +3.28g NaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: Na-BASE

-an electrode: na (anode), 1.85g nabr +3.28g naoh (cathode), MP =260 deg.c

-resistor =107 ohms; t =450 ℃ (true T in melt: 400 ℃)

(1) About 0.83kJ total energy was collected, which corresponds to 37Whr/kg electrode material.

102810JH3-1：Li₃Mg|LiCl+KCl-LiH|TiH₂

-2.84 "alumina cylinder

-eutectic 96.8g licl +120.0g kcl; MP: 352 ℃ C

-battery temperature: 415 deg.C

-an anode: SS web wrapped Li₃Mg(0.5g)

-a cathode: TiH₂(0.8g)

-OCV range =1.51 ~ 198V

A 106 ohm load for testing long term operation. CCV = 0.35V. Energy = 300.4J.

ID#102810GH2Li/KCl+LiCl/NaNH₂

-a 2.75 "alumina crucible;

0.05gLi (anode) in a mesh SS cup; 0.1g NaNH in another mesh SS cup₂(cathode);

-a mixture of electrolytes: 56.3g LiCl +69.1g KCl, MP =352 ℃;

-T=400℃；

-resistor =100 ohms;

-total load time: for 90 minutes.

OCV=0.6496V

V10 sec =0.6186V, V20 sec =0.6104V, V30 sec =0.6052V, V1 min =0.5979V, V5 min =0.5815V, V90 min =0.4975V

102210JH2-2：Li₃Mg|LiCl+KCl-LiH|TiH₂

-2.84 "alumina cylinder

-eutectic mixture: the eutectic mixture from 102110JH2-1 is used; (96.8g LiCl +120.0g KCl +0.098g LiH; MP: 352 ℃ C.)

-battery temperature: 440 deg.C

-an anode: SS web wrapped Li₃Mg(0.3g)

-a cathode: TiH₂(0.3g)

-OCV range =0.51 ~ 0.545V

200 ohm (when OCV = 0.537V)

-V20 sec =0.525V, V1 min =0.514V, V10 min =0.466V, V20 min =0.449V, V30 min =0.430V, V1 hr =0.405V, V2 hr =0.380V

V recovery =0.410V, reaching this value from 0.377V in about 7 minutes

100 ohm (OCV =0.408V)

-V20 sec =0.391V, V1 min =0.383V, V10 min =0.362V, V20 min =0.357V, V30 min =0.354V, V1 h =0.349V

Operation time: 5513 minutes

Loading: 100 ohm

Voltage: 0.223V (seemingly stable at this voltage for more than 2 days)

Energy: 218J

E theory =0.11V

CIHT#102210JL1：[Li/CG2400+4MeDO+LiClO₄/RNi(2800)](theoretical E ° = about 0.7078V)

Room temperature

-an anode: disk of about 30mgLi

-a cathode: 200mgRNi (2800) #186

-OCV: 2.2912V and slowly descends

-CCV(1000)：

-V20 sec =2.3730V

-V1 min =2.2137V

-V10 min =2.1048V

-V20 min =2.0445V

-V30 min =2.0005V

-V4146 min =0.1058V

-OCV (9 minute recovery) =0.8943V

Total energy =112.45J

Theory =33.7J

-gain =3.34X

Specific energy density of cathode material =156Wh/kg

-total running time = about 4000 minutes before the voltage approaches 0V

101510GZC 1-132: 1gK/K-BASE/KOH + KI (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 57.5gKI #1+45.2g KOH #1, MP =240 deg.C

-an electrode: k (anode), KOH + KI (cathode) in SS crucible

-resistor =100 ohms; t =450 ℃ (true T in melt: 400 ℃)

(1) To date, 1.1kJ of electrical energy was collected. It was still running and the CCV was kept constant at 0.6V.

093010GZC 1-117: Na/BASE/NaI + NaOH (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 60g NaI #1+64g NaOH #2, MP =230 deg.C

-an electrode: na (anode), 60gNaI #1+64gNaOH #2 (cathode)

-resistor =100 ohms; t =500 ℃ (true T in melt: 450 ℃)

The battery is still running. Up to now, 0.975kJ of electric energy was collected

CCV =0.876V at 100 ohm load at present

100410GZC 1-120: 1gNa/BASE/NaI + NaOH/SS Net-wrapped 1.5gRNi4200 (glove box)

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 60g NaI #1+64g NaOH #2, MP =230 deg.C

-an electrode: na (anode), SS net wrapped 1.5gRNi4200 (cathode)

-resistor =100 ohms; t =500 ℃ (true T in melt: 450 ℃)

Total electric energy: 1.67kJ, CCV =0.442V, more energy is available if run longer. For Na + NaOH = Na ₂O + NaH, theoretical voltage =0.001V

082610GC 2: li in wrapped SS foil₃N/LiCl + KCl/CeH in SS-wrapped foil₂+TiC-136

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-electrolyte eutectic mixture: 67.6g LiCl +82.9g KCl;

-an electrode: anode: li in wrapped SS foil₃N；

-a cathode: CeH in wrapped SS foil₂+TiC-136(1:1)；

-the resistor is 100 ohms;

-battery temperature =460 ℃

And (4) theoretical calculation:

anode: 4H^-+Li₃N→LiNH₂+2LiH+4e^-

Cathode: 2CeH₂+4e^-→2Ce+4H^-

And (3) total reaction: 2CeH₂+Li₃N→2Ce+2LiH+LiNH₂

DG =164.4kJ/mol, endotherm, DE should be 0.

Data:

OCVVmax = 1.30V; v load max = 0.58V;

v1 min = 0.50V; v10 min = 0.57V; v20 min = 0.57V; v40 min = 0.51V; v60 min =0.53V (unstable); i load max = 0.0058A; p load max =3.4 mW;

and (3) recovering: vmax =0.84V

082410GC 1: Li/LiCl + KCl in SS-wrapped foil/CeH in SS-wrapped foil₂+TiC-136

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-electrolyte eutectic mixture: 67.6g LiCl +82.9g KCl;

-an electrode: anode: li in the wrapped SS foil;

-a cathode: CeH in wrapped S foil₂+TiC-136(1:1)；

-a resistor: 100 ohms;

-battery temperature =460 ℃

And (4) theoretical calculation:

anode: 2Li → 2Li + +2e^-

Cathode: CeH₂+2Li+2e^-→Ce+2LiH

And (3) total reaction: CeH₂+2Li→Ce+2LiH

DG =15.6kJ/mol, endotherm, DE should be 0.

Data: OCVVmax = 1.94V; v load max = 1.37V; v1 min = 1.23V; v10 min = 1.06V; v20 min = 0.95V; v40 min = 0.86V;

I load max = 0.014A; p load max =19 mW;

and (3) recovering: vmax =1.11V

Battery number 082010RCC 2-108: [ Li/LiCl-KCl-LiH-NaCl/ZrH₂]At 450 ℃ C

-2.75 "OD X6" alumina crucible

-eutectic mixture: 56.3g of LiCl-26+69.1g of KCl-27+0.018g of LiH-4+0.13g of NaCl-2

-an anode: 0.35gLi-7 in SS foil crucible wired with SS

-a cathode: 1.9gZrH in SS foil crucible wired with SS₂-1+0.9gTiC-138

-resistor =100 ohms

-V range: 0.168 to 1.299V

-Vmax: 1.299V at 450 DEG C

100 ohm resistor to Battery connection

V load max =1.064V, I load max =0.01064a, P load max =11.3mW,

v10 sec =0.849V, V20 sec =0.819V, V30 sec =0.796V,

v1 min =0.748V, V10 min =0.731V, V21.6 hr = 0.168V.

OCV (open circuit voltage after 21.6 hours load +43.4 minutes recovery) = 0.265.

-annotating:

when the OCV reaches 1.299V, a 100 ohm resistor is connected to the CIHT cell.

For reaction ZrH₂+2Li=2LiH+Zr，

At 700K (427 ℃) DG = DH-TDS = -1,910 j/reaction, E = -DG/zF = 0.01V.

E=E0+

DG = DH-TDS = -835J/reaction, E = -DG/zF =0.004V at 800K (527 ℃),

at 500 deg.C (true T of liquid eutectic salt: 422 deg.C), assuming a volume of liquid salt of 100ml, [ H ]^-]=0.018/(0.1×8)=2.25×10^-2(M)。

E=E0-R×T×Ln(H^-)/(nF)=E0-8.314×695×Ln(2.25×10^-2)/(2×96485)=E0+0.114=0.01+0.114=0.124(V)。

Battery number 082010RCC 1-107: [ Li/LiCl-KCl-LiH-NaCl/TiH ₂]At 450 ℃ C

-2.75'' OD x 6 '' alumina crucible

-an anode: 0.35gLi-7 in SS foil crucible wired with SS

-a cathode: 0.9gTiH in SS foil crucible wired with SS₂-1+0.9gTiC-136

-resistor =100 ohms

-V range: 0.462 to 0.831V

-Vmax: at the temperature of 450 ℃ under the pressure of 0.831V,

100 ohm resistor to Battery connection

V load max =0.808V, I load max =0.00808A,

p load maximum =6.5mW, V10 sec =0.594V, V20 sec =0.582V, V30 sec =0.574V, V1 min =0.564V, V10 min =0.539V, V162 min = 0.577V.

OCV (open circuit voltage, after 162 minutes load +54.2 minutes recovery) = 0.908V.

-100 ohm resistor to battery

V ' load max =0.899V, I ' load max =0.00899a, P ' load max =8.1mW, V '1 min =0.631V, V '10 min = 0.581V.

-annotating:

when OCV reaches 0.818V, a 100 ohm resistor is connected to the CIHT cell. After removing the 100 ohm resistor, the 100 ohm load was reconnected to the battery when the OCV was 0.907V.

For reaction TiH₂+2Li=2LiH+Ti，

At 700K (427 ℃) DG = DH-TDS = -28,015 j/reaction, E = -DG/zF = 0.15V.

DG = DH-TDS = -25,348J/reaction, E = -DG/zF =0.13V at 800K (527 ℃),

At 450 ℃ (liquid true T-eutectic salt: 388 ℃), assuming a liquid salt volume of 100ml, [ H ]^-]=0.018/(0.1×8)=2.25×10^-2(M)。

E=E0-R×T×Ln(H^-)/(nF)=E0-8.314×661×Ln(2.25×10^-2)/(2×96485)=E0+0.114=0.15+0.108=0.258(V)。

072210GZC 1-40: li cloche (Li in 3/8'' SS tube)/LiCl + KCl/H in Ni tube₂

-2.75 "alumina crucible

-a mixture of electrolytes: 56.3g LiCl #15+69.1g KCl #12, MP =350 deg.C

-an electrode: li bell (anode), H in Ni tubes₂(cathode)

-resistor = N/a; t =450 deg.C

As a result:

(1) OCV varies with the amount of LiH added to the electrode:

note

(1) V =0.215-0.0571lnC (LiH, mol%); slope of the nernst equation: -0.0580

(2) The data clearly deviate from the line of nernst equation at amounts of LiH added less than 14mg, in other words, a clear stray voltage (spuriousvoltage) is observed at a LiH concentration in the electrolyte of <0.1% (mol).

CIHT cell solution NMR

The hydrino product of the CIHT cell was also identified by liquid NMR which showed peaks for molecular hydrinos and hydrino anions given by formulas (12) and (20), respectively. By way of example onlyIn particular, after solvent extraction of the half-cell reaction product in dmf, the hydrino reaction products were observed by proton NMR at about 1.2ppm and 2.2ppm relative to TMS, which correspond to H, respectively₂(1/4) and H₂(1/2). The results are given in Table 8 showing H ₂(1/4) Peak and possibly H₂(1/2) peak specific half cell reaction mixture.

TABLE 8 product of CIHT cell after DMF-d7 solvent extraction¹NMR of H solution. H was observed₂(1/4) is a broad peak, typically at 1.2ppm, which can migrate and broaden by excess water in the dDMF. H is also observed in most cases₂(1/2) is a sharper peak at 2.2 ppm.

Anodic fractional hydrogen peak

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CoOOH

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOH

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/InOOH

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/GaOOH

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/LaOOH

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CoOSC

Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

Pb/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

In/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

Sb/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

LaNi₅H/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOHCB

Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CoOOHCB

Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOHCB

CoH/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/PdC

Ni nano slurry/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/TiC

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/TiCN

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/NbC

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/TiB₂

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MgB₂

R-Ni/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/B ₄C

Cd/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/PtC

La/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

Cd/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/steam carbon

Sn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOHCB

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC

R-Ni + M/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOH (blocked) M = Pb, Mo, Zn, Co, GeCB-SA

HWS₂KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CB

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/MnOOHSC

Sm-Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CBSA

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) CoODTPA/SC

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) DTPA/NiSC

Pb/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CBSC

Zn/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/ZnOSC

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution) CoODTPA/SC

Ni nanopowder/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/NiOCB (open, but no energy: direct reaction)

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CuOCB (open, but no energy: direct reaction)

Ti | CG3501, saturated KOH | SC

Zn-KOH-SC+I₂O₅

Co/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CoO + SC (O)₂Sealing, but leaking air)

Zn/15MKOH/SC

Ge powder (0.16g)/KOH (saturated) + CG3501/CuO + CB + PVDF

Battery number 012811RC 2-290: [ Zn/KOH + EDTA/Ag2O₂+CB+PVDF](glove box)

Battery number 012811RC 3-291: [ Zn/KOH + EDTA/PtO₂+CB+PVDF](glove box)

Battery number 013111RC 1-292: [ Co/KOH + EDTA/PtO₂+CB+PVDF](glove box)

Cd/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/CB-SA

Cd/KOH (saturated aqueous solution)/SC

ZnKOH (saturated aqueous solution) PtC mixed in a glove box

Ni(H₂)NaOH/BASE/MgCl₂-NaCl

Cathodic hydriding peak

Na/Na base/NaI + NaOH

Claims

1. An electrochemical power system comprising a fuel cell, the fuel cell comprising:

capable of oxidizing OH^-The anode of (1);

a molten eutectic salt electrolyte, said molten eutectic salt electrolyte being a MOH with MX, wherein M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen; and

capable of reducing O₂And H₂A cathode of at least one of O;

wherein the electrochemical power system generates an electromotive force, EMF, by a catalyzed reaction of hydrinos that converts hydrogen to a lower energy state, thereby directly converting the energy released by the hydrino reaction into electricity.

2. The electrochemical power system of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises a hydrogen permeable membrane.

3. The electrochemical power system of claim 1, comprising:

capable of oxidizing OH^-The anode of (a), said anode comprising a source of hydrogen;

capable of reducing H₂O or O₂A cathode of at least one of (a), the cathode comprising O₂Or H₂A source of at least one of O;

capable of collecting and recycling H₂O vapor, N₂And O₂A system of at least one of; and

for collecting and recycling H₂The system of (1).

4. An electrochemical power system comprising a fuel cell, the fuel cell comprising a cell comprising:

(i) capable of oxidizing OH^-The anode of (a), said anode comprising a source of hydrogen;

(ii) A molten eutectic salt electrolyte, the molten eutectic salt electrolyte being MOH with MX, wherein M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen; and

(iii) capable of reducing H₂O or O₂A cathode comprising air or O₂A source of at least one of;

5. The electrochemical power system of any one of claims 1 to 4, comprising: a cathode compartment comprising the cathode, and an anode compartment comprising the anode; wherein the cathode compartment and the anode compartment are connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to form a complete electrical circuit between the compartments.