US20100127983A1 - Pressure Augmented Mouse - Google Patents

Pressure Augmented Mouse Download PDF

Info

Publication number: US20100127983A1
Authority: US; United States
Prior art keywords: pressure; switch; selection; user; discrete
Prior art date: 2007-04-26
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.): Abandoned

Application number

US12/597,684

Other languages

English (en)

Inventor

Pourang Irani

Kang Shi

Jared Cechanowicz

Sriram Subramanian

Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)

Individual

Original Assignee

Individual

Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)

2007-04-26

Filing date

2008-04-28

Publication date

2010-05-27

2008-04-28 Application filed by Individual filed Critical Individual

2008-04-28 Priority to US12/597,684 priority Critical patent/US20100127983A1/en

2010-05-27 Publication of US20100127983A1 publication Critical patent/US20100127983A1/en

Status Abandoned legal-status Critical Current

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Classifications

- G—PHYSICS
- G06—COMPUTING OR CALCULATING; COUNTING
- G06F—ELECTRIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING
- G06F3/00—Input arrangements for transferring data to be processed into a form capable of being handled by the computer; Output arrangements for transferring data from processing unit to output unit, e.g. interface arrangements
- G06F3/01—Input arrangements or combined input and output arrangements for interaction between user and computer
- G06F3/03—Arrangements for converting the position or the displacement of a member into a coded form
- G06F3/033—Pointing devices displaced or positioned by the user, e.g. mice, trackballs, pens or joysticks; Accessories therefor
- G06F3/0354—Pointing devices displaced or positioned by the user, e.g. mice, trackballs, pens or joysticks; Accessories therefor with detection of 2D relative movements between the device, or an operating part thereof, and a plane or surface, e.g. 2D mice, trackballs, pens or pucks
- G06F3/03543—Mice or pucks
- G—PHYSICS
- G06—COMPUTING OR CALCULATING; COUNTING
- G06F—ELECTRIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING
- G06F3/00—Input arrangements for transferring data to be processed into a form capable of being handled by the computer; Output arrangements for transferring data from processing unit to output unit, e.g. interface arrangements
- G06F3/01—Input arrangements or combined input and output arrangements for interaction between user and computer
- G06F3/03—Arrangements for converting the position or the displacement of a member into a coded form
- G06F3/033—Pointing devices displaced or positioned by the user, e.g. mice, trackballs, pens or joysticks; Accessories therefor
- G06F3/038—Control and interface arrangements therefor, e.g. drivers or device-embedded control circuitry
- G—PHYSICS
- G06—COMPUTING OR CALCULATING; COUNTING
- G06F—ELECTRIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING
- G06F2203/00—Indexing scheme relating to G06F3/00 - G06F3/048
- G06F2203/041—Indexing scheme relating to G06F3/041 - G06F3/045
- G06F2203/04105—Pressure sensors for measuring the pressure or force exerted on the touch surface without providing the touch position

Definitions

the present invention relates to an input device for an electronic device, for example a computer, and more particularly relates to a computer input device having one or more pressure sensitive switches arranged to generate a range of pressure values corresponding to different pressures being applied by a user.
Designers can naively augment a mouse by adding a pressure sensor to a fixed location on the mouse. This approach, while providing an additional input dimension to most mouse-based interactions, can also be limiting. The location of the sensor may not be appropriate for interacting with some of the major features of a mouse, such as clicking. Additionally, a poorly augmented mouse would restrict users to a limited number of pressure levels [11,15]. Furthermore, selection mechanisms would be limited to the current methods for selecting pressure values, such as quick release or dwell [15]. Finally, a simple augmentation may not facilitate bi-directional pressure input (where pressure control starts at 0 and moves to a higher pressure and the reverse).
the traditional two-button mouse has been augmented in numerous ways such as by adding multiple buttons, by providing tactile feedback or by serving as a device with more than two degrees-of-freedom.
buttons are a variation of a button that allows users to scroll vertically or horizontally in a window. Studies show that the scroll wheel is particularly useful in navigating through long documents [5,20].
the tactile mouse [1] contains a small actuator that makes the mouse vibrate under certain conditions. This form of feedback can inform the user when the cursor is moving into different areas of a window or when the user is crossing window boundaries.
Akamatstu et al. [1] conducted a study to compare the effect of tactile feedback in a mouse with visual and auditory feedback. Their results show that users complete selection tasks better with tactile feedback over visual and auditory conditions [1].
the Rockin' Mouse [2] augments the mouse with tilt sensors.
the Rockin' Mouse has a rounded bottom which allows users to tilt it and control objects in 3D.
Balakrishnan et al. [21 show that in a 3D object positioning task users were 30% with the Rockin' Mouse over the conventional mouse.
the VideoMouse (61 augmented the mouse by adding a video camera as its input sensor.
a real-time vision algorithm determines the six degree-of-freedom mouse position, which consists of x-y motion, tilts in the forward/backward and left/right axes, rotation of the mouse around the z-axis and limited height sensing.
the VideoMouse facilitates a number of 3D manipulation tasks.
MacKenzie et al. [9] designed a two-ball mouse by adding an additional ball to capture angular movement along the z-axis.
the angular motion is computed based on simple calculations on the two sets of x-y displacement data. This enhancement makes rotation tasks easier to perform.
Ramos et al. [15] explored the design space of pressure based interaction with styluses. They proposed a set of pressure widgets that operate based on the users' ability to effectively control a discrete set of pressure values.
Ramos et al. [15] identified that adequate control of pressure values is tightly coupled to a fixed number of discrete pressure levels (six maximum levels), the type of selection mechanism and a high degree of visual feedback, However, their results are mainly applicable to the use of pressure based input on a stylus and they did not examine the design space resulting from more than one pressure sensor.
Mizobuchi et al. (11] conducted a study to investigate how accurately people control pressure exerted on a pen-based device. Their results show that continuous visual feedback is better than discrete visual feedback, users can better control forces that are smaller than 3N, and 5 to 7 levels of pressure are appropriate for accurate discrimination and control of input values. Their results apply to pen based pressure and they do not investigate multi-pressure input.
Isometric input devices are common and use pressure based input to control the mouse cursor speed.
the pointing stick is a pressure sensitive nub used like, a joystick on laptops. Users decrease or increase the amount of force on the nub to control the velocity of the mouse cursor.
the PalmMouseTM [12] allows users to control cursor speed by applying a slight amount of pressure to a navigation dome which is placed on the top of the mouse. Both examples map pressure input to the speed of the cursor.
Touch-pads that sense pressure are widespread input devices in notebooks or portable music players.
Blasko and Feiner [3] proposed multiple pressure-sensitive strips by segmenting a touchpad into different regions. They show that pressure-sensitive strips do not require visual feedback and users can control a large number of widgets using their fingers.
Rekimoto and Schwesig [16] propose a touchpad based pressure sensing device called PreSensell that recognizes position, contact area and pressure of a user's finger.
PreSensell eliminates the need for visual feedback by providing tactile feedback on the amount of pressure being applied. Unlike many of the previously discussed pressure based mechanisms, PreSensell allows users to control bi-directional pressure input (i.e. from 0 to the highest pressure level as well as the reverse).
an input device for an electronic device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising:
each discrete pressure range of the pressure sensitive switch preferably corresponds to one of the selection items. Accordingly increasing pressure applied to the pressure sensitive switch advances the selection item being selected towards the last selection item and reducing pressure applied to the pressure sensitive switch returns the selection item being selected towards the first selection item.
the first switch accompanying the pressure sensitive switch comprises a two state button which is not sensitive to different applied pressures.
the first control signal generated by the first switch may be arranged to confirm entry to the computer of a selected one of the discrete pressure ranges of the second switch.
Other method of confirming entry to the computer of the selected one of the discrete pressure ranges include dwelling in the pressure range or rapidly removing pressure from the pressure sensitive switch.
switches described herein is well suited for use with a computer mouse comprising a housing which is generally arranged to be received in a palm of a hand of a user and electronic circuitry which includes a tracking mechanism arranged to generate control signals in response to relative movement between the housing and a supporting surface receiving the housing thereon.
the switches are preferably arranged to be readily accessible by fingers of the user when the housing is received in the palm of the hand of the user.
the first switch accompanying the pressure sensitive switch is a two state switch, it is preferably arranged to be actuated by an index finger of the user, while the pressure sensitive switch is arranged to be actuated by either a middle finger or a thumb of the user.
the pressure sensitive switch is preferably arranged to generate both:
control signals in the form of continuous pressure values wherein the discrete pressure ranges are arranged to correspond to the selection items of the selected group when continuous pressure is applied to the pressure sensitive switch for selecting one of the selection items within the selected group.
both are preferably arranged similarly to one another but the advancing control signals are preferably in opposing directions relative to one another when the switches are momentarily depressed.
both the first switch and the second switch comprise a pressure sensitive switch arranged to generate continuous pressure values in at least two different identifiable discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch.
the two pressure sensitive switches may also be combined with a computer mouse including a tracking mechanism to track relative movement of the mouse and one or more two-state switches for confirming entry of selections to the computer.
one of the pressure sensitive switches is preferably arranged to be readily accessible by a middle finger of the user, and the other one of the pressure sensitive switches is preferably arranged to be readily accessible by a thumb of the user in the normal operating position of the mouse.
the first switch When used with a computer comprising a plurality of sequential selection items arranged in a plurality of groups, the first switch is preferably arranged to generate an advancing control signal arranged to advance selection of one selected group through the plurality of groups when the first switch is momentarily depressed.
the discrete pressure ranges of the pressure sensitive switch are preferably arranged to correspond to the selection items of the selected group when continuous pressure is applied to the pressure sensitive switch for selecting one of the selection items within the selected group.
the discrete pressure ranges of the pressure sensitive switches are preferably arranged to correspond to the selection items of alternating cascading levels. Within each level, continuous pressure may be applied to the pressure sensitive switch for selecting one of the selection items within a selected level. Switching applied pressure between the two pressure switches is preferably arranged to generate a control signal which confirms entry to the computer of the selected item within each level to proceed to selection of items within the next cascading level.
an input device for an electronic device comprising a pressure sensitive switch arranged to generate continuous pressure values over a range of pressure values to be transmitted to the electronic device, the improvement comprising:
x is the raw pressure value from the pressure switch
I is the number of pressure ranges
r is the fisheye radius
R is the total number of raw pressure values.
an input device for an electronic device including a plurality of sequential selection items to be selected in a range from a first selection item to a last selection item, the input device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising a pressure switch arranged to generate a control signal comprising continuous pressure values in at least two different identifiable discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch; each discrete pressure range of the pressure sensitive switch corresponding to one of the selection items;
the electronic circuitry being arranged such that increasing pressure applied to the pressure sensitive switch advances the selection item being selected towards the last selection item and reducing pressure applied to the pressure sensitive switch returns the selection item being selected towards the first selection item.
an input device for an electronic device comprising a plurality of sequential selection items arranged in a plurality of groups, the input device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising a pressure switch arranged to generate a control signal when depressed by the user comprising continuous pressure values in at least two different identifiable discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch;
the pressure sensitive switch is arranged to generate an advancing control signal arranged to advance selection of one group through the plurality of groups when the pressure sensitive switch is momentarily depressed and wherein the discrete pressure ranges are arranged to correspond to the selection items of the selected group when continuous pressure is applied to the pressure sensitive switch for selecting one of the selection items within the selected group.
the pressure sensitive switches are preferably arranged to generate advancing control signals arranged to advance selection of one group through the plurality of groups in opposing directions relative to one another when the pressure sensitive switches are momentarily depressed and wherein the discrete pressure ranges of each pressure sensitive switch are arranged to correspond to the selection items of the selected group when continuous pressure is applied to the pressure sensitive switch for selecting one of the selection items within the selected group.
an input device for an electronic device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising a pressure switch arranged to generate a control signal when depressed by the user comprising continuous pressure values in at least two different identifiable discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch;
the pressure switch being operable in a first mode in which a variable function associated with the pressure switch is arranged to be varied in a first direction responsive to increased pressure applied to the switch and a second mode in which the variable function is arranged to be varied in a second direction opposite to the first direction responsive to increased pressure applied to the switch.
auxiliary switch arranged to convert the pressure switch between the first and second modes upon activation of the auxiliary switch.
variable function may be arranged to be varied by the pressure switch responsive to a continuous pressure being applied to the pressure switch.
the pressure switch may be further arranged to be converted between the first and second modes responsive to a momentary pressure applied to the pressure switch.
an input device for an electronic device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising:
the two different variable functions may comprise manipulations of an object, for example a translation of an object, a rotation of an object and/or a zoom function.
the pressure switch is arranged to generate pressure values in approximately five to ten different identifiable discrete pressure ranges.
An increase in pressure applied to the pressure switch may be arranged to controllably vary one of the variable functions in one direction and a decrease in pressure applied to the pressure switch may be arranged to controllably vary said one of the variable functions in an opposing second direction.
auxiliary switch arranged to fix one of the variable functions associated with the pressure switch upon activation of the auxiliary switch.
the two switches may be arranged such that an increase in pressure to one of the pressure switches controllably varies the variable function in one direction and an increase in pressure applied to the other pressure switch controllably varies the variable function in the opposing direction.
an increase in pressure to the pressure switch may be arranged to correspond to an increase in a rate of variation of the variable function.
the pressure switch may be arranged to controllably vary the variable function through a range of values when continuous pressure is applied and may be arranged to vary the variable function in prescribed increments when momentarily depressed.
an auxiliary switch arranged to convert the pressure switch between a coarse mode and a fine mode, wherein in each mode the pressure switch is arranged to controllably vary one of the variable functions in increments according to the discrete pressure ranges applied by the user with the increments in the coarse mode being greater than the increments in the fine mode.
the pressure switch in the coarse mode may be arranged to controllably vary the variable function associated therewith according to variation in pressure applied by the user, and the fine mode the pressure switch may be arranged to controllably vary the variable function associated therewith according to different pressures applied by the user at a slower rate than the coarse mode.
an input device for an electronic device comprising a selection function and an action initiation function, the input device comprising:
electronic circuitry in the housing arranged to detect user inputs and generate control signals corresponding to said user inputs to be transmitted to the electronic device;
the electronic circuitry comprising a pressure switch arranged to generate continuous pressure values in at least two different identifiable discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch;
the pressure switch being arranged to generate a first signal responsive to a first user interaction and a second signal responsive to a second user interaction, the pressure switch being arranged to generate a selection signal responsive to the first and second signals being generated in which the selection signal is identifiable as a selection by the selection function of the electronic device.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate the first signal responsive to applying a pressure to the pressure switch which exceeds a first pressure threshold and to generate the second signal responsive to applied pressure to the pressure switch falling below a second pressure threshold.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate an audio signal with the second signal.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate the second signal responsive to a pressure being released from the pressure switch within a prescribed duration from the first signal.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate an audio signal if pressure is not released from the pressure switch within the prescribed duration from the first signal.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate an action initiation signal responsive to two selection signals being generated within a prescribed period of time in which the action initiation signal is identifiable as an initiation of an action by the action initiation function of the electronic device.
the first signal may correspond to a pressure applied to the pressure switch which exceeds a first pressure threshold and the second signal corresponds to an applied pressure falling below a second pressure threshold.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate the second signal responsive to pressure being released from the pressure switch within a prescribed duration from the first signal being generated.
the pressure switch may also be arranged to generate an action initiation signal identifiable as an initiation of an action by the action initiation function of the electronic device responsive to a pressure being applied to the pressure switch which exceeds an upper pressure threshold which is greater than any pressure thresholds associated with the first and second signals.
the upper threshold is arranged to be adjusted by a user.
FIG. 1 illustrates a computer mouse augmented with two pressure sensors.
FIG. 2 is an illustration of different discretization functions including: (a) DF 1 : Linear, (b) DF 2 : Quadratic centered at the lower range, (c) DF 3 : Quadratic centered in the middle range.
FIG. 3 illustrates the location of targets in one of four different relative pressure distances based on the pressure level.
FIG. 4 illustrates the Mean Completion times for each (a) selection technique [left] and (b) sensor location [right].
FIG. 5 illustrates the Average Crossings for (a) each technique [left] and (b) sensor location [right].
FIG. 6 illustrates the Categorization of pressure levels in terms of coarse-level and fine-level items.
FIG. 7 illustrates Mean completion times for each control mechanism.
FIG. 8 illustrates Mean crossings for each control mechanism.
FIG. 9 illustrates a trace of applied pressure over time of a typical user control when using the top sensor with the click-technique for pressure levels (a) 8 and (b) 10 when selecting a target at a distance of 815 pressure pixels.
FIG. 10 is an illustration of the details of a fisheye discretization function.
the purpose of the fisheye function is to allow for smoother and more accurate control of the pressure selection mechanisms.
the size of each pressure level is adjusted according to the current position of the pressure cursor. Larger space is reserved for the current pressure level.
the amount of pressure units reserved for the fisheye is defined by the radius, r.
the figure also presents the relationship between all the elements involved in the fisheye function.
FIG. 11 ( a ) is a schematic illustration of a pressure menu according to a Fisheye discretization.
FIG. 11 ( b ) illustrates a computer mouse augmented with one pressure sensor.
FIG. 12 illustrates a target selection with a cursor.
FIG. 13 illustrates average performance of the different functions from left to right with performance measures of (a) Movement Time (MT); (b) Errors (E); and (c) Number of Crossings (C).
MT Movement Time
E Errors
C Number of Crossings
FIGS. 14 ( a ) and ( b ) graphically illustrate average performance of FE and L across various pressure levels for Movement time and Error rates respectively.
FIG. 15 ( a ) illustrates a computer mouse augmented with two pressure sensors.
FIG. 15 ( b ) schematically illustrates rotation of a triangular object with pressure input and simultaneous displacement using mouse movement as an exemplary task which is common in several applications.
FIG. 16 illustrates a cursor state in various PressureMove techniques including: (a) a standard cursor without any pressure applied to it; (b) a cursor filling up when pressure is being applied; (c) movement in a clockwise direction; (d) movement in a counter-clockwise direction; and (e) a hierarchical manner, for first pressure level, wherein the arrows are not part of the cursor and only used to indicate how the cursor moves.
FIG. 17 illustrates the pressure mapping functions for each of the PressureMove techniques comprising: (a) Naive implementation; (b) Rate-based technique; (c) Hierarchical technique; and (d) Hybrid technique.
FIG. 18 is schematic representation of an experimental task consisting of docking a triangular shaped object over a target in which rotation can be controlled using pressure, and displacement can be controlled with mouse movement.
FIG. 19 is a graphic representation of a mean trial completion time (along the Y-axis in seconds) with standard error bars (a) for each technique and (b) for each technique and target-fit.
FIG. 20 is a graphic representation of (a) Mean scores for different techniques and (b) Median user-ranking of different techniques in terms of Mental Demand, Overall Effort and Performance.
FIG. 21 is a graphic representation of comparison of the techniques over each block for (a) MT; and (b) Crossing.
FIG. 22 is a graphic representation of (a) Mean MT for each technique and orientation; and (b) Mean number of clicks of Hierarchical and Hybrid techniques for each orientation.
FIG. 23 is a graphic representation of traces of a typical user control when using the four PressureMove techniques in which the patterns reveal the degree of simultaneity employed in each of the techniques, ranging from low simultaneity with the Naive technique to high simultaneity with Rate-based.
FIG. 24 ( a ) illustrates a computer mouse augmented with a pressure sensor on top of the mouse button.
FIG. 24 ( b ) graphically illustrates a pressure sensor for activating a mouse-down and mouse-up events typical of a mouse click.
FIG. 25 is a graphic representation of a pressure click in which a mouse down is invoked after providing a pressure of 4 units and a mouse up is recorded when releasing immediately after a mouse down and when the pressure level is equal of less than 2 units.
FIG. 26 is a graphic representation of use of a pressure tap to trigger a click when the user presses up to a threshold and releases within 150 ms wherein if the release takes place after 150 ms then the system does not record a click.
FIG. 27 is a graphic representation of a HardPress which triggers a double-click when the user presses beyond a threshold which is significantly higher than that required to do a single pressure click and for a Pressure Click in which a double-click is invoked by two consecutive pressure clicks.
FIG. 28 ( a ) illustrates mean completion time with standard error.
FIG. 28 ( b ) illustrates right: total errors for each interaction mode including: BC—Button Click; PC—Pressure-Click; PC+A—Pressure click with audio; PT—Pressure-Tap; and PT+A—Pressure Tap with audio.
FIG. 29 is a graphic representation of a Time vs. Pressure plot for typical single click actions with Pressure Tap and Pressure Click.
FIG. 30 is a graphic representation of mean completion time: (a) with standard error; and (b) with total errors for each interaction modes.
FIG. 31 is a graphic representation of: (a) an overall user ranking of double-click techniques, and (b) double-click timeouts for each interaction mode.
FIG. 32 is a representation of (a) state transitions for common operations with a mouse; and (b) a variation of Buxton's three-state model for facilitating the task of dragging with PButtons.
the device 10 in illustrated embodiment comprises a mouse for a computer including a housing 12 arranged to be received in the palm of a user's hand.
the device 10 may assume other forms while still taking advantage of many features of the present invention as defined further herein.
the input device 10 may be used for any type of electronic device requiring an input, for example, a computer, a cellular phone, video games, personal electronic assistants, and the like.
the housing 12 of the illustrated mouse includes electronic circuitry therein which is arranged to detect user inputs and to generate respective control signals corresponding to the user inputs which are in turn transmitted to the computer for controlling operation of the computer.
the device also includes in preferred embodiments a tracking mechanism arranged to track movement of the mouse housing relative to a supporting surface, for example a table, supporting the mouse thereon.
the computer mouse includes a left click switch 14 and a right click switch 16 each comprising two state buttons operable between an inactive state and an active state when depressed by the user.
the input device 10 is enhanced by providing pressure sensitive switches 18 on the housing 12 for access by the finger tips of the user when the housing is supported within the palm of the user's hand as in the conventional use of a computer mouse.
two pressure switches 18 are provided with one being located for ready access by the middle finger of the user so as to be located near the right click switch 16 , while the other pressure sensitive switch 18 is located at a side of the housing 12 for ready access by a thumb of the user.
a single pressure sensitive switch 18 is provided in combination with a two state button of the mouse so that the pressure sensitive switch can be arranged to select one item from a plurality of selection items.
the two state right click or left click switch in combination therewith can then be used to confirm entry into the computer of the item selected using the pressure sensitive switch.
the two pressure switches may be provided alone or in combination with a two state button to permit various combinations of selections to be made as described further herein.
only a single pressure switch may be provided and operated similarly to some of the embodiments described herein.
an input device having both a first switch and a second switch arranged to generate respective controls signals when depressed by the user.
the second switch comprises a pressure sensitive switch while the first switch comprises a two state button.
both the first and second switches preferably comprise pressure sensitive switches in combination with yet a further switch having a two state operation.
each pressure sensitive switch is arranged to generate continuous pressure values in identifiable discrete pressure ranges different from one another corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user in depressing the pressure sensitive switch.
Each discrete pressure range of the pressure sensitive switch corresponds to one of a list of items to be selected on the computer whereby increasing applied pressure to the pressure sensitive switch advances the selection item being selected towards the last selection item while reducing pressure applied to the pressure sensitive switch returns the selection item being selected towards the first selection item. Depressing the other pressure sensitive switch or one of the two state buttons of the input device permits confirmation of the selection item to be entered to the computer at any time.
the electronic circuitry can be arranged to perform various tasks depending upon the configuration thereof.
at least one of the switches in some embodiments is arranged to generate an advancing control signal, when the pressure sensitive switch is momentarily depressed or tapped, which advances selection of one group through a plurality of groups designating a plurality of sequential selection items among each group.
the tapping of the switch thus provides a coarse selection process whereby the general proximity of an item to be selected can be reached quickly by sequentially selecting groups of items.
application of continuous pressure to one of the pressure sensitive switches permits selection of the desired item from the list of selection items within that selected group.
two pressure switches are preferably provided in which tapping or momentarily depressing the pressure sensitive switches by the user generates respective advancing control signals to advance selection of one group from the plurality of groups in opposing direction relative to one another.
the range of pressure values of each pressure sensitive switch preferably corresponds to the selection items of a given level in which the pressure sensitive switch associated with each successive level alternates between the two switches. Accordingly by varying the application of pressure to a first one of the switches, the user can select one of the selection items within a first level. By switching application of pressure to the other pressure sensitive switch a subsequent level of selection items is selected and navigated through by varying the pressure applied to the next pressure sensitive switch. In a continuing alternating manner, applying pressure to the opposing switch causes a selection to be made within a respective level to permit the selection to proceed to the next level of selection items.
the pressure switches can be combined with the various functions of two state buttons or scroll wheels on a typical computer mouse or other suitable input device for a computer to permit other combinations of computer control signals to be generated for controlling a computer in yet further applications.
the pressure switch may be operable in a first mode in which a variable function associated with the pressure switch is arranged to be varied in a first direction responsive to increased pressure applied to the switch and second mode in which the variable function is arranged to be varied in a second direction opposite to the first direction increased pressure applied to the switch.
a variable function associated with the pressure switch is arranged to be varied in a first direction responsive to increased pressure applied to the switch
second mode in which the variable function is arranged to be varied in a second direction opposite to the first direction increased pressure applied to the switch.
the user has the option to convert the mode of the pressure switch so that further increases in pressure cause the item to be selected or the desired function to be varied in an opposing rearward direction back towards the initial selection.
Conversion of the mode may be accomplished by contacting an auxiliary switch, for example a second pressure switch or a two state button provided in association with the first pressure switch on a common housing.
the mode of the pressure switch can be converted to reverse the direction of selection or the direction of variation of the variable function by altering the method of contact to the pressure switch itself.
a continuous pressure applied to the pressure switch can function to vary the variable function in the direction of the current mode, however a momentary pressure applied to the pressure switch instead acts to convert the mode of the pressure switch to reverse the direction that the variable function is varied with increasing pressure applied to the pressure switch.
a pressure switch can be provided in combination with a tracking mechanism of the input device, for example the tracking mechanism of a computer mouse which is arranged to track movement of the housing relative to a supporting surface upon which it is supported.
the pressure switch and the tracking mechanism can be arranged to each controllably vary a respective variable function simultaneously with one another.
the simultaneously control of the variation of two variable functions or two items to be selected from respective sequential lists or groups is particularly useful when it is desirable to control two different manipulations of an object in a virtual desktop environment. Examples of manipulations of the object can include translation of an object, rotation of an object, or a zoom function to zoom the object.
the tracking mechanism of the input device controls translational movement of the object within its environment while the pressure switch functions as noted in previous embodiments above to controllably vary a rotation, a zoom or other variable selection relating to the object.
the pressure switch in this instance is arranged to function similarly to previous embodiments such that an increase in pressure applied to the pressure switch is arranged to controllably vary one of the variable functions in one direction and a decrease in pressure applied to the pressure switch is arranged to controllably vary said one of the variable functions in an opposing second direction. Accordingly, in a first mode, the object can be zoomed out or rotated clockwise when increasing pressure is applied to the pressure switch and in a second mode, the object can be zoomed in or rotated counter-clockwise when pressure applied to the pressure switch is decreased.
a second switch in the form of a second pressure switch or a two state button can be arranged to fix the variable function associated with the pressure switch upon activation of the second switch so that variations in pressure applied when displacing the housing using the tracking mechanism will no longer vary the other variable function once it has been set to the desired setting.
both pressure switches can be associated with the same one of the two variable functions to be simultaneously controlled.
one of the pressure switches can be arranged such that an increase in pressure controllably varies the variable function or advances a selection in a first forward direction while the other pressure switch is arranged such that an increase in applied pressure thereto controllably varies the same variable function or selection to vary in an opposing rearward direction.
the amount of applied pressure can be correlated to a discrete pressure range to determine the selection or value of the variable function.
the pressure switch can be arranged to controllably vary one of the variable functions such that any pressure applied advances a selection or varies the value of the function in one direction and variation in pressure applied to the pressure switch corresponds to the rate of variation of the variable function. An increase in pressure thus increases the rate of change of the value of the variable function in one direction.
the pressure switch can be arranged to controllably vary the variable function through a range of values by selecting between the different groups when continuous pressure is applied such that each amount of pressure applied is identified with a given discrete pressure range associated with a respective one of the groups.
the same pressure switch can then be arranged to vary the variable function among the selections within the selected group by momentarily applying pressure to the pressure switch. In this instance, each momentary pressure applied corresponds to a prescribed incremental increase in the value of the function to be selected in one direction.
one of the auxiliary switches on the input device can instead be arranged to convert the pressure switch between the coarse mode and the fine mode.
the pressure switch can be arranged as in previous embodiments to controllably vary a desired variable function.
the pressure switch may identify the pressure applied with a respective discrete applied by the with each increasing pressure range corresponding to an incremental increase in the function being controlled. The incremental changes to the variable function associated with each discrete pressure range of applied pressure are greater in the coarse mode than in the fine mode.
the pressure switch in both the coarse mode and the fine mode, can be arranged to controllably vary one variable function such that pressure applied advances a selection or varies the value of the function in one direction and variation in pressure applied to the Pressure switch varies the rate of variation of the variable function. In this instance the rate of change of the variable responsive to designated applied pressures is greater in the coarse mode than in the fine mode.
the input device may rely on the pressure switches to generate a selection signal identifiable as a selection by the selection function and an action initiation signal identifiable as an initiation of an action by the action initiation function of the electronic device.
the pressure switch can be arranged to generate a first signal responsive to a first user interaction and a second signal responsive to a second user interaction in which the selection signal is then generated responsive to the first and second signals.
the first signal is arranged to be generated responsive to applying a pressure to the pressure switch which exceeds a first pressure threshold.
the second signal can be generated either responsive to applied pressure to the pressure switch falling below a second pressure threshold or responsive to a pressure being released from the pressure switch within a prescribed duration from the first signal.
An audio signal representing a familiar mouse button click can be generated with the second signal to confirm that a selection signal is to be generated and recognized by the selection function of the electronic device.
an audio signal in the form of an error indication, can be generated if pressure is not released from the pressure switch within the prescribed duration from the first signal to indicate that the selection signal will not be generated.
the pressure switch can also be arranged to generate the action initiation signal responsive to two selection signals being generated within a prescribed period of time similar to a double lick.
the selection signals can be generated by either of the methods noted above.
the pressure switch may be arranged to generate the action initiation signal responsive to a pressure being applied to the pressure switch which exceeds an upper pressure threshold which is, greater than any pressure thresholds associated with the first and second signals.
an upper pressure threshold which is, greater than any pressure thresholds associated with the first and second signals.
the upper pressure threshold would be adjusted by a user preference on the electronic device and would permit the upper threshold to be set at a value which may be considerably greater than pressure thresholds of the selection signals by a factor of 2 or more.
the design considerations of augmenting a mouse with one and two sensors are considered herein through two experiments.
the first study we investigated the ideal locations for affixing pressure sensors to a mouse, the methods for selecting continuous pressure values, and the number of pressure values that can be controlled with one sensor.
the results of the first study show that users can efficiently control pressure sensors with the thumb and middle-finger.
the results also agree with previously established norms that users can comfortably control only up to 6 pressure levels [11,15].
switch and tap To extend the user's ability to control a larger number of pressure levels we designed two dual-pressure control techniques, switch and tap. Switch and tap facilitate control of over 64 pressure levels and give users the ability to control pressure in two directions.
the results of a second study show that a technique such as tap allows users to control higher pressure levels and provide bi-directional pressure input.
the main contributions of this paper are to: 1) extend the design space by augmenting the mouse with pressure input; 2) describe a framework for the design of pressure augmented mice; 3) identify strategies for controlling large number of pressure values with two sensors; and 4) provide a mechanism for controlling bi-directional pressure input.
the framework uses six attributes to characterize the factors that can influence performance: sensor positions, number of sensors, discretization of raw pressure values, pressure control mechanism, selection technique and visual feedback.
Pressure input should not require the user to interrupt a task or to reposition the hand to access a pressure button.
pressure control is best at the fingertips [18]. Therefore to provide greater user control and better resolution of pressure levels, designers should position the sensors so that they can be accessed within the reach of the finger tips, such as on the rim instead of the surface of the mouse.
Several manufacturers such as Logitech or Apple's MightyMouseTM use this approach of adding buttons to the rim of the mouse and within the range of the finger tips.
the primary button on a mouse is typically controlled by the index finger unless the mappings of the button are modified.
designers should not place on a mouse a pressure button in a location that interferes with the index finger. Accordingly, for easy access, higher ergonomic control and reduced task interruption, users should be provided access to pressure buttons through the thumb, middle-finger, ring-finger or little-finger.
Exerting force on a pressure sensor produces a raw stream of discrete numeric integer values.
the analog force exerted by the user gets converted to a digital data stream through a manufacturer specific Analog-to-Digital (AtoD) converter.
AtoD Analog-to-Digital
manufacturers provide 256, 512 or 1024 discrete integer pressure values.
users cannot control effectively the raw discrete values.
applications further discretize the mw integer values by grouping near-by values into unique controllable pressure levels [11,15].
Ramos et al. [14] process the raw pressure values through a low-pass filter, a hysteria function to stabilize the raw signal, and a parabolic-sigmoid transfer function to account for pressing on the stylus' pressure tip. As a result there is a slow response at low pressure levels, linear behaviour in the middle levels and slow response at the high levels of the pressure range [14].
Mizobuchi et al. [11] used a linear discretization function by creating equal pressure levels consisting of 0.41 N each.
Ramos et al. [15] use a linear discretization function to map 1024 pressure values into units with the same number of pressure values. Some examples of different discretization methods are depicted in FIG. 2 . The discretization function needs to take into consideration the type of pressure sensor and the user's ability to comfortably control the pressure values.
a pressure control mechanism allows the user to iterate through a list of available pressure levels. In most pressure based interactions, pressure input is usually better controlled in one direction, i.e, when going upward from 0 to the highest value but not in the reverse direction. As a result, in a uni-pressure augmented mouse, the pressure control mechanism is basic and simply consists of pressing down on one sensor to iterate through a limited number of pressure levels. However, it would be beneficial to devise a pressure control mechanism that facilitates controlling input in both directions. This mechanism can be provided by means of some specialized hardware [16] or by augmenting the mouse with more than one sensor.
a selection mechanism allows users to pick the required value after using the pressure control mechanism to hone into a pressure level.
Ramos et al. [15] proposed several selection mechanisms-QuickRelease, Dwell, Stroke and Click-for stylus based pressure input.
QuickRelease operates by quickly lifting the stylus from the tablet's surface after reaching the appropriate pressure level.
Dwell triggers the selection after the user maintains the pressure control over a prescribed amount of time.
Stroke activates the selection mechanism after the user makes a quick spatial movement with the stylus. Click selects a level by pressing the stylus' barrel button.
QuickRelease was shown to be the most effective selection technique [15]. However, it is not clear whether this method is appropriate for a uni-pressure and dual-pressure mouse. Furthermore, it is possible that different selection mechanisms are required in a dual-pressure augmented mouse to allow the user to Switch between sensors.
Kinesthetic feedback alone is insufficient for adequately controlling and selecting a pressure value.
Visual feedback is a necessary component of the interaction space with pressure based input [11,15]. The most common form of feedback is through a visual highlight over the active item that is selectable.
Ramos et al. [15] investigated the effects of two different visual feedback conditions: full visual and partial visual feedback, in the full visual feedback (or continuous feedback) condition all the potential targets are visible. As the user applies pressure, the visual indicator (typically a highlight) iterates through the list of selectable items. In the partial feedback (or discrete feedback) condition only the selected target is visible, in a similar setup, Mizobuchi et al. [II] investigated the effect of continuous and discrete visual feedback. In both the above described studies, users performed better with the continuous feedback condition.
the first study informs the design choice of different sensor positions and selection mechanisms.
the second study examines the effects of uni- and dual-pressure control mechanisms on performance.
Trial completion time is defined as the total time taken for the user to apply the appropriate amount of pressure and select the target.
the number of crossings is defined as the number of times the cursor enters or leaves a target for a particular trial.
the software records an error (E) when the participant selects a location which is not a target. The trial ended only when the user selected the right target, so multiple errors were possible for each trial. While MT and E give us an overall success rate, NC provides information about the level of control achievable using each of the different pressure control mechanisms. Participants were also asked in an exit questionnaire to rank the different selection and pressure control techniques.
the order of presentation first controlled for sensor location and then for selection Mechanism. Levels of the other two factors were presented randomly, We explained the selection mechanisms and participants were given ample time to practice the techniques at the beginning of the experiment.
the experiment consisted of three blocks with each block comprising of two repetitions for each condition. With 9 participants, 5 pressure levels, 3 selection mechanisms, 3 sensor locations, 4 distances, 3 blocks, and 2 trials, the system recorded a total of (9 ⁇ 5 ⁇ 3 ⁇ 3 ⁇ 4 ⁇ 3 ⁇ 2) 9720 trials. The experiment took approximately 60 minutes per participant.
QR Quick Release
Dwell This technique is similar to the one designed in [15]. In this method the user maintains the cursor within the target for a predetermined amount of time. We use a delay period of 1 sec to trigger the selection.
top Three sensor locations were tested in the experiment: top, left and right.
the top sensor can be easily acquired by the user's middle finger.
the left sensor is accessible by the user's thumb and the sensor in the right location is accessible with the ring or little finger.
the mouse was equipped with only one sensor and the experimenter changed the location to match the corresponding experimental condition.
the relative pressure distance is the number of pressure units from the start of the pressure range ( FIG. 3 ).
FIG. 4 shows the mean completion time of each technique per pressure level.
FIG. 4 shows the mean completion time for each sensor location across the different pressure levels.
FIG. 5 shows the average crossings per pressure level for each technique ( FIG. 5 left) and sensor Location ( FIG. 5 right),
dwell is a relatively good selection technique as seen by the significantly lower number of errors. This is in-line with the results reported by Ramos et. al. [15]. Users completed the task with higher accuracy in dwell than in click and quick-release.
One explanation for this is that with dwell users can ensure the correct object is selected by dwelling on it for a sufficiently long period of time. However, with dwell, if users cannot reach the appropriate level a significant amount of adjustments are made. This is noticeable in the higher number of crossings, particularly with the larger pressure values. Additionally, in our study dwell triggers a selection after a I second delay, It is possible that with a smaller delay users perform equally well with dwell as they do with click, However, smaller delays may result in a larger number of errors and possibly a much higher number of crossings.
Augmenting the mouse with one pressure sensor limits the number of accessible pressure levels. Many applications such as zooming-in/out of a workspace, modifying the brush thickness in a drawing application or iterating through a long list of items can benefit from interacting with a large number of pressure levels. Additionally, a uni-pressure augmented mouse does not facilitate bi-directional input. In our context, bi-directional input refers to the user's ability to control, equally well, pressure input when pressing (forward) and releasing (backward) the sensor. From our observations (and prior work [15]), continuous pressure input with one sensor affords a much higher degree of forward control over backward control. These limitations led to the design of pressure control techniques, with two sensors.
the dual-pressure augmented mouse uses one pressure sensor that is controlled by the middle-finger and the other controlled by the thumb.
Results from experiment 1 suggest that users apply a coarse grained movement to get closer to a target and then apply a finer movement to “coast” onto the target. This observation led to the design of switch-to-refine and tap-and-refine.
Switch-to-refine allows users to switch between two sensors to control a large range of pressure values.
one sensor is considered as primary and the other as secondary.
the range of pressure values are divided such that users apply pressure on the primary sensor to access a coarse-level set of pressure values, each of which is interleaved by a range of fine-level pressure values ( FIG. 6 ).
the participant uses the primary sensor to coarsely jump through the coarse-level items and switches to the secondary sensor to control and navigate in a finer manner through the set of values between the coarse-level items.
the primary sensor does not respond while the user is refining their selection with the secondary sensor. Once the user reaches the appropriate pressure level they click on the left mouse button to select the item.
the items can group the items into eight coarse-level values each containing six fine-level items (see FIG. 6 ).
the users starts with the primary sensor and applies pressure to reach the 3 rd coarse-level item (which is item 13 in the entire range).
This is followed by switching to the secondary sensor to navigate through each of the fine-level items in coarse-level item number 3.
the secondary sensor allows the user to navigate through each of the 6 items from item-13 to 18.
the user applies 3 levels of pressure with the secondary sensor.
This technique allows users to select n ⁇ m levels where n and m are the maximum number of pressure values that users can control with the primary and secondary sensors, respectively. Unfortunately, switching from one sensor to the next creates additional overhead in switch-to-refine. Furthermore, switch-to-refine does not facilitate bidirectional pressure input.
Tap-and-refine categorizes pressure values into coarse-level and fine-level items similar to that in switch-to-refine. However, the interaction method in controlling the pressure input is different.
the user iterates through the coarse-level items by tapping (quick press and release within 60 ms) onto the primary sensor which sets the pressure cursor at that level. Once the pressure cursor is at a given coarse-level, the user accesses the finer levels by pressing onto the same pressure sensor. For example, to access the 15 th item, the user taps 3 times. On the third tap the user holds down on the primary sensor to iterate to the 15 th item and then clicks on the mouse button to select it.
Interacting with each sensor allows the user to move through the items in one of two directions (upward from 0 to maximum with the primary sensor, or downward from maximum to 0 with the secondary sensor).
bidirectional control with tapping users can easily adjust any overshoots that results from tapping too quickly.
the experimental software recorded continuous time and pressure values for each trial.
a typical trace of a user's selection task when using the click mechanism is shown in FIG. 9 .
Users' action can be characterized by two steps: First a coarse-grained pressure input to get closer to the target and then a fine-grained precision movement to select the target.
users apply instantly and rapidly a pressure amount to get in the range of the desired pressure value.
users then control more carefully the pressure input up to the target.
the tap in Tap-and-Refine may be replaced by a simple button.
the design would need two additional buttons (one for each direction) and one pressure sensor to work effectively.
using the standard right or left-click buttons would interfere with the click selection mechanism and other mouse functionalities.
the context switch that would ensue switching between the button and the pressure sensor would further contribute to reduced performance of the technique.
Analysis of our log files suggest that typical tap times are about 50 to 80 ms which seems faster that the button click times reported in [8], However, further research is needed to investigate alternatives to Tap-and-Refine.
a pressure augmented mouse can enhance interactivity in a number of different applications
Integrated scaling and parameter manipulation Ramos et al. [14] proposed a fluid pen-based interaction technique, Zliding that integrates scaling and parameter manipulation.
Zliding users control the scaling factor by applying pressure at the stylus' tip and delegate parameter manipulation to the stylus' x-y position.
Tap-and-refine can be modified to accommodate the design goals of an integrated scale and parameter manipulation technique.
the parameter manipulation would be assigned to the coarse-level movement of tapping onto the pressure button.
the scale factor would be relegated to the holding-down action in the tap.
Mode switching Many applications require that users switch between modes rapidly [8]. In games for instance, it is critical that users switch modes quickly to access a weapon or some other tool. In drawing applications, a significant amount of work takes place in small local regions of the workspace. Drawing applications require that users access different options on palettes in the application for such tasks as modifying the thickness of the pen of changing a color. Pressure buttons can allow users to select a mode without making significant displacements in the application.
Pressure Menus could be designed in a similar manner to polygon marking menus [21]. On the spot, users can trigger and interact with a large menu. Using tap users can iterate through an infinite amount of menu values and refine their selection as needed.
Augmenting a mouse with pressure based input poses several design challenges, some of which we addressed in this paper.
Results of the first experiment show that pressure buttons are best controllable by the middle-finger and the thumb.
the first study also confirmed that users can comfortably control a limited number of pressure levels with one pressure button.
the uni-pressure augmented mouse did not facilitate bi-directional pressure input.
the limitations of a uni-pressure augmented mouse led to the design of a dual-pressure augmented mouse along with two interactive mechanisms, tap-and-refine and switch-to-refine, to control pressure levels.
the results of the second study showed that with tap-and-refine users can comfortably control a large number of pressure levels. Furthermore, with tap-and-refine users can provide pressure input in a bi-directional manner.
the pressure sensitive switch is arranged to distinguish among pressure values in discrete pressure ranges corresponding to different pressures being applied by the user by dividing the entire range of pressure values into discrete units with a discretization function.
the entire range of pressure values can be divided into 8 or fewer discrete units in some embodiment, however when using certain discretization functions, the pressure values may be divided into 8 or many more discrete units.
the discretization function is arranged to produce a limited number of discrete levels to facilitate the control of raw pressure values obtained from the pressure switch. In other words the discretization function converts analog pressure values to a limited number of discrete levels.
the discretization function can be linear, quadratic or fisheye.
x is the raw pressure value from the pressure switch
I is the number of pressure ranges
R is the total number of raw pressure values
x is the raw pressure value from the pressure switch
I is the number of pressure ranges
R is the total number of raw pressure values
the fisheye discretization function is particularly advantageous for increasing the controllable number of discrete pressure units as it is arranged to divide the range of pressure values into discrete pressures units such that a currently selected one of the discrete pressure units is arranged to be larger between respective upper and lower pressure value limits than remaining non-selected discrete pressure units. Accordingly, once the pressure switch is depressed by a given pressure value, the correspondingly selected discrete pressure unit will remain selected despite small variations in the applied pressure value.
the fisheye function is given by the following equation,
x is the raw pressure value from the pressure switch
I is the number of pressure ranges
r is the fisheye radius
R is the total number of raw pressure values.
x the raw pressure value from the sensor
I the number of pressure levels the space is divided into
R the total number of raw pressure values from the pressure sensor.
the linear function is given by (formula)
Some groups [24,29] have used functions that assign more pressure levels to the middle range of the pressure space by hand-picking various design parameters like the starting pressure unit for each level and the number of pressure units for each pressure level. Rather than hand-pick, we used a K-means clustering algorithm to discretize the space. Users were asked to select randomly highlighted pressure levels discretized using the linear function described above and a quadratic function described by Cechanowicz et al. [24]. We collected raw pressure values for 6 users (208 trials/user) and used the K-means clustering algorithm to design an overlapping discretization for each pressure level. Following a pilot study that showed no significant difference between the quadratic and linear functions, we decided to proceed with the linear function only, to allow us to compare and contrast linear (L) with K-mean clustered linear (KC).
This fisheye function was inspired by the fisheye distortion functions introduced by Furnas [25] and applied to fisheye menus [22].
the idea of a fisheye function is to make the area near the point of interest highly visible. This results in a distortion with a variable amount of space reserved for the various elements in the pressure space. Items further away from the focal point occupy less space, while items closer to the focal point occupy more space, and the item of focus itself occupies the largest amount of space. While this distortion of the visual space offers enhanced visibility researchers have also re-ported targeting problems that arise from the constant change of control-to-display ratio [26].
the fisheye function could be particularly advantageous as a discretization function for three reasons.
Each of the design parameters consist of modifying the values for r,
R and I given the equation above.
I consisting of values 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16, and r was assigned a value of 120 pressure units. These values were selected based on a number of pilots we ran before starting the final study.
Visual feedback is an essential element in pressure-based interaction [24, 27-29]. While the fisheye function divides the entire pressure space into non-uniform units, the visual fisheye (VF) function uses an underlying linear function but presents the visualization as a fisheye menu. As a result, the users are controlling the pressure cursor using a linear function but are being led into believing that the pressure is being controlled using a fish-eye technique.
the motivation behind the design of VF is that if such a technique were to be successful then developers could simply enhance the visual presentation of pressure input. We were interested in identifying whether the visual effects were sufficient to improve control without changing the underlying discretization function (i.e. identify the degree of importance of visual feedback on pressure input).
the experimental software recorded trial completion time (MT), errors (E), and number of crossings (NC) as dependent variables.
MT is the total time taken for the user to apply the appropriate amount of pressure and select the target.
NC is the number of times the cursor leaves a target after first entry for a particular trial.
E is the number of times the participant selects a location which is not a target.
the trial ended only when the user selected the right target, so multiple errors were possible for each trial. While MT gives us an overall success rate, E and NC provide information about the level of control achievable using each of the different pressure-control mechanisms.
the item changes to a dark gray, and the trial continues until the participant selects the right target.
Dwell users maintain the cursor within the target for 750 ms, whereas Click users click with the left mouse button.
the order of presentation was first controlled for function type, and then for pressure level. Levels of the other two factors were presented randomly. After explaining the selection mechanisms, participants were given ample time to practice the techniques. The experiment consisted of three blocks with two repetitions per block, per condition.
FIG. 13( c ) shows the average NC for each function.
FE was most preferred by nine users followed by L with three, KC with one and one with VF.
Input devices such as the mouse have witnessed an impressive number of augmentations with additional input channels, including extra control buttons, the mouse wheel, and sensors.
the augmentation of additional degrees-of-freedom is motivated by the need to enhance the interactivity of specific tasks at the interface: control buttons for gaming applications, the mouse wheel for scrolling and zooming, and sensors for switching between active screens.
Ramos et al. [46] explored the design space of pressure-based interaction with styluses. They proposed a set of pressure widgets that operate based on the users' ability to effectively control a discrete set of pressure values.
Ramos et al. [46] identified that adequate control of pressure values is tightly coupled to a fixed number of discrete pressure levels (six maximum levels), the type of selection mechanism and a high degree of visual feedback. However, their investigation does not explore the benefits of simultaneously integrating pressure control with stylus movement.
Cechanowicz et al [32] investigated the possibility of facilitating pressure-based input by augmenting a mouse with either one or two pressure sensors. Such an augmentation allows users to control a large number of input modes with minimal displacements of the mouse. Cechanowicz et al [32] developed several pressure mode selection mechanisms and showed that with two pressure sensors users can control over 64 discrete pressure modes. Their results also show that activating pressure sensors that are located near the mouse buttons or located for thumb input are optimal placements for facilitating pressure input. However, Cechanowicz et al [32] did not investigate the possibility of fluidly integrating pressure input with other mouse based operations.
PressureMarks relies on a low or high pressure input (instead of the entire pressure range), and Zliding works within a limited displacement range. Furthermore, very little support was provided to users for facilitating simultaneous control more than one non-competing interactive tasks.
PressureMove a pressure based interaction technique that enables simultaneous control of pressure input and mouse movement. Simultaneous control of pressure and mouse movement can support tasks that require control of multiple parameters, like rotation and translation of an object, or pan-and-zoom.
PressureMove techniques for a 2D position and orientation matching task where pressure manipulations mapped to object orientation and mouse movement to object translation.
the Naive technique mapped raw pressure-sensor values to the object rotation; the Rate-based technique mapped discrete pressure values to speed of rotation and Hierarchical and Hybrid techniques that use a two-step approach to control orientation using pressure.
Rate-based Pressure-Move was the fastest technique with the least number of crossings and as preferred as the default mouse in terms of user-preference. We discuss the implications of our user study and present several design guidelines.
Pressure augmentation could potentially be designed such that the user can manipulate both pressure input and cursor movement, enabling users to synchronously perform actions that can otherwise only be accomplished sequentially.
a pressure augmented mouse could potentially enable users to rotate and translate an object synchronously, a task that is routinely carried out in drawing applications ( FIG. 15 ).
Pressure manipulations controlled object orientation and mouse movement controlled movement The first a Naive technique mapped the raw pressure values from the sensor to the rotation of the object while mouse movement mapped to object translation.
the second technique referred to as PressureMove Rate-based, was inspired by tap-and-refine [32] and mapped the rate of pressure change to rotation angle.
the third technique is an Hierarchical technique that uses discrete pressure levels for object rotation in two steps—a coarse grain and a fine grain step.
a Hybrid technique that combined the simplicity of Native technique with the multi-step control of Hierarchical. In a 2D rotate and translate task, similar to the tetrahedral docking task in 3D [38,51], we examined the proposed designs for integrating mouse movement and pressure rotation.
Rate-based integration offered best control and performance.
the Rate-based technique was significantly faster than all other techniques including the traditional mouse.
the Naive implementation was as fast as the conventional mouse in terms of trial completion times but was significantly slower than the traditional Mouse and Rate-based technique in terms of crossings.
Jacob et al [43] proposed a framework that can facilitate the understanding and categorization of integrality and separability of input devices and interactions afforded by these.
Two input dimensions are considered integral if they are perceived as a single dimension or separable if the dimensions seem unrelated [43].
performance was better when the device matched the tasks in integrality/separability dimensions.
coordinating multiple channels may suggest whether the input device is operating in the same dimension space as the task, i.e. good coordination and performance suggests that the device and perceptual structure of the task are in the same space. Integrality can be considered to some ex-tent as a coordination measure.
Balakrishnan et al [31] used integrality to demonstrate that subjects could control three degrees of freedom simultaneously with the Rockin' Mouse, a X-Y translational and one Z-rotational DOF.
MacKenzie et al. [37] investigated the possibility of integrating rotation on the mouse, a device designed primarily for translation and selecting objects.
the TwoBall mouse facilitates a number of common tasks, and makes certain application features, such as the rotate tool, redundant.
Zhai et al [51] investigated the effectiveness of finger muscle groups in controlling multiple degrees-of-input.
Zhai et al [51] gave users two alternative 6DOF input devices, one that controlled a cursor with the movement of the entire arm (glove) and the other with the fingers of a hand (FingerBall[X]).
the objective of the study was to assess whether finger control was more effective than arm control in finely rotating and positioning an object in 3D.
the task consisted of docking a cursor with the target, both of which were equal size tetrahedral. They found that the finger-based device facilitated better control and afforded simultaneous translation and rotation actions.
PressureMove a pressure based technique that facilitates simultaneous control of mouse movement and pressure input.
PressureMove maps mouse displacement onto object movement and pressure input onto object rotation.
In designing PressureMove we needed to consider two primary dimensions: controlling pressure input, and visual feedback.
An alternative to discretizing pressure input is to map the raw pressure space (non-discretized—referring to the fact that the discrete pressure values reported by the sensor are not further discretized) onto the task parameters.
Each unit of pressure in the raw pressure space controls an input parameter, whether it be angular rotation, scalar, or other factor.
Raw pressure input is not easily controlled, however facilitates a larger number of mappings.
hybrid pressure space that is composed of continuous and discrete pressure values.
continuous pressure input can provide the user with rapid access to a region of interest within the pressure space while switching to discrete control allows finer granularity and control over parameter values.
PressureMove includes discrete, raw, and hybrid pressure control techniques.
Visual feedback is a dominant characteristic of most closed-loop pressure based interactions [32,40,44,46]. Different forms of Visual feedback for pressure based input have been explored in PressureWidgets [46]. However, the Visual feedback in PressureMove is inspired by the visual feedback mechanism used by Kittenakare et al [34] and Ramos et al [46]. Since the design of the visual feedback is intricately tied to the task, we de-scribe the feedback designed for the task of simultaneously positioning and orienting an object. We expect that a similar form of visual feedback can be easily adapted for other simultaneous control tasks.
a pressure cursor is used to provide appropriate visual feedback.
the default cursor is a solid triangular shaped object (see FIG. 16( a )).
When the user applies pressure a proportion of this cursor gets highlighted relative to the amount of pressure being applied as in FIGS. 16( b ) and 16 ( c ).
Visual feedback is always continuous, as this form of feedback has shown to enhance performance over non-continuous visual feedback.
we redundantly encode pressure amount to the aperture of the pressure cursor i.e. the higher the pressure value, the large the aperture of the cursor (as is seen in the difference in size of the cursor in FIGS. 16( a ) and 16 ( b )).
FIGS. 16( d ) and 16 ( e ) In the case where we used a hybrid pressure space we used a two-step cursor as shown in FIGS. 16( d ) and 16 ( e ).
the head-triangle (the triangle that represents the head of the cursor) represents the first pressure space the user can use while the second triangle corresponds to the second pressure space.
FIG. 16( d ) the user is currently controlling the first pressure space while in FIG. 16( e ) the user is operating with the second pressure space.
multiple triangles can be concatenated. However, in our design we only used up to two pressure spaces composed to form a single technique.
FIG. 17( a ) shows the mapping function—the pressure range is mapped to the complete range of the rotation parameter, i.e. 360° angle.
the orientation reverses i.e., if the initial direction of rotation is clockwise then on releasing pressure the object change orientation in the counter-clockwise direction.
the parameter value returns to the starting position. To fix the value the user can left-click before releasing pressure.
the thumb sensor When the user presses the thumb sensor the object rotates clock-wise and the visual feedback is as shown in FIG. 16( b ).
each level of the discrete pressure space maps to the speed of rotation of the object as shown in FIG. 17( b ).
the object rotates by 1° at each timer event. To move the object faster the user moves higher up within the pressure levels.
the object rotates at n degrees per timer event.
This mechanism provides the additional benefit of maintaining a given orientation when the user releases the pressure sensor, thus incorporating a clutching mechanism that is not available with the naive technique.
the user can tap the pressure sensor to nudge the object by I° per tap. This gives the user additional fine control when honing in on the target. This tapping was inspired from the Tap-and-Refine technique in [32]. The visual feedback used was the same as for the Naive implementation.
PressureMove-Hierarchical allows users to control rotation in two steps—a coarse-step and a fine-step.
the coarse and fine movement is controlled by a discrete pressure map-ping.
n C [0,15] is the coarse-step pressure level.
FIG. 17( c ) shows the pressure vs angle profile for this technique.
the dotted line at about 150° indicates the moment at which the user moved from coarse to fine control using left-click.
FIGS. 16( d ) and 2 ( e ) show the visual feedback that was provided to the user when using the thumb sensor (so object rotates clockwise).
the top triangle of the cursor changes with pressure when the user is performing a coarse-level action (as in FIG. 16( d )) and the bottom triangle changes with pressure when the user if performing a fine-level action (as in FIG. 16( e )).
Hybrid combines the simplicity available with Naive with the fine control provided by Hierarchical.
the coarse-step of Hierarchical is replaced by the continuous rotation control used in Naive (see the bottom left part of FIG. 17( d )). This enables the user to quickly rotate the object to approximately the desired orientation and (b) then use finer step control to perform a more precise orientation.
the fine-control step and the visual feedback mechanism worked exactly as in Hierarchical.
the task shown in FIG. 18 , required the user to reposition and reorient to a target location and orientation a small object (100 ⁇ 100 pixels) which initially appeared upright and in the left end of the screen.
the target of a slightly larger size than the object appeared to the right of the object.
the size, the distance to the object and the orientation of the target were changed as part of the experimental design.
the trial began when the user moved the cursor onto the object and pressed the left mouse-click.
the user repositioned and reoriented the object to the target location using the different interaction techniques.
the target bounding rectangle changed to a green color.
the user then had to maintain the matching position and orientation for 1 second before the trial was completed. We did this to prevent users from accidentally matching the position and orientation. If the user moved the object away from the matched position, the I second timer was reset.
the object position and orientation were considered to match those of the target if the difference in pixels and orientation was within the target-fit parameter controlled as factor of the experiment.
the target bounding rectangle briefly turns red and the next trial loads.
Trial completion time is defined as the total time taken for the user to position and orient the object within the target.
the number of crossings is defined as the number of times the object enters and leaves the target position or orientation for a particular trial. Users were not able to proceed to the next trial without successfully completing the task and so there were no errors for the software to record. While MT gives us an overall success rate, NC provides information about the level of control achievable using each of the different pressure control mechanisms. Participants were also asked in an exit questionnaire to rank the different pressure control techniques in terms of mental demand, physical demand, effort, overall performance and frustration.
FIG. 19 shows the mean trial completion time for each technique and target-fit. Overall, Rate-based was the fastest technique followed by Naive, Mouse, Hierarchical, and Hybrid.
Block 3 was significantly faster than Block 2 which was significantly faster than Block 1 . Users were significantly slower in completing the trials when the target-fit was tight (as opposed to loose); when targets were farther (1100 pixels followed by 500) and when the orientation of target was greater (all combinations significantly different with 270 deg>135 deg>60 deg).
FIG. 21 users were constantly improving their performance over the three blocks for both trial completion times ( FIG. 21( a )) and number of crossings ( FIG. 21( b )).
the average MT in Block 3 was 5.0 s corn-pared to 5.3 s for Block 2 and 6.1 s for Block I.
the univeriate analysis we used in the previous section did not reveal any significant interaction between technique and block number for both MT and Crossings.
users continued to improve their performance over each block the overall order of the different techniques did not change. Observing improvement over blocks is in line with prior work that suggests that with practice users are able to allocate better control to the simultaneous operation of different input dimensions of the task [38].
the Hierarchical technique was more markedly affected by the target orientation than the other techniques. Especially when the target orientation was 270 deg, the average MT for Hierarchical was about 7.2 s compared to 5 s for the other two orientations (see FIG. 22( a )).
users often used the thumb sensor that rotated the object clockwise. This meant that the user had to maintain pressure at level 11 while selecting the left-click to go to the fine level of control. As users found it difficult to maintain pressure steadily at this level, they often lost the level while trying to click requiring them to click again to comeback to the coarse-level. This resulted in a large increase in the number of clicks when the target orientation was 270 deg (see FIG. 22( b )).
FIG. 23 shows typical movement and pressure profiles for the four pressure-based techniques.
Each left-right pair is distance and pressure profile for the same trial of a user.
each technique is from a different user, selected randomly to highlight that the movement profiles shown in the figures are stereotypical.
the Rate-based technique being a relative input technique, users don't need to maintain constant pressure to complete the task
FIGS. 23( a ) and 23 ( b ) We can see from the figure ( FIGS. 23( a ) and 23 ( b )) that the Naive implementation does not really encourage simultaneous control of pressure and movement. Users use the first second to complete positioning the object before applying pressure to change orientation. We observe a similar trend with the Hybrid technique.
this technique is based on discrete pressure control. Since each level of the discrete pressure space maps onto the angular speed parameter, a high degree of control is required to hold and maintain the pressure at given discrete levels. This is facilitated by a small number of discrete pressure levels and by the use of discrete fisheye function.
pressure level 0 brings the rotating object to a halt, at the last applied orientation.
the implicit clutching mechanism in the rate-based technique allows smaller close-loop movements than the other techniques.
the technique allows fine adjustments at level 0, by nudging the object by I° every tap. The fine grain control over angular displacement and the fluidity of this technique facilitates a higher degree of simultaneous control than any of the other systems.
PressureMove can enhance the interactive performance in a number of different applications. In all of the following applications, the simultaneous control of more than one input parameter would ease the task of the operator. While we have not evaluated each of the PressureMove techniques for these applications, we believe the Rate-based implementation of PressureMove would offer improved performance.
Zoomable user interfaces can largely benefit from the simultaneous control of several parameters.
the user was given the ability to control scale and the resolution of the scale.
PressureMove can control various parameters by applying pressure to a scalar value and movement to direction of the zooming operation. For instance moving the mouse left or right could zoom in or out respectively, while pressure would control the resolution factor of the zooming operation.
the rate-based technique would change the resolution of the zoom operation by one step at each level of angular velocity.
a combined Pan+Zoom interface could be easily implemented using PressureMove. For example on a map, the mouse movement would pan the document while pressure input zooms in or out.
the center point of reference in the zoom interface is defined by the position of the cursor or crosshair before transitioning into the zoom.
the position of the cursor can be updated dynamically during zoom transitions, thereby facilitating a larger degree of freedom in moving around a workspace while zooming. In all these applications undoing or returning to a previous state is easily achieved by using the additional pressure sensor.
Drawing applications facilitate a large number of object positioning tasks with operations that involve rotating elements, scaling and/or skewing.
operations requiring coarse or approximate movements such as scaling or skewing an object
precise positioning could be assigned to the mouse movement.
Two pressure sensors would be required to undo operations, a feature that is currently part of PressureMove.
PressureMove can be adapted for object manipulation and positioning in 3D.
CAD systems could utilize the pressure input dimension to rapidly rotate the entire scene, thereby making accessible a different aspect of the 3D drawing.
PressureMove While in systems such as PressureMark where users controlled a high or low pressure value, our results demonstrate that with PressureMove users can control several intermediary pressure levels during movement. This can be particularly useful for designing (as was done with Pressure-Marks) an interactive menu in which different menu items are triggered based on the pressure level invoked during movement.
PressureMove could integrate fluid menu invocation with object selection as is done with techniques such as zone and polygon[52] or marking[G] menus or others similar techniques developed for styluses.
PressureMove could be utilized to dynamically manipulate control gain ratios. Such manipulation is particularly useful on high resolution, large display interactions on which users operate with fine and coarse resolution. While the applications suggested earlier utilize pressure input for a task independent of cursor movement, in this application users would be controlling one task dimension with two input channels. We believe that novel design spaces and solutions can result from investigating the use of PressureMove in such environments.
Pressure input can be appropriately integrated with mouse movement, such that both dimensions are operated simultaneously. This should result in higher performance gains than operating with either channel separately.
PressureMove—Rate-based should be the first and preferred implementation of any PressureMove application.
the discrete pressure control, fine grain pressure mapping and inherent clutching mechanisms in the rate-based techniques are favorable properties that could be borrowed to implement other variations of PressureMove for simultaneous pressure and movement control.
Allowing users to gain experience with PressureMove is important and may be necessary in some cases, i.e. any new implementation of a PressureMove technique should not be discarded without first giving consideration to proper training.
PressureMove is a novel technique that facilitates the simultaneous control of various input parameters.
Our PressureMove techniques cover the wide spectrum of possibilities with pressure control and mouse displacement mappings.
the Rate-based PressureMove technique which maps pressure input to angular velocity allowed the maximum amount of simultaneous control of pressure with mouse movement. Users were able to perform a docking task more efficiently and with fewer crossing with the rate-based implementation.
Pressure input has become a topic of significant interest within the HCI community as researchers slowly gain insight on how to harness the potential of pressure based interaction.
researchers are devising new pressure-based input devices [56,79], integrating pressure input into existing devices [59,61] or are exploring the limitations to pressure input [70, 73, 76-78].
researchers are producing a fair amount of knowledge on some of the key aspects of pressure based input such as identifying the number of pressure levels that are easily controllable, the necessity for visual or haptic feed-back, or the limitations to controlling pressure in a bidirectional manner.
a question that lingers concerns how to bring these pressure sensing interactions closer to the average user's daily interactive activities.
buttons on a mouse are not limited to pen-based systems.
Apple introduced the MightyMouseTM [72] that is equipped with two pressure sensing buttons attached to the opposite sides of the outer rim of the mouse. Integrating pressure buttons on a mouse as that employed by the MightyMouseTM is analogous to adding additional buttons to mice for managing multiple windows, for scrolling documents or for enhancing gaming activities.
such enhancements can provide very limited interaction bandwidths as it can be difficult for a user to benefit from the different buttons due to the ergonomics, the physical space limitations of the mouse and the potential conflict that may arise from placing the buttons in inappropriate locations on the mouse.
selection and action invocation are commonly performed by clicking while triggering an action (such as opening a file or application) is handled by double-clicking on the mouse button.
pressure marks a fluid pressure-based input with pen strokes to combine selections and actions at the interface.
Pressure marks are designed in such a manner that users can make a stroke with varying levels of pressure to trigger an action.
pressure marks which allow users to specify selection and action concurrently outperformed existing techniques that require these operations to be performed in a sequential manner.
isometric devices have used pressure input as a method of controlling the user's mouse cursor. In such systems users decrease or increase the amount of force on an isometric pointing nub to control the velocity of the cursor.
the PalmMouseTM [74] integrates isometric control into a mouse by allowing users to control cursor speed by applying a slight amount of pressure to a navigation dome which is placed on the top of the mouse. Isometric devices map pressure input to the speed of the cursor and have not been designed for substituting the selection mechanisms of buttons on a mouse.
Touchpads that sense pressure are widespread input devices in notebooks or portable music players.
researchers have successfully integrated discrete mechanisms of selection and action with continuous pressure based input with touchpads [79].
touchpads users can perform a single tap or double tap to trigger a selection or an action, respectively.
continuous pressure input is used to for mapping various functions, such as scrolling. Pressure sensing is utilized in a limited manner on touchpad based input through which a user can control the document scrolling rate by pressing onto the edge of the touchpad.
Cechanowicz et al [59] investigated the possibility of facilitating pressure-based input by augmenting a mouse with either one or two pressure sensors. Such an augmentation allows users to control a large number of input modes with minimal displacements of the mouse. Cechanowicz et al [59] developed several pressure mode selection mechanisms and showed that with two pressure sensors users can control over 64 discrete pressure modes. Their results also show that activating pressure sensors that are located near the mouse buttons or located for thumb input are optimal placements for facilitating pressure input. However, Cechanowicz et al did not investigate the possibility of facilitating all selection-based operations on pressure-augmented mouse such as the mouse click and double-click.
the left mouse button serves a vital purpose in a GUI as it enables users to select an object through a single or a double-click.
To invoke a basic button click the user applies sufficient pressure on the button beyond a fixed threshold. Users get both aural and haptic feedback during the clicking process.
user input is restricted to a single or double-click.
sensors lack any form of haptic or aural feedback mechanism, they are effective in allowing users to control a continuous range of pressure values thereby facilitating a wide range of input.
results of the first study show that a single click can be effectively replaced by a pressure click. Based on the results of the first study we design several other pressure clicking mechanisms to replace the mouse double-click.
results of a second study show that a hard press with a pressure sensor is more effective than a double click. The results overall open up the potential of enhancing mouse buttons with pressure sensors so that a wider range of input modes can be accessed with one of the most commonly used input devices.
the main contributions of this paper are to: 1) extend the potential of a mouse with pressure sensing input; 2) identify strategies for invoking mouse clicks with pressure sensors; 3) identify possible design elements for replacing current clicking mechanisms.
Pointing and selecting objects is considered to be a primary and necessary operation for most common forms of interactions. If we consider pointing and selecting as two separate processes, we can refer to pointing as the movement of a cursor starting at some initial position and ending on the target, and selection as the initiation of a button click and release. Some evidence suggests that selection alone (i.e. button clicking) without pointing can consume a significant amount of the total target selection time [57,68]. As a result, enhancing the selection mechanisms on an input device can lead to more efficient interactions. Most commonly available input devices such as the mouse, the stylus or touch-screens have witnessed several enhancements for replacing or improving selection.
Bohan and Chaparro compared a mouse-click to a dwell-to-click, or hover. In their study Bohan and Chaparro found that a hover of 200 ms provided a gain as high as 25% for task completion times in comparison to a mouse button press and release [57].
the GentleMouseTM [64] is a commercial product de-signed to eliminate button clicks. With the GentleMouseTM users pause (with a configurable time delay) the mouse cursor to initiate a click. The delayed pause briefly displays a small, see-through window or trigger window. By moving and pausing once again the mouse cursor into the trigger window the user can simulate a button click.
the GentleMouseTM is being primarily targeted to users with repetitive strain injuries given that mouse-clicking has been found to accentuate disorders such as carpal tunnel syndrome [62].
Touchpads are very common input devices on notebooks and provide an alternative to mice when working in con-strained spaces. Touchpad implement the selection with either a physical button or using a lift-and-tap technique. MacKenzie and Oniszczak [71] devised a finger-pressing technique with tactile feedback as an alternative to click and lift-and-tap on a touch pad. In one study, MacKenzie and Oniszczak [71] found that with the tactile selection users were 46% faster than with a button click, and 20% compared to the lift-and-tap.
tapping does not reflect how people naturally use notepads, where writing and making checkmarks is common, designers have developed an alternative referred to as touching [80].
touch interactions only require that the target be touched at some point.
touching supports selecting targets by crossing them, making checkmarks and even tapping.
Results show [68,80] that touching is a viable alternative to tapping for completing selection, even for the elderly [HB].
crossing targets can be more effective than point and click selections [66]. With CrossY [66] the pointing is eliminated and instead selection happens in one fluid motion by crossing an object.
Touch screens are also very common and facilitate one of the most natural forms of pointing and selecting, by allowing users to select objects with a finger.
Potter et al [75] compared three selection mechanisms, take-off, first contact and land-on. Take-off, allows the user to drag a cursor that appears above the user's finger tip and select an object by taking off the finger from the touchsceen as the cursor appears in a target.
first-contact the user can drag their finger across an empty area of the touchscreen and selects an object by making contact with it.
Land-on triggers selection the first time the finger lands on the screen.
Their results show that users perform better with take-off than with first-contact or land-on [75].
Albins son and Zhai [54] ex-tended the work of [75] to design more accurate selection mechanisms on touchscreens. However their research primarily focused on reducing pointing errors on touchsceens instead of final selection mechanism.
pressure-clicking has been pro-posed for the mouse [59,83], for touchpads [71], for text-entry [61] and for multi-touch screens [55].
Zeleznik et al. [83] proposed an additional “pop-through” state to the mechanical operation of the mouse button. As a result, users can move beyond a simple click or double click by using a number of techniques that take advantage of a soft-press and a hard-press with a pop-through button, such as shortening/lengthening adaptive menus, character instead of word selection with text, or moving a scroll bar with finer instead of coarser control.
Forlines et al. [63] proposed an intermediary “glimpse” state on a mouse-click to facilitate various editing tasks. Glimpse can be activated using pressure-based selection. With glimpse users can preview the effects of their editing without executing any commands. Multi-level input can facilitate navigation, editing or selection tasks but utilizes pressure input in a limited way.
Pressure-clicking has also been employed as an alternative to multi-tapping buttons on a cell-phone for text-entry [61].
pressure levels between 3 to 4
the authors in [61] present the possibility of concurrently combining discrete and continuous pressure input to perform such tasks as zooming or scrolling with large workspaces.
SimPress a pseudo pressure-clicking technique
Benko et al [55] map changes in the finger's contact area to the changes in pressure.
SimPress requires users to perform a small rocking movement with their finger from the point of contact to the wrist to simulate a click. With such a mechanism, Benko et al [55] were able to get fairly accurate selection rates on a touch-screen.
Pressure Click This selection technique is designed to replicate the operation of a mouse button click. Applying a pressure Pdown the system invoked a mouse down event. Releasing the pressure sensor after triggering a mouse down invoked a mouse up when the pressure level attained a level less than Pup.
a pressure-timing graph in FIG. 25 depicts the invocation of a mouse down and mouse up with a pressure sensor and a button.
FIG. 26 shows the invocation of a mouse click and release with pressure tap. The entire click-and-release operation is considered as one atomic unit. The click is triggered when the user is capable of applying and then releasing a pressure of 2 units within 150 ms. If the user is not able to apply and release the required pressure within the specified time interval then the system does not register a click.
Pressure tap is missing tactile and aural feedback and this led to the design of pressure tap audio. mode, which plays a mouse down sound when pressure is applied and a mouse up sound if a click is successfully registered.
PButtons implemented a double-click action registration mechanism.
pressure double-click triggered a double-click by implementing two pressure clicks followed closely by one another.
the time delay between the two pressure clicks is similar to the delay required to register a double-click using a mouse button. In most systems this delay is configurable to match the users motor capacities.
Pressure double-tap triggered a double-click by implementing two pressure taps followed closely by one another.
FIG. 27 depicts the hard-press and sensor double-click in a pressure-time graph. Additional specific details on the double-click mechanisms are provided in the section on double-click mechanisms below in the paper.
the sensor (model #IESF-R-5L from CUI Inc.) could measure a maximum pressure value of 1.5 Ns. Each sensor provided 1024 pressure levels. Pressure sensors are mounted on the top of each of the two primary mouse buttons. Users could then click with the left or right finger to perform a selection. Depending on the input mode the primary mouse buttons were taped so that they could no longer be activated by pressing on the sensors. In the condition when pressure sensors were not tested they were removed from the mouse.
the application was developed in C# and the sensor was controlled using the Phidgets library [65].
the experiment was conducted in full-screen mode at 1024 ⁇ 768 pixels on a P4 3.0 GHz Windows XP OS.
Trial completion time is defined as the total time taken for the user to perform the selection action from the time the square turned green.
the software records an error (E) when the participant performed an action but did not complete the selection action. For example, in the Pressure-Click mechanism this could occur when the user does not press the pressure sensor hard enough for the system to register a click.
E error
the trial ended only when the user completed the selection action, so multiple errors were possible for each trial. Participants were also asked in an exit questionnaire to rank the different selection techniques.
Input Device Location Left side (Index Finger), Right side (Middle Finger).
Index Finger Left side
Square Finger right side
Button click consisted of a single click with the mouse button.
Pressure Click with and without Audio we use a Pdown of 4 units (sensors collected a range of 1024 discrete pressure units) and a Pup or 2 pressure units.
the audio feedback condition users heard a ‘click’ sound when both the Pdown and Pup levels were crossed.
Pressure Tap with and without Audio we use a time interval T of 1 50 ms and the same pressure levels as those used for the pressure click condition. The major difference is that users are required to cross both pressure thresholds within the time limit of 150 ms.
the order of presentation was first controlled for input device location and then for input mode. We explained the input modes and participants were given ample time to practice the tasks with the various conditions at the beginning of the experiment. The experiment consisted of three blocks with each block consisting of twenty repetitions for each condition.
FIG. 28 shows the mean completion time for each mode grouped by location.
the study used a within-participants factorial design with the Double-click mechanism as the independent variable.
Button click simply consisted of the conventional double-click with the mouse button.
Pressure click consisted of two consecutive clicks with the pressure sensor. No time-out delay was used between the two clicks.
the pressure value for a down click (Pdown) was 4 units and for a release (Pup) was 2 units.
the HardPress required that each user press beyond a certain activation level, but only once.
the major difference between HardPress and the other clicking techniques was that the user only needed to press once instead of twice. Since we did not find any significant difference between the conditions with and without audio for Pressure click and Tap in the single-click condition we did not include audio-feedback enhanced versions of these techniques in this study. This also helped us keep the study to a more manageable number of independent factors.
FIG. 30 shows the mean completion time for each mode. There were in total 147 errors across all conditions for all trials. The distribution of errors is as shown in FIG. 30 (right). As with the previous study, a large number of the errors in the second study resulted from the form factor and foot-print of the pressure sensors.
Hardpress does not rely on this timeout to distinguish the two.
users only need to cross a pressure level to activate double-click.
the threshold value for a pressure-level varied across users.
users performed about 10 practice trials before starting the experimental trails.
users were initiating a HardPress within a thresh-old that ranged from 65 to 185 pressure units.
users will be able to set the HardPressure threshold in a manner similar to double-click timeouts as is currently performed in the WindowsTM operating system.
HardPress should include an upper pressure threshold. When the user applies a pressure that is beyond a certain pressure value the system can then enter into a continuous pressure interaction mode. This would surmount to making the first pressure level correspond to a double click in a multi-level pressure interaction space.
the authors several present techniques that could be adapted to make HardPress effectively control up to 64 pressure levels.
HardPress proposed in this paper would work in conjunction with the techniques proposed in [59] since the pressure values used in HardPress appear in the lower pressure range (65-185). This allows designers to user the upper range of pressure values (>185 pressure units) for continuous pressure-based interaction. According to [59] this upper range is sufficient to control a large number of pressure levels.
PButtons would need to devise mechanisms to maintain the device in state 2 .
two alternatives 1) Pressure Click&Hold; and 2) PressureLock.
Pressure Click&Hold the user would apply pressure beyond the cur-rent activation levels required for a HardPress. This would result in a switch to state 2 which could be maintained for as long as the user maintains pressure on the sensor.
Fine control over pressure levels can be challenging and PressureLock might be an easier alternative.
Pressure-Lock would work similar to ClickLock that is available on most Windows XPTM based mice.
PressureLock would allow users to drag and drop items without having to keep the pressure sensor held down while moving the mouse. Once turned on, the user has to dwell on the pressure sensor for a brief period when selecting an item to move. Afterwards, the user can release the mouse and drag the item. By tapping on the sensor the item would drop to its destination.
Pressure buttons can be used as a replacement to mouse buttons to facilitate discrete and continuous selection mechanisms
Pressure values in the lower range of the pressure space are adequate for simulating single or double mouse click functions
the footprint of the pressure buttons needs to be equivalent to that of mouse buttons
Pressure sensors can potentially be used instead of the left- and right-click buttons to perform basic single and double-click operations while at the same time allowing continuous pressure input for more complex applications.
PButtons are as good as traditional buttons for single click and HardPress is significantly faster than traditional button for double-click.

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US9495021B2 (en)	2016-11-15
US20150153847A1 (en)	2015-06-04

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