HK1236749B - Photonic fence - Google Patents

Description

Photon Fence

All subject matter of the priority application and related applications, and all subject matter of any and all parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, etc. applications of the priority application and related applications, including any priority claims, to the extent such subject matter is not inconsistent herewith, is incorporated herein by reference.

Summary of the Invention

In one aspect, a system for tracking airborne organisms includes an imager (e.g., a camera or scanner), a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector), and a processor. The processor is configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager, including at least a portion of the backlight, and identify a biological characteristic (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating state, pregnancy, feeding state, age, or health) of an organism (e.g., an insect, such as a mosquito, bee, locust, or moth) in the imager's field of view using characteristic frequencies, harmonic amplitudes, shapes, sizes, airspeeds, altitudes, or positions. The system may also include an illumination source arranged to illuminate the imager's field of view. The organism may have wings, in which case the processor may be configured to identify the biological characteristic using wing vibration frequencies.

The system may also include a detector configured to detect a signal indicating a characteristic of an organism in the imager's field of view. For example, the detector may include a photodiode configured to detect light from an optional aiming light source configured to aim at the organism or light from a backlight source. The aiming light source may be configured to aim at the organism from multiple directions (e.g., a set of spotlights or LEDs that can be placed around the expected location of the organism). The detector may be configured to detect a signal indicating the distance from the imager to the organism, for example, by detecting a shadow cast by the organism on multiple aiming light sources (which may, for example, be different colors or configured to be selectively turned on and off), or by triangulating the organism using multiple optical position sensing devices. The processor (or a second processor) may be configured to use this signal to determine the distance from the imager to the organism. Alternatively, the processor may use one or more images captured by the imager to determine the distance to the organism. For example, if the imager includes multiple imaging devices, the imager may operate in the same manner as the aiming light source described above. The detector may have a bandwidth greater than half the frame rate of the imager, or a bandwidth less than or equal to the frame rate of the imager, and may have an image resolution or field of view greater than or less than the image resolution or field of view of the imager. The detector may also be acoustic.

In another aspect, a method for tracking an airborne organism includes acquiring a first image from an imager having a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) in its field of view, determining that the image includes the organism at a location, acquiring a second image, and using the second image to determine a biological characteristic of the organism (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating status, gestation, feeding status, age, or health) (e.g., by determining characteristic frequencies, harmonic amplitudes, shape, size, airspeed, groundspeed, flight direction, flight path, or location). The first and second images may have different resolutions (e.g., the first image may be finer or coarser than the second image) or may be acquired at different frame rates (e.g., the second image may be acquired at a faster or slower frame rate than the first image). The images may also be different in size. Acquiring the first or second image may include, for example, illuminating a region of the acquired image using a laser or LED. Acquiring either image may include acquiring a series of images. The images may both be acquired by the imager, or the second image may be acquired by a different device (e.g., a photodiode).

In another aspect, a system for disabling airborne organisms includes an imager (e.g., a camera or scanner), a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector), a processor, and a disabling system. The processor is configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager, including at least a portion of the backlight, and identify biological characteristics (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating state, gestation, feeding state, age, or health) of an organism (e.g., an insect such as a mosquito, bee, locust, or moth) in the imager's field of view using characteristic frequencies, harmonic amplitudes, shapes, sizes, airspeeds, altitudes, or positions. The disabling system is configured to disable the organism (e.g., only organisms of a specific genus, species, sex, or gestation) in response to the identified characteristics (e.g., by killing, damaging wings or antennae, or impairing biological function). The disabling system can include a laser (e.g., a UV-C laser or an infrared laser) and can be configured to receive position data from the processor for targeting the organism.

In another aspect, a method of disabling an airborne organism includes acquiring a first image from an imager having a backlight source (e.g., a retroreflector) in its field of view, determining that the image includes an organism at a location, acquiring a second image, using the second image to determine a biological characteristic (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating status, gestation, feeding status, age, or health) of the organism (e.g., by determining characteristic frequencies, harmonic amplitudes, shape, size, airspeed, groundspeed, flight direction, flight path, or location), and disabling the organism (e.g., killing the organism, impairing a bodily function (e.g., mating, feeding, flight, hearing, acoustic sensing, chemical sensing, or vision)) in response to the determined biological characteristic. The first and second images may have different resolutions (e.g., the first image may be finer or coarser than the second image) or they may be acquired at different frame rates (e.g., the second image may be acquired at a faster or slower frame rate than the first image). For example, an organism may be disabled by directing a laser beam at the organism (optionally using targeting information obtained from one or both of the acquired images), by directing an acoustic pulse at the organism, by releasing a chemical agent, or by directing a physical countermeasure at the organism.

On the other hand, a system for identifying the state of flying insects in an area includes an imager, a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) configured to be placed in the field of view of the imager, and a processor configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager including at least a portion of the backlight, the processor being configured to use characteristic frequency, shape, size, airspeed, altitude, or position to identify the possible biological state of the insects in the field of view of the imager. The insects can be mosquitoes, in which case the processor can be configured to determine the probability that the mosquito is infected with malaria. The processor can be configured to collect the possible biological states of a plurality of insects, such as collecting population data for an insect population, or collecting possible biological state data that is a function of an environmental parameter (e.g., time of day, season, weather, or temperature).

In another aspect, a system for tracking airborne organisms includes an imager, a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) configured to be positioned within the imager's field of view, a processor, and a detector configured to detect an organism within the imager's field of view. At least one of the imager and the detector is configured to collect color data. The processor is configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager, including at least a portion of the backlight, and identify a biological characteristic of the organism within the imager's field of view using at least one datum selected from the group consisting of characteristic frequency, harmonic amplitude, shape, size, airspeed, groundspeed, and position. The system can use the collected color data to determine a possible blood-engorged state of the organism (e.g., a mosquito filled with blood). The system can also include a forward-facing light source configured to illuminate the organism, for example, when the organism is within the field of view of the imager or the detector. The detector can include a photodiode (e.g., a four-element photodiode). The system can also include an aiming light source configured to be aimed at the organism from one or more directions, in which case the photodiode can be configured to detect light reflected from the organism or light from the backlight. The detector can be configured to detect a signal indicating a distance from the imager to the organism. The processor (or a second processor) can be configured to determine the distance from the imager to the organism using the signal detected by the detector. The processor can be configured to determine the distance from the imager to the organism by using the signal detected by the detector. The system may include multiple aiming light sources (e.g., light sources of different colors) in different positions so that the detector can detect the shadow cast by the organism in each light source. These aiming light sources can be configured to be selectively turned on and off. The detector can include multiple optical position sensing devices configured to provide range information by triangulating the organism. The detector can have a bandwidth greater than half the frame rate of the imager or less than or equal to the frame rate of the imager, and can have an image resolution less than or greater than the image resolution of the imager. The processor can be configured to identify the genus, species, sex, age, mating status, pregnancy, feeding status, or health status of the organism. The system can also include a disabling system configured to disabling the organism in response to the identified characteristics.

In another aspect, a method for tracking an airborne organism includes acquiring a first image (e.g., a monochrome or color image) having a first image resolution from an imager having a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) in its field of view, determining that the image includes the organism at a location, acquiring a second image having a second image resolution and including color data (e.g., using a photodiode such as a four-element photodiode or using the imager), and determining a biological characteristic (e.g., genus, species, sex, age, mating status, gestation, feeding status, age, or health status) of the organism using at least the second image, wherein the first and second images differ in resolution or frame rate or the second image includes color data not included in the first image. Determining the biological characteristic (e.g., blood flow status) may include using the color data and may include determining a characteristic frequency, harmonic amplitude, shape, size, airspeed, altitude, flight direction, flight path, or location.

In another aspect, a system for tracking airborne organisms includes an imager, a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) configured to be placed in the imager's field of view, and a processor configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager, the processor configured to identify rotation of the organism in the imager's field of view. The processor can be configured to determine the organism's rotational speed and, for organisms with wings, can also be configured to determine the wing vibration frequency. The system can also include a detector (e.g., a photodiode such as a four-element photodiode) configured to detect a signal indicative of a characteristic of the organism in the imager's field of view. The system can also include an aiming light source (from one or more directions), and the photodiode can be configured to detect light reflected from the organism from the light source or from the backlight source. The detector can be configured to detect a signal indicative of the distance from the imager to the organism, the distance to be determined, for example, by the processor or a second processor. The system can include multiple aiming light sources at different locations, wherein the detector is configured to detect a shadow cast by the organism in each light source, or the detector can include multiple optical position sensing devices configured to provide range information by triangulating the organism. The detector can have a bandwidth greater than about half the frame rate of the imager or less than or about equal to the frame rate of the imager, and can have an image resolution less than or greater than the image resolution of the imager. The processor can be configured to identify a biological characteristic of the organism selected from the group consisting of genus, species, sex, mating state, pregnancy, feeding state, age, and health state. The system can also include a disabling system configured to disabling the organism.

In another aspect, a method for tracking an airborne organism includes acquiring a first image from an imager having a backlight source (e.g., a retroreflector) in its field of view, determining that the image includes the organism at a location, and determining that the organism is rotating about an axis of rotation. The method may also include determining a rotational speed or axis of rotation for the organism, or determining a frequency of wing vibration for an organism having wings. The method may include determining a biological characteristic of the organism (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating status, gestation, feeding status, age, or health), which may include determining data selected from the group consisting of characteristic frequency, harmonic amplitude, shape, size, airspeed, ground speed, flight direction, flight path, and location, and may include responding to the determined biological characteristic by disabling the organism. The method may also include detecting a signal indicative of a distance from the imager to the organism.

In another aspect, a system for tracking organisms includes an imager, a backlight (e.g., a retroreflector) configured to be placed in a field of view of the imager, a processor configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager and identify a biological characteristic (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating state, gestation, feeding state, age, or health state) of an airborne organism (e.g., an insect, such as a mosquito or a wood louse) in the field of view of the imager, and a physical trap configured to physically capture at least one organism (e.g., a flying organism or an immature individual of a species capable of flight when mature), wherein the system is configured to measure the efficacy of the physical trap using the identified biological characteristic. Measuring the efficacy of the physical trap can include comparing the number of organisms in the trap to the number of airborne organisms identified by the processor (e.g., during the same time interval or during different time intervals). The field of view of the imager can include at least a portion of the interior of the trap, or it can include a volume outside the trap.

In another aspect, a method for determining the efficacy of a trap for airborne organisms includes monitoring a population of airborne organisms to determine the population in the monitored space by acquiring an image from an imager having a field of view that includes the monitored space and a backlight source (e.g., a retroreflector), determining that the image includes an organism (e.g., an insect such as a mosquito or a wood louse), and determining a biological characteristic of the organism (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating state, gestation, feeding state, age, or health), determining the number of airborne organisms captured by the trap, and comparing the number of captured organisms to the determined population of airborne organisms. Comparing the number of captured organisms to the determined population of organisms can include comparing only organisms having selected biological characteristics, or comparing a portion of the organisms having the selected biological characteristics. The trap can be configured to capture flying organisms or immature individuals of a species that are capable of flight when mature.

In another aspect, a system for tracking airborne organisms includes a physical trap configured to capture at least one airborne organism (e.g., an insect such as a mosquito or wood louse), a detection component configured to identify a biological characteristic of the captured organism (e.g., genus, species, sex, mating state, gestation, feeding state, age, or health state), the detection component including an imager, a backlight source (e.g., a retroreflector) configured to be placed in a field of view of the imager, and a processor configured to analyze one or more detected images to identify the biological characteristic, and a notification component configured to send a notification to a remote user in response to the identified characteristic.

The foregoing summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be limiting in any way. In addition to the illustrative aspects, embodiments, and features described above, further aspects, embodiments, and features will become apparent by reference to the drawings and the following detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of the detection system.

FIG. 2 illustrates an embodiment of a system encompassing a structure.

FIG3 is a control flow diagram of an implementation of a tracking and dosing system.

Figure 4 is a photograph of a damaged mosquito wing.

FIG5 is a graph showing the lethality of a series of mosquitoes subjected to IR laser irradiation.

FIG6 is a graph showing the lethality of UV laser irradiation against female mosquitoes.

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the lethality of UV laser irradiation against male mosquitoes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part thereof. In the drawings, similar symbols generally identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detailed description, drawings, and claims are not intended to be limiting. Other embodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matter set forth herein.

As shown in FIG1 , a system for locating or identifying information about an insect or other organism, or about optionally disabling an insect or other organism, includes an imager 10, an illumination source 12, a retroreflective surface 14, a processor 16 configured to analyze images captured by the imager 10, an aiming laser 18, and a photodiode 20. In the illustrated embodiment, the imager 10 is a CMOS camera placed at the base of a support column 22, but various other imagers may be suitable. For example, a CCD-based detector, a scanning system, or other types of detectors may be used. Furthermore, in some approaches, two or more imagers may be placed on the support column 22 or other support member. In some embodiments, the retroreflective surface 14 may be replaced with a light-emitting surface (backlight), such as a substantially uniform light-emitting surface having a desired angular distribution under light, which can be aligned with the imager 10.

As shown, retroreflective surface 14 is placed on adjacent support posts 24 spaced apart from support posts 22 to define an intermediate region. In some embodiments, imagers or retroreflective surfaces can be placed on multiple support posts. For example, in some embodiments, as shown in FIG2 , support posts can be arranged to surround an area of interest, and imagers or retroreflective surfaces can be placed on the support posts so that all, substantially all, or at least a portion of the entrance to the area of interest can be viewed. Although the elements placed on support posts 22 in FIG1 have been separated for clarity of illustration, in practice they can be spaced closer together.

In the illustrated embodiment, support posts 22 and 24 have a height selected to exceed the typical flight altitude of the insects of interest. For example, over 99% of Anopheles mosquitoes (which can carry strains of malaria that can infect humans) fly at altitudes less than 3-5 meters, so 3-5 meter support posts can be used in a system that can observe substantially all mosquitoes passing through an area of interest. The width of support posts 22 and 24 is selected to provide sufficient support and surface area for the components including retroreflective surface 14; in the illustrated embodiment, the support posts are 10-20 cm wide and spaced 100 meters apart. The width of retroreflective surface 14 and the width of the field of view of imager 10 can be selected based on the flight speed of the target of interest and the frame rate of imager 10 so that the insect's silhouette will be within the field of view for at least one full-frame interval, and based on the flight speed and the desired accuracy of wing vibration sensing so that the silhouette will remain within the field of view long enough to be measured with the desired accuracy.

Illumination source 12 (which can be, for example, a laser, LED, incandescent lamp, a mirror reflecting sunlight, or any other suitable light source) directs light from support post 22 toward support post 24 to illuminate retroreflective surface 14 on support post 24. In the illustrated embodiment, illumination source 12 is an LED that produces a fan-shaped light beam. Retroreflector 14 returns light back to imager 10. When an organism 26 (e.g., a mosquito) travels between posts 22 and 24, the organism appears as a dark shadow on retroreflective background 14, or as a break in the light beam. Upon detecting such a shadow, in some embodiments, imager 10 can switch to a higher frame rate or higher spatial resolution for the localized shadow. Alternatively, a second imager (not shown) can be employed to capture a higher frame rate or higher resolution image in the small area of localized shadow. The higher frame rate image can be used, for example, by processor 16 to identify the wing beat frequency of a mosquito (or other flying organism). In some embodiments, sensing organism 26 can trigger a forward-facing light. In other embodiments, the forward-facing light can be always on, or turned on when ambient light is low. If it is desired to identify the color data of an organism, forward lighting is expected to be preferred.In some embodiments, forward light may be provided by aiming the laser 18 or by a broader bandwidth source (not shown). Wing beat frequency and harmonics can be used to determine likely species, sex, and other biological characteristics, such as the mating status of mosquitoes; for some information on characteristic frequencies, see Robertson et al., “Heritability of wing-beat frequency in Anopheles quadrimaculatus,” J. Amer. Mosquito Control Assoc., 18(4):316-320 (2002); Moore, “Artificial Neural Network Trained to Identify Mosquitoes in Flight,” J. Insect Behavior, 4(3):391-396 (2005); “An Automated Flying-Insect Detection System,” NASA Technical Briefs, SSC-00192 (2007), available at <www.techbriefs.com/content/view/2187/34/>; et al., “Nanometer-range acoustic sensitivity in male and female mosquitoes,” J. Amersham, 1996; and Moore, “An Automated Flying-Insect Detection System,” NASA Technical Briefs, SSC-00192 (2007). femalemosquitoes,” Proc.Biol.Sci.267(1442):453-457 (2000); and Gibson et al., “Flying in Tune: Sexual Recognition in Mosquitoes,” Curr.Biol.16:1311-1316 (2006), all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, periodic data that is not directly related to wing vibrations can be collected. In particular, Asian citrus psyllids have been observed to rotate in space when they launch themselves into the air, and these rotations have a periodicity that can be captured by a system such as that shown in FIG1 . See, for example, our video available at <www.youtube.com/watch? v=fMu8n1_8Ozg>. In some embodiments, processor 16 can be configured to use data from imager 10 to identify such rotations and separate them from wing vibrations. In such embodiments, a higher frame rate and/or a second imager as described above can be used to identify the rotational motion of an organism. In some embodiments, such rotational motion can be used to identify the species or other biological characteristics of an organism.

In some embodiments, harmonic spectrum can have significant utility in identifying mosquitoes or other insects. For example, the second harmonic frequency of the wing vibrations of certain species of bees is substantially similar to the wing vibration frequency of certain species of mosquitoes. Therefore, in some embodiments, spectral analysis of harmonic frequencies can be used to prevent bees from being misidentified as mosquitoes. In addition, focusing on higher frequency harmonics can enable faster detection and identification of insects in some embodiments by reducing the time period required to identify the presence of frequencies. Chen et al. have described a system that uses such a spectrum to identify mosquitoes and other insects. See Chen et al., "Flying Insect Classification with Inexpensive Sensors," published at <arxiv.org/pdf/1403.2654v1>, a copy of which is included herein and incorporated by reference.

In some embodiments, processor 16 may include a graphics processing unit (graphics card) for analysis. A graphics processing unit (GPU) may have a parallel "multi-core" architecture, with each core capable of running many threads (e.g., thousands of threads) simultaneously. In such a system, full-frame object recognition can be significantly accelerated (e.g., up to 30 times faster) compared to conventional processors. In some embodiments, a field programmable gate array can be directly connected to a high-speed CMOS sensor for rapid recognition.

In addition to high-speed camera imaging of an organism, the system can also use an aiming laser 18 (or other suitable non-laser light source) and a detector (e.g., a photodiode 20) to identify the characteristics of an organism 26. For example, if processor 16 identifies a morphology or frequency indicative of an organism of interest (e.g., a mosquito), the aiming laser 18 can be directed toward organism 26 using the position information from processor 16. The reflection of the aiming laser 18 from organism 26 is detected by photodiode 20. In some embodiments, this reflection may have a relatively low image resolution, but a very fast frame rate, a wide frequency response, or high sensitivity to changes in the organism's cross-section. The signal from the photodiode can be used, for example, to very accurately measure wing vibration frequency or harmonics to identify the organism, classify the organism into an appropriate category, or otherwise distinguish between organisms. The aiming laser 18 can also or alternatively provide additional light for higher frame rate or higher resolution image acquisition by imager 10.

The second imager or aiming laser 18 can be aimed by a galvanometer, a MEMS device, or other suitable optical pointing system. In some embodiments, the second imager or aiming laser 18 is capable of aiming in two dimensions, while in other embodiments, a single-axis galvanometer system can be used to enable the aiming laser to track within a single emission plane. In a one-dimensional system, a series of two-dimensional images captured by the imager 10 can be used to predict when the organism 26 will cross the emission plane, at which point it can be illuminated by the aiming laser 18. In some embodiments, the aiming laser 18 can be continuously scanned through space, for example by a rotating or vibrating mirror, and fired when its projected path intersects the organism. In some such embodiments, the scan path can be dynamically adjusted, for example to provide a dwell time at a target location.

Although the aiming laser 18 is described as being aimed by a galvanometer, MEMS device, or other aiming system, such aiming can be achieved by direct physical positioning of the laser or by the direction of an optical system including conventional optical components (e.g., an acousto-optic scanner, a scanning mirror, or the like). In some embodiments, a phase detection autofocus system such as that described in U.S. Patent No. 6,480,266, incorporated herein by reference, can be used to focus the laser at the point of interest.

In some embodiments, once an organism has been identified or otherwise classified or characterized, action may be taken to disable or eliminate it. For example, in some embodiments, when a mosquito has been detected entering the field of view, a countermeasure such as a laser beam may be used to disable or eliminate the mosquito. In such embodiments, the position information of the organism 26 can be transmitted from the imager 10, the processor 16, the aiming laser 18, or an associated aiming processor (not shown) to the dosing laser 28. In some embodiments, other countermeasures, instead of or in addition to the dosing laser 28, may include acoustic countermeasures emitted by an acoustic transducer, physical countermeasures such as solid or liquid projectiles, or chemical responses. In some embodiments, the aiming laser 18 and the dosing laser 28 may be the same component, for example, using a higher amplitude for dosing than for aiming. In other embodiments, the aiming laser 18 and the dosing laser 28 may be separate components. In this case, they may optionally use a common aiming and/or focusing mechanism, such as a beam splitter or beam combiner that causes the dosing laser 28 to be emitted along the same path as the aiming laser 18. FIG3 is a control flow diagram of an implementation of the tracking and dosing system illustrating the cooperation of the imager assembly 40 , the processor 42 , the aiming laser assembly 44 , and the dosing laser assembly 46 .

In some embodiments, the undesirable organisms 26 can be killed by the dosing laser 28. In other embodiments, the dosing laser 28 can disable the organisms 26 in various ways. For example, if it is desired to inhibit the spread of malaria, it may be sufficient to prevent the female mosquito from being able to feed on blood, thereby interrupting the disease cycle. In some embodiments, this can be achieved by damaging or destroying the antennae. Damage to the antennae can also inhibit mating behavior, and if enough mosquitoes in an area can be dosed, then damage to the antennae can reduce the overall mosquito population. In some embodiments, reproduction can also be slowed or prevented by impairing the fertility of female or male mosquitoes. Radiation treatment may also impair the metabolic efficiency of mosquitoes or other insects or may damage basic body structures (e.g., wings or eyes) without immediately killing the insect. Figure 4 is a photograph of a mosquito wing that has been damaged by laser treatment.

In some embodiments, instead of or in addition to targeting organisms to eliminate them, the system of FIG. 1 can also be used as a population census device. If necessary, the system can be unattended for a considerable period of time to determine activity based on the time of day, weather, season, or other changing environmental parameters, and can track the flight characteristics of different organisms over time. By analyzing shape, size, wing vibration frequency, wing vibration harmonics, position, flight pattern, airspeed or ground speed, information about the biological characteristics (e.g., genus, species, sex ratio, age distribution, mating status, etc.) of the organism population can be determined. In some embodiments, disease carrier status can be determined because it is expected that disease carriers such as malaria mosquitoes will have different characteristics (e.g., flight characteristics, shape, size) that the system can perceive due to the physical stress associated with the disease. In some embodiments, these characteristics of disease-carrying organisms can be identified by statistical deviations (e.g., although the system may not identify an individual as sick, it may be able to tell that some of the observed individuals are sick). For example, such an embodiment can be used to direct disease mitigation strategies to areas with the highest infection rates. In embodiments including dosing lasers or other countermeasures, where disabling all mosquitoes (or other insect pests) is undesirable or impractical, differentiation by sex or other biological state can enable more efficient eradication of entire populations (e.g., by preferentially targeting pregnant females, females ready to mate, or mosquitoes already infected with malaria). In some embodiments, identification of specific biological characteristics (of individuals or populations) can trigger notifications to be sent to remote locations. For example, if a single Asian citrus psyllid is detected in an area (e.g., an orchard) where the absence of Asian citrus psyllids is expected, the system can notify the farmer (or any appropriate remote user) so that countermeasures can be taken and defenses checked for "leaks," or if the system identifies a significant increase in the number of mosquitoes or malaria mosquitoes in a particular area, it can notify doctors and/or scientists so that the change can be quickly addressed.

While the embodiments described herein have been directed to ground-based systems mounted on fixed vertical supports, a variety of other design configurations may be implemented by one skilled in the art. In some embodiments, a large portion of the components, or even all of the components, may be mounted on a single support unit. For example, a single pole with lasers and cameras on top may illuminate and observe a surrounding horizontal ring of retroreflectors, forming a cone or tent-shaped detection area. As another example, one or more lasers and cameras may be rotated or translated to sweep a narrow camera field of view across a large volume in order to detect insects anywhere within the volume (e.g., a room); in this case, a large area of retroreflector material (e.g., retroreflective paint or tape) may be applied to one or more walls of the room.

In one approach, one or more components can be mounted on a mobile support, such as a land-based vehicle, an air-based vehicle (e.g., a UAV), or other vehicle. If the imager and aiming or dosing laser are mounted on an airborne vehicle, providing a retroreflective surface as described above may be impractical. In some such embodiments, the organism can be located by ground-based radar. For a vehicle traveling at 50 m/s and scanning a 100 m long surface, a relatively modest transmit power (tens to hundreds of milliwatts) for the aiming laser can provide sufficient resolution for locating the organism.

In some embodiments, an imager or detector can receive light generated in response to an illumination light. For example, as described in Bélisle et al., "Sensitive Detection of Malaria Infection by Third Harmonic Generation Imaging," Biophys. J. 94(4): L26-L28 (2008), incorporated herein by reference, certain components of tissue or residues such as biological waste (e.g., hemozoin crystals produced by malaria mosquitoes) can generate light of a wavelength different from the illumination light through any of a variety of effects, including the three-photon effect. In one such approach, the illumination light can be selected to correspond to the response of the hemozoin. The detector can then detect light corresponding to the frequency at which the hemozoin resonates.

In some applications it may be appropriate to provide a warning area around the aiming or dosing beam. In this approach, an appropriate detection system can determine the presence of an object or organism in the area around the target object. If such an object or organism is detected, the system can determine that it is inappropriate to activate the aiming or dosing light source, for example, to prevent damage to these objects or organisms. In one example, the warning area can be configured to detect the presence of people or livestock within a selected proximity of the area to be illuminated. Such a system can be implemented using an illumination light source or alternative light source (such as an LED or similar source) that is arranged to illuminate an area around the intended path of the aiming or dosing beam. Alternatively, the imaging system can detect people or livestock in the field of view and avoid emitting the aiming or dosing beam.

In some cases, the lighting source may have enough power to cause harm, for example, if a person or animal looks directly into the light source. The system can be configured to detect the presence of a large obstacle and shut off or reduce the power of the lighting source before damage is caused.

It will be appreciated that the "identification" of organisms (e.g., mosquitoes and other insects) based on wing beat characteristics, morphology, or other measurements may be probabilistic in nature. For example, it may be determined that a given organism is more likely to be a gravid female Anopheles gambiae, and action may be taken on that probability, even if other genera, sexes, or states cannot be ruled out.

Mosquito colony maintenance and olfactory testing

We maintained and tested a colony of Anopheles stephensi in an insectary. The mosquitoes were kept in a maintenance environment with a 12-hour:12-hour light:dark cycle, an air temperature of 80°F ± 10°F, and a humidity of 80% ± 10%. Adult mosquitoes were kept in various containers. The breeding colony was placed in 12" x 12" white, translucent plastic containers with plastic mesh sides and a front sleeve for easy access. To feed the adult mosquitoes sugar, we used a Petri dish filled with raisins. A Petri dish lined with 9 cm filter paper, filled with water, was placed inside the cage. This dish served as a water source and an oviposition cup. The cage bottom was covered with absorbent paper towels to limit fungal growth caused by the females' urine and blood excretions.

When adult mosquitoes are approximately 6 to 10 days old, we blood-feed females while they are still in their cages. We use Hemostat brand sheep's blood. The feeding apparatus is a 10 cm plexiglass petri dish with a copper wire tube glued to the bottom and circulating warm water to keep the blood at body temperature. The bottom of the feeding apparatus is filled with 98°F water. We stretch parafilm to loosely cover the water in the petri dish. Then, sheep's blood is added to the apparatus and another layer of parafilm is stretched to cover the blood. A bucket of water between 98 and 100°F is placed in the insectary rearing room. Plastic tubing and fittings are used to hook it to the copper tubing of the feeding apparatus. Inside the bucket is an aquarium pump and a heater that circulates the warm water to the feeding apparatus. The feeding apparatus is placed in the cage via a sleeve. The sleeve is secured around the plastic tubing, and the mosquitoes are allowed to feed until full. Once the females have taken a blood meal, they are observed to find a relatively quiet place to rest and digest. After three to five days, eggs are laid on the surface of the water in groups of 50 to 200. These eggs hatch after two days. (See Benedict, M.Q., "Molecular Biology of insect disease vectors. Ed. Crampton," Ed. Crampton, Beard and Louis. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 3-12, 1997, which is incorporated herein by reference)

The experimental cage, hereafter referred to as the cradle to grave (C2G) box, was made of 12" x 12" interconnected clear acrylic. The sides and bottom of the box were glued together and reinforced with tabs for additional security. To facilitate cleaning and access during manipulation of the mosquitoes, the top of the cage was not glued in place. There were two 6" diameter openings on opposite sides of the cage. One opening in the front was covered by a sleeve and one opening in the back was lined with fine mesh, providing a structure that the mosquitoes could land on. At the front, 2.5" to the right of the sleeve and 2" below, there was a 0.5" diameter pipe fitting covered with mesh. This fitting was used to connect a CO2 tank during anesthesia of the mosquitoes. When the mosquitoes were anesthetized, the lid was removed and the mosquitoes could be transported for experiments.

The use of cradle-to-grave boxes has certain advantages over other types of mosquito control cages. Cradle-to-grave boxes are transparent; they allow the experimenter to observe behavior or document data with an unobstructed view. Another advantage of the boxes over conventional cages is that they limit the number of times mosquitoes have to be handled. 50-100 pupae are placed in the cradle-to-grave box and allowed to emerge. Once the adult mosquitoes are four to five days old, they are ready for experimental manipulation. Ports made from 0.5" pipe fittings can be connected to _CO2 for anesthesia; this eliminates the need to cool the mosquitoes and therefore condensation does not occur during various cold compress methods. Our handling experience has shown that the use of an aspirator during the recovery of mosquitoes may adversely affect their lifespan. In cradle-to-grave boxes, there is generally no need to aspirate mosquitoes into other containers.

White plastic rectangular trays (15" x 7" x 1.5") are used to house larvae. Once ovulated, the eggs are carefully washed in the white trays for hatching. To provide food for the larvae, 50% w/w active (live) bread or brewer's yeast and ground tropical fish flakes are added to the white trays. The trays are filled to the center with distilled water. Achieving the proper density of larvae in the trays is known to be important for their growth and development. The most common problems associated with overcrowding are longer developmental periods, reduced pupation and eclosion, and reduced pupal weight. Studies have shown that crowded larvae exhibit several negative effects: reduced birth weight, blood meal size, and overall fertility (Benedict, 1997). If the trays are overcrowded, it is best to reduce the number of larvae to maintain a healthy colony. After the fourth molt, pupae develop. Pupae are collected daily and placed in opaque breeding cages to continue the colony or transferred to transparent experimental cages.

Adult mosquitoes are retrieved from their cages into smaller containers using an aspirator made of two clear tubes connected to a motorized pump. These retrieval boxes are 3.5" x 3.5" x 2.5" and made of clear acrylic. One side of the box has a 2.44" diameter opening that is covered with a fine mesh and allows air flow as well as providing a textured surface for the mosquitoes. One side of the retrieval box has two 0.5" tubing fittings for connecting the tubes. These tubing fittings can be plugged with acrylic rods when the aspirator is not in use.

A fine camel brush was also used to change the position of the mosquitoes after they were anesthetized with _CO2 for experimental purposes.

To identify and assess the olfactory behavior of mosquitoes, we designed an olfactometer-based bioassay similar to that described in Geier et al., Entomol. Exp. Appl. 92:9-19, 1999 (incorporated herein by reference; see also Braks et al., Physiological Entomology 26:142-148, 2001, incorporated herein by reference), which met the following requirements:

1. Monitor all behavioral sequences during host discovery, such as perception, activity, orientation toward the odor source, and landing.

2. Simple and quick testing of many odor samples within a limited time.

3. Extracts from natural odor sources or synthetic attractants can be easily compared (see, e.g., Miller et al., Chemical Ecology of Insects, W. J. Bell, & R. T. Cardé (eds.), Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 127–157, 1984; Sutcliffe, Insect Science and its Application 8:611–616, 1987, both incorporated herein by reference).

4. Wide measurement range to distinguish the intensity of attractive stimuli.

5. Easy to clean to avoid contamination from previous stimulation (Schreck et al., J. Am. Mosquito Control Assoc. 6:406-410, 1990, which is incorporated herein by reference).

The olfactometer is constructed from a 7mm thick transparent acrylic sheet. Twelve Y-shaped layers are placed on an acrylic base and bolted together on a metal stand. Shielded, removable chambers are located at each end: a release chamber at the base of the Y, and two chambers at the ends of the arms. A transparent, removable cover is bolted to the underlying layer, providing a sealed container for the mosquitoes. The resulting construction allows for easy observation during experiments.

A 12V fan was attached to the release chamber to provide a wind tunnel effect, inducing mosquitoes to move away from the stimulus. Mosquitoes traveled 89 cm to reach the stimulus chamber.

In a standard experiment, at least 25 female mosquitoes were introduced into the release chamber using a human hand as bait. This procedure ensured that all mosquitoes used in the test were ready to seek a host. The release chamber was made of clear acrylic and measured 3.22" x 3.22" x 3.24". The release chamber had acrylic shields on both sides, one of which was removable for cleaning or other operational purposes. The release chamber also had two 0.5" pipe fittings to connect an aspirator or _CO2 source as needed.

Five minutes after the release chamber was connected to the olfactometer, the test stimulus was presented in one arm, while the control chamber remained empty. At the same moment, the release chamber was opened, and a mosquito entered the apparatus. A fan was then turned on to draw the mosquitoes back into the release chamber. After 5 minutes of the experiment, the mosquitoes (those remaining in the release chamber, the stimulus chamber, and the control chamber, respectively) were counted. At the end of the experiment, _CO2 gas was pumped through the stimulus chamber, and the anesthetized mosquitoes were transferred back to the insect rearing room.

Olfactory experiments, such as those described herein, can be used to test attractants to bring species within range of a targeting system. They can also be used to determine whether the ability of mosquitoes to find human prey is affected by photon dosing as described herein.

Mosquito vulnerability

In general, nocturnal blood-sucking mosquitoes (e.g., Anopheles gambiae) locate and identify their vertebrate hosts primarily through odor. The olfactory organs of adult female mosquitoes are associated with palps and mandibular whiskers. These are covered with hair-like sensory organs. The sensory organs are dominated by olfactory receptor neurons and mechanical, thermal or wet sensory organ cells. Olfactory cues exhaled in breathing (e.g., carbon dioxide) or excreted from the skin (e.g., sweat components) are detected by sensory organs, allowing female mosquitoes to track potential human hosts. (See, e.g., Ghaninia et al., Eur J Neurosci. 26: 1611-1623, 2007). The dependence on palps and mandibular whiskers for sensing approaching human hosts suggests that the destruction of these important sensory organs could be a means to prevent mosquitoes from finding and biting their human victims.

Chemical odorants such as lactic acid or ammonia used in the olfactometer can be obtained from commercial sources and prepared by standard methods. In some cases, for example, a concentration gradient of odorant ranging from 0.001 to 100 mg/ml is used to assess mosquito responses. Human sweat for olfactory experiments can be collected from the forehead or other body parts of human volunteers exercising in a warm, humid environment. The sweat is immediately frozen to -20°C or allowed to incubate at 37°C for several days. Work by Braks et al. (referenced above) shows that while fresh human sweat can be a mild attractant, "aged" sweat is a particularly effective attractant. Other methods for extracting skin odorants include continuously wiping human skin with a cotton swab for approximately 5 minutes or simply inserting a human limb (e.g., a finger) into a capture port (see Dekker et al., Medical Veterinary Entomology 16:91-98, 2002, incorporated herein by reference).

In addition to blood meals, both male and female mosquitoes use plant nectar as an energy source, and they primarily locate plant nectar using visual and chemical cues. Nectar sources appear to be less attractive than blood sources, but sugar intake is generally necessary and occurs more frequently than blood feeding (see, e.g., Foster and Hancock, J Am Mosquito Control Assn. 10:288-296, 1994, which is incorporated herein by reference). Therefore, the effect of laser treatment on the ability to locate nectar sources can also be evaluated.

The structural integrity of the antennae after laser treatment can be assessed using light microscopy or scanning electron microscopy (see, e.g., Pitts & Zwiebel, Malaria J. 5:26, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference). For light microscopy, antennae are manually dissected from cold-anesthetized, laser-treated, or non-laser-treated mosquitoes and placed in 25% sucrose and 0.1% Triton X-100 in water. The antennae are mounted on microscope slides in this solution, covered with a glass coverslip, and sealed with, for example, enamel nail polish. The integrity of the antennae is assessed using a standard light microscope at 400x magnification.

For scanning electron microscopy, antennae from laser-treated or non-laser-treated mosquitoes were manually dissected and fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, 0.1% Triton X-100 in phosphate-buffered saline. The antennae were then dehydrated through a series of alcohol solutions (e.g., 50% to 100% ethanol in 10% increments). The heads were further extracted through a series of ethanol:hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) solutions at ratios of 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100. The HMDS was removed and the samples dried in a fume hood. The dried samples were glued to a needle holder with colloidal silver paint and sputter-coated with gold palladium for approximately 30 seconds. The samples were observed using a standard scanning electron microscope. Alternatively, the antennae were flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen and subsequently freeze-dried to remove any water vapor in preparation for cryogenic scanning electron microscopy at -190°C. In some cases, the head or the entire mosquito was used for analysis.

Electroannular graphing (EAG) is a method for recording electrical potentials from insect antennae in response to stimuli and can be used to assess the functional integrity of antennae after treatment with lasers. EAG records "slow" potential changes caused by the superposition of simultaneous membrane depolarizations of many receptor cells in response to stimuli. This method can provide information about the insect's olfactory perception. Electroannular graphing can be performed by removing the antennae from laser-treated or non-laser-treated mosquitoes and inserting wires at either end of the antennae and amplifying the voltage between them. The antennae are exposed to an odorant and any deformation in the electroannular graph waveform due to the sensory response is recorded. Alternatively, the laser-treated or non-laser-treated mosquitoes remain intact and, for example, a ground wire or glass electrode is placed in some part of the body (such as the eye) and a second electrode is attached to the end of the antennae. Alternatively, all or part of the laser-treated or non-laser-treated mosquitoes are fixed to the tip of a holder with conductive electrode gel. The tip of the antennae is pushed into a small drop of the same gel associated with a recording electrode (silver wire; see, for example, Puri et al., J. Med. Entomol. 43:207-213, 2006, incorporated herein by reference). The antennae are exposed to the odorant, and changes in the vibrissae waveform are recorded. Using this method, the normal response to the odorant in untreated mosquitoes can be compared with the response recorded in laser-treated mosquitoes.

In order to assess whether the specific sensilla on the palps or mandibular palps has been damaged by laser treatment, sensilla recording can be used to carry out the odor response of olfactory sensory level. Sensilla comprises olfactory receptor neurons and the action potential of single neurons can be in situ recorded, and olfactory receptor neurons are classified according to their response to various odor stimuli. In this technology, microelectrodes are inserted into the base of the sensilla and are moved to the position that can record electrophysiological activity with a micromanipulator. Signal is digitized and observed as active peak (spike). The palps are exposed to a odorant and record the firing frequency of neurons. As mentioned above, the normal response to odorants in untreated mosquitoes can be compared with the response recorded in the mosquitoes treated through laser.

The mosquito's antennae are also important for sensing nearby potential mates (see Hoy, PNAS 103:16619-16620, 2006; Cator et al., Science, published online January 8, 2009, both of which are incorporated herein by reference). More specifically, male mosquitoes detect the presence of nearby female mosquitoes by using a special organ called Johnston's organ at the base of each antennae to hear the female's flight tones. Mosquitoes detect the particle velocity component of the sound field in their immediate vicinity. The antennae, with their thin flagella, sense the motion of air particles as they are moved back and forth by incoming sound waves. Male mosquitoes are able to hear the wingbeat frequency of nearby females (approximately 300-600 Hz, depending on the species) and fly in pursuit. In the case of Aedes aegypti, both male and female mosquitoes are able to tune the harmonic resonance of their thorax to produce harmonic frequencies that are three times the female wing vibration frequency (400 Hz) and twice the male wing vibration frequency (600 Hz), converging at a frequency of 1200 Hz during mating (Cator et al. In this case, mating attraction is acoustically driven and involves active modulation by both sexes.

During mating, the ability to hear the appropriate flight call of a nearby female depends on the antennae and the associated Johnston's organ. Similarly, the ability to produce the wing vibration frequency that attracts a mate depends on functional wings. Therefore, crippling the antennae or wings would potentially prevent reproductive mating.

Generally speaking, females that emerge from their pupal cases are ready to mate, but their male counterparts in many species may take several days to reach sexual maturity. However, in most species, there is a 24-48 hour delay between emergence and mating. Mating is not required for egg development and maturation, but in most species, eggs can only be stored after fertilization. Female mosquitoes usually mate before their first blood meal, although in several Anopheles species, a large number of unmated female mosquitoes can take a blood meal before mating. In Aedes aegypti, mating is accompanied by the transfer of "mate hormone (matrone)," which is a male hormone that makes females tolerant to continuous mating and induces behavior to seek blood hosts. This type of behavioral change is not consistent in Anopheles gambiae. The success of male mating is determined by health and may have an impact on the number of times a male can mate. Some issues regarding mating behavior, including control of male populations, male feeding behavior and health, female mate-locating behavior, pre- and post-mating behavior, the frequency of multispecies aggregations, factors that prevent hybridization between closely related species, and clues to factors controlling polygamous mating, have not been fully explored or understood (as summarized by Takken et al., "Mosquito mating behavior," in Bridging laboratory and field research for genetic control of disease vectors. pp. 183-188, Ed. G. J. Knols & C. Louis, Springer, Netherlands, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference).

Male health and related reproductive success vary with the ability of individuals to find and collect nectar sources (see, e.g., Yuval et al., Ecological Entomology. 19:74-78, 2008, which is incorporated herein by reference). Males tend to gather at dusk, a behavior that consumes considerable energy relative to resting behavior. For mating purposes, females enter male groups (see, e.g., Charlwood et al., J. Vector Ecology 27:178-183, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference). Sugar feeding in free-breeding Anopheles mosquitoes occurs, for example, during the night after the group ends, and because such nectar sugars cannot be immediately used for flight, they must be stored in some form. Therefore, disrupting the ability to fly or the ability to find or store energy sources will have a negative impact on mating success.

Changes in wing vibration frequency in response to laser treatment can be assessed using a particle velocity microphone as described by Cator et al. (Science, January 8, 2009). Mosquitoes that have been treated with or without laser treatment are tethered to the end of an insect pin. While suspended in mid-air, the mosquitoes are set into flight with flapping wings. Sound clips from normal and laser-treated mosquitoes are digitized and compared to assess the effect of laser treatment on wing vibration frequency. Alternatively, high-speed photography can be used to assess changes in wing function.

Heat stress can be used to alter normal embryonic development in mosquito eggs. Huang et al. demonstrated that increasing the temperature of mosquito eggs from 40°C to 48°C reduced egg viability (see, e.g., Huang et al., Malaria J. 5:87, 2006, incorporated herein by reference). Exposure to temperatures of 44-45°C and higher significantly reduced the number of eggs that hatched. Thus, subjecting female mosquitoes to laser-induced heat stress can also alter the viability of their eggs.

In one set of experiments, female mosquitoes were allowed to suck blood and then laser-treated as described herein. After the recovery period and before laying eggs, the female mosquitoes were cold-anesthetized, and the eggs were dissected out and counted. The eggs can be further subjected to scanning electron microscopy or other forms of microscopy to determine whether the laser treatment has destroyed the structural integrity of the eggs. For example, scanning electron microscopy can be used to assess the various stages of egg formation in mosquitoes (Soumare and Ndiaye. Tissue & Cell. 37: 117-124, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference). Alternatively, females are allowed to lay eggs after laser treatment. In this case, the number of eggs laid, the number of eggs hatched, and the number of surviving offspring are compared between laser-treated and non-laser-treated individuals.

In a second set of experiments, female mosquitoes were treated with the laser treatment described herein before a blood meal. After a blood meal, the females were allowed to lay eggs, and the number of eggs laid and egg survival were determined as described above. In these experiments, the number of females that consumed the provided blood meal was also determined to explore the effects on fertility.

Blood feeding is essential for the process of laying eggs and hatching viable offspring. It is expected that interrupting the female's ability to feed on blood will reduce the number of viable offspring. As mentioned above, females use their sense of smell to find blood hosts. Therefore, in one set of experiments, a blood meal was placed on the other side of the trap entrance, which mosquitoes must pass through to obtain food. The trap entrance emits an attractive human odorant (for example, human sweat or exhaled carbon dioxide). The ability of the laser-treated females to obtain a blood meal was recorded, as well as the number of eggs laid, the number of eggs hatched, and the number of viable offspring.

In general, the effect of laser treatment on male and female fertility can be assessed by treating male or female populations with laser energy and allowing treated individuals of one sex to mate with untreated individuals of the other sex. As described above, the resulting measurements of this assessment are the number of eggs laid, the number of eggs hatched, and the number of viable offspring. For the purpose of this experiment, male and female individuals were treated with laser energy before mating. The sex of male and female individuals can be determined during the larval stage, thereby enabling the separation of single-sex populations (see, for example, J. Vector Borne Dis. 44:245-24, 2007, et al., which is incorporated herein by reference). For example, male Anopheles stephensi are identified by a tubular organ at the 9th abdominal segment and two fried egg-like structures in the front of the segment. In female Anopheles stephensi, the tubular organ is smaller and does not have the fried egg-like structure. Using an optical microscope, larvae can be separated into separate male and female populations. Alternatively, sex determination can be performed after emergence from the pupal stage. Adult male mosquitoes can be distinguished from adult female mosquitoes because males have more feathery antennae and mouthparts that are not well-suited for piercing the skin. Emerging adult mosquitoes from a single-sex group are laser-treated and, after recovery, allowed to breed with untreated individuals of the opposite sex. The number of matings is observed and recorded over a specific timeframe. Furthermore, the number of eggs laid, hatched eggs, and viable offspring is recorded and can be assessed relative to the number of observed matings. Similar experiments can be performed using groups of both male and female mosquitoes that have been laser-treated.

Calorespirometry can be used to measure the respiratory characteristics and energy metabolism of insects (see, e.g., Acar et al., Environ. Entomol. 30:811-816, 2001; Acar et al., Environ. Entomol. 33:832-838, 2004, both of which are incorporated herein by reference). Respiratory metabolic rate is typically recorded as the rate of oxygen (O ₂ ) consumption or carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) production and can be combined with heat production to assess metabolic efficiency. Analysis is performed by comparing the responses of laser-treated and non-laser-treated mosquitoes. The analysis can be performed at a specific temperature (e.g., an ambient temperature of 27° C.). Alternatively, the effect of temperature on the metabolic efficiency of treated and untreated mosquitoes can be assessed by performing the analysis at various temperatures ranging from about 0° C. to about 42° C. In this case, temperature acts as a stressor.

A differential scanning thermal conductivity calorimeter was used for thermal respiration (e.g., Hart Scientific model 7707 or Calorimetry Sciences model 4100, Pleasant Grove, UT). One or more mosquitoes for analysis were weighed and placed in a small paper cage inside a sample ampoule. The cage was used to restrict the mosquito's mobility during the analysis. The ampoule was supplied with sufficient oxygen to support aerobic respiration for at least one hour. Heat production was measured by the calorimeter and expressed as a function of body weight. When 0.4 M NaOH was included in the ampoule, _CO₂ production was assessed by measuring the additional heat generated over time. The interaction of NaOH with _CO₂ produced by respiratory tissues produces _Na₂CO₃ and heat _. Therefore, the difference in heat rate generated by mosquito samples with and without NaOH represents the heat rate caused by _CO₂ capture and, therefore, the rate of _CO₂ formation. Analysis of heat and _CO₂ production was performed at various temperatures to assess the effects of thermal stress on mosquitoes treated with laser energy relative to untreated controls.

Photon dosing experiment

A series of experiments have been performed to examine the vulnerability of Anopheles stephensi to radiation. The dosing experiment begins by removing food, water, and any other materials from the (floor of) the C2G box. The box is then moved into the optical chamber. The mesh is loosely covered, and the tubing from the _CO2 tank is hooked to the port on the C2G box. _{The CO2} is turned on, and the regulator is opened as wide as possible, resulting in approximately 50 scfh for about a minute, until all mosquitoes are anesthetized. The _CO2 flow is then adjusted down to a much lower level, typically 7-10 scfh.

FIG5 is a graph showing the lethality of various doses of near-IR radiation as a function of energy density. A diode laser capable of outputting up to 30W of 808nm light was manufactured by Coherent, Inc. Optics were used to focus the beam to a diameter of approximately 5mm at the mosquito. Pulse duration varied from ~3ms to ~25ms, and laser output power varied from ~15W to ~30W. The mosquitoes present in these experiments were primarily female, although some males may have been present in some experiments. Subjects were exposed to _CO₂ for 8-15 minutes during the experiments. Lethality was measured 24 hours after dosing.

Figures 6 and 7 plot the lethality of various doses of ultraviolet radiation against female and male Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes, respectively, as a function of power density and total energy. The dosing laser used in these experiments was a high-power, water-cooled deep-UV laser from Photonix operating at a wavelength of 266 nm. The underlying data for these figures is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

As can be seen, each graph includes two regions: at lower power densities, survival is primarily a function of the total energy deposited in the insect. At higher power densities, the energy required to kill the insect decreases, and survival is primarily a function of power density. This is believed to be due to optical saturation of absorbing molecules in the insect's exoskeleton and other surface layers (sometimes referred to as photobleaching), and the resulting light penetration into internal tissues that have been photochemically damaged, particularly active DNA.

The experiments described in Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 use the 24 hour survival rate of mosquito colony as quality factor.In some embodiments, as discussed elsewhere herein, it may be sufficient to disable rather than kill mosquitoes or other targets.In addition, the life cycle of malaria requires approximately a period of 11-14 days between mosquito infection and transmission to human hosts.Therefore, malaria rates can be significantly influenced by achieving a suitably low 10 day survival rate, which may require an energy or power density different from those shown in the described data.Finally, it is unknown to what extent anesthesia and processing may affect the energy or power density required to influence mosquitoes.Being similar to that described in Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 but using the tracking and targeting system described herein can provide further information about the suitable system for disabling mosquitoes or other pests.

Trap Verification

Systems such as those shown and described herein can be used to measure the efficacy of traps and identify the most reliable methods for monitoring insect populations. The World Health Organization publishes "Dengue: Guidelines For Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention And Control," a copy of which is included herein and incorporated by reference herein, and describes methods for insect monitoring of dengue vectors (particularly Aedes aegypti) in Section 5.2.2. Current methods include sampling larvae and pupae, pupal/population surveys, sampling adult mosquito populations, landing collections, stationary collections, sticky trap collections, oviposition traps, and larval traps. Some of these methods are expensive and involve potential ethical issues (e.g., landing collections, which may involve humans coming into contact with potentially infected mosquitoes), and it is unclear how relevant any of these methods are to adult mosquito populations. The present invention will enable inexpensive methods (e.g., sticky traps and larval traps) to be compared with adult populations to determine whether these methods provide adequate measurements of mosquito populations.

Prophetic Example 1: Comparison of Photonic Systems and Ovitraps for Mosquito Monitoring

A photonic system was used to identify and count mosquitoes flying above and around ovitraps. The efficacy and accuracy of the photonic system and ovitraps in monitoring mosquito populations at a site were compared. The photonic system includes an imager, an illumination source, a retroreflector, and a processor to locate and identify mosquitoes. The ovitraps consist of a tank containing water, mosquito attractant, and a wooden paddle to collect and count eggs deposited by females passing through the site. The photonic system and ovitraps were used to measure the prevalence of the mosquito vector, Aedes aegypti.

Egg-laying traps (also called ovitraps) are used to detect the presence of mosquitoes and monitor mosquito density in a colony. Each ovitrap consists of a 350 mL cup coated black with seed germination paper covering the interior and containing approximately 175 mL of hay extract to attract mosquitoes. Methods and materials for preparing enhanced ovitraps are described (see, for example, Dengue Bulletin 26:178-184, Polson et al., 2002, incorporated herein by reference). The ovitrap is placed approximately one meter above the ground in a sheltered area to protect from rain and sunlight for 48 hours, after which the seed germination paper is removed and sent to a laboratory for mosquito counts, which are performed manually with the aid of magnification. Species identification requires rearing larvae from eggs. The ovitrap is reset with fresh germination paper and hay extract for another 48 hours, and this process is repeated for approximately four weeks. To sample rural or urban areas, 50-262 ovitraps may be needed (see, e.g., Polson et al., supra, and Regis et al., PLoS ONE 8:e67682 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067682, incorporated herein by reference). Surveillance data obtained from ovitraps can include: the percentage of traps containing eggs; the number of eggs per ovitrap; and the corresponding locations of positive traps. For example, ovitraps with hay infusion placed in villages outside Phnom Penh, Cambodia, detected eggs in 9%-67% of outdoor traps over thirteen trap sets, with an average number of 4-23 eggs per trap over thirteen sets (see, e.g., Polson et al., supra).

The photon system uses a high-speed CMOS camera, a retroreflector screen, an illumination source, and a processor to acquire and analyze images obtained by the system and determine biological parameters from mosquito images. For example, the camera can be a Phantom Flex available from Vision Research, Wayne, NJ, which has a variable shutter speed and frame rate of more than 10,000 frames per second (see, for example, the data sheet for the Phantom Flex camera, which is incorporated herein by reference). Image acquisition and image processing software can be provided together with the camera or separately. An optional computer program for tracking and recording the flight path of flying insects is described (see, for example, Spitzen et al., Proceedings of Measuring Behavior 2008, Maastricht, The Netherlands, August 26-29, 2008 eds. Spink et al., which is incorporated herein by reference). The photon system also includes an illumination source and a retroreflector to effectively reflect light from the light source back to the camera (see Figure 1). For example, light emitting diodes and reflector surfaces including retroreflector structures (e.g., SCOTCHLIGHT ^™ Silver Industrial WashFabric 9910 available from 3M) can be used to illuminate insects from behind as they fly through the camera's field of view. A microcircuit on the device analyzes the image data to identify, locate, and count mosquitoes that enter the field of view within a defined period of time (e.g., 48 hours). For example, the identity of a flying insect can be determined by the amplitude of changes in a specific wavelength of light reflected from the insect's vibrating wings as described above. Methods for locating and tracking flying mosquitoes based on computerized analysis of camera images are described (see, e.g., Spitzen et al., supra). In addition, processing video data of mosquitoes enables determination of multiple parameters including the species and sex of the flying mosquitoes. For example, male and female Aedes aegypti and Aedes triseriatus mosquitoes can be identified and distinguished based on digital recordings of light reflected from the flying mosquitoes. Spectral patterns corresponding to wing vibration frequencies can be analyzed to obtain frequency versus amplitude plots, and computational methods can be used to identify the species and sex of closely related mosquito species (see, e.g., Moore, J., Insect Behavior, 4(3):391-396 (2005); Robertson et al., J. Amer. Mosquito Control Assoc., 18(4):316-320 (2002); and “An Automated Flying-Insect Detection System,” NASA Technical Briefs, SSC-00192 (2007), available at <www.techbriefs.com/content/view/2187/34/>; all of which are incorporated herein by reference). The photonic system was constructed as a rectangular housing that was placed directly above the enhanced CDC ovitrap to enable comparison of the two systems for monitoring mosquitoes.

In contrast, a photonic system placed on each ovitrap monitors the airspace above the ovitrap and detects and records image data for each mosquito (male or female, regardless of species and egg-laying status). The imaging data is automatically processed to determine the sex and species, as well as other biological parameters, of any and all mosquitoes flying through the airspace above the ovitrap. Data on the sex, species, and number of mosquitoes detected at a specific site within a selected timeframe (e.g., 48 hours) is immediately transmitted to a central computer or database. In contrast to ovitrap systems, mosquito counting and reporting is automatic and relies on algorithms for image analysis. Furthermore, the detection of adult mosquitoes eliminates indirect estimation of gravid females based on egg counts. By comparing data generated by the ovitrap system with data measured by the photonic system, researchers can gain insights into the accuracy and efficacy of the ovitrap system.

Prophetic Example 2: Comparison of a Photonic System and a Funnel Trap for Measuring Mosquito Infestation in Wells or Water Containers

A photonic system was used to identify and count adult mosquitoes flying above and around underground wells and water containers. The efficacy and accuracy of the photonic system were compared with those of funnel traps for monitoring mosquito populations in infested sites. The photonic system includes an imager, an illumination source, a retroreflector, and a processor to locate, identify, and characterize mosquitoes in flight. The funnel trap is a floating trap that captures mosquito larvae as they swim to the surface of a well or water container. Larval counts were performed manually to distinguish mosquito larvae from other insects. The photonic system was used to measure Anopheles densities in a field trial of underground wells with known mosquito infestations using funnel traps.

Funnel traps were tested in water wells to compare their efficacy and accuracy in monitoring mosquito infestations. Methods and materials for constructing and testing funnel traps are described (see, for example, Russell et al., J. Med. Entomol. 36:851-855, 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference). For example, a funnel trap consists of a plastic container with a plastic funnel inserted into the lid of the container. The container serves as a reservoir for collecting mosquito larvae, which swim upward through the funnel into the reservoir and are captured. The funnel trap is approximately 180 mm long and has a floating funnel mouth (185 mm in diameter) facing the bottom of the well. Field tests were conducted on wells with a diameter of 100 cm. The funnel trap was set up overnight in each well, and the mosquito larvae were manually counted after approximately 12 hours. The funnel trap sampled approximately 20% of the larvae introduced into the well during a single 12-hour sampling period. In field tests, the absolute number of larvae introduced into the trap was predicted with an accuracy of 84-97% with a coefficient of variation between 14-39% when repeated sampling was performed. However, single sampling only allowed qualitative predictions of low, medium, and high densities of larvae. Funnel traps are less efficient at sampling different mosquito species. For example, Aedes larvae are more efficiently sampled than sandfly (Culis) larvae (e.g., 1.7-2.3 times more efficiently), possibly due to the different swimming behaviors of the larvae. In addition, some stages of mosquito development are less efficiently sampled by funnel traps. For example, first and second instars and pupae are captured with lower efficiency. Funnel trap sampling efficiency also varies with well diameter, thus complicating predictions of larval population size. See, e.g., Russell et al., supra.

The photon system includes an imager, an illumination source, a retroreflector, and a processor to analyze spectral and image data to locate, track, identify, and characterize mosquitoes that fly into the field of view. A high-speed camera capable of 1000 frames per second with high resolution and variable shutter speed (see, for example, the data sheet for the Phantom Flex camera, which is incorporated herein by reference) is used to detect and characterize mosquitoes at different shutter speeds. For example, the initial detection and tracking of mosquitoes entering the field of view can be performed at approximately 500 frames per second, and then imaging of the wing vibration frequency on the target mosquito can be performed at 5,000 frames per second. The wing vibration frequency of the mosquito and its related harmonics can be in the range of 500 to 2000 cycles per second (see, for example, Moore, J. Insect Behavior, 4 (3): 391-396 (1991), which is incorporated herein by reference). The photon system can include one or more illumination sources (e.g., light emitting diodes) and retroreflectors to illuminate mosquitoes entering the field of view from the back. The photon system can be limited by a rectangular or cylindrical support with an imager, illumination source, laser, photodiode, and retroreflector positioned as shown in FIG1 . A processor analyzes imaging and spectral data to locate, identify, and track mosquitoes that enter the field of view (see, e.g., Spitzen et al., supra). In addition, the processor can initiate programmed changes in the photon system. For example, identification of a mosquito based on imaging with a high-speed camera at 500 fps can trigger tracking and targeting with a pulsed laser at 1180 nm to detect hemozoin, which indicates malaria infection. The system can also estimate malarial status based on mosquito behavior (e.g., changes in flight path, speed, host-seeking behavior, altitude, or time of day of mosquito activity). See, e.g., Cator et al. Trends in Parasitol. 28(11):466-470 (2012), Lacroix et al. PLOS Biol. 3(9):1590-1593 (2005), Smallegane et al. PLoS ONE 8(5):1-3 (May 2013), all of which are incorporated herein by reference. The photonic system can be implemented with a rectangular boundary and mounted directly above the well containing the funnel trap.

A photonic system is installed over approximately 12 wells containing one funnel trap. The photonic system monitors the space above the wells and automatically reports the number, species, sex, and possible parasite status (e.g., Plasmodium positive or negative) of mosquitoes entering the field of view. For example, over a 48-hour period, mosquitoes emerging from the wells and all other mosquitoes flying into the field of view are counted and characterized. The data is automatically transmitted to a central computer for analysis, such as comparison with funnel trap data. After 48 hours, the funnel traps are collected from the wells and mosquito larvae are visually identified and counted. The data is manually entered into the computer and compared with the number of mosquitoes flying over the corresponding wells. Correlation coefficients are calculated between the number of mosquito larvae detected in the wells and the number of mosquitoes flying. The photonic system offers increased accuracy compared to funnel traps, as identification is confirmed by determination of the mosquito species, sex, and other characteristics. Continuous monitoring of the space above the wells also surpasses the coverage of funnel filters (e.g., 2.4% for a 1.2 m diameter well). Furthermore, the photonic system is not affected by the behavioral variations of different mosquito species (e.g., Aedes, Culis, Anopheles) and different larval stages (e.g., see above, and Russel et al., supra), which complicate funnel trap systems. Finally, the identification of flying mosquitoes infected with the malarial agent (Plasmodium) is important information obtained by the photonic system that cannot be obtained from mosquito larvae analysis.

Prophetic Example 3: Comparison of a photon detection system and a human landing collection method for monitoring mosquitoes.

A photonic system for monitoring mosquito density in an African village was compared to a human landing capture (HLC) method. The photonic system was configured to detect, count, and characterize any mosquitoes that crossed a perimeter established around selected houses in the village. Individuals in each house were trained to use the HLC method to sample host-seeking mosquitoes. The sensitivity and efficacy of each method for monitoring multiple mosquito species were compared.

The photon system is configured to image mosquitoes in flight and process the imaging data to identify, count, and characterize mosquitoes and report information about them to the system computer. The photon system is configured to monitor the perimeter around each of the three houses selected for the study. Support poles approximately 20 cm × 20 cm × 500 cm high are spaced approximately 100 m apart to define the perimeter around each house (see Figure 2). Two high-speed cameras (see, for example, the data sheet for the Phantom Flex camera, which is incorporated herein by reference) are placed facing each other on each side of the perimeter to create a photon fence. The field of view on each side of the perimeter is approximately 500 cm high, 100 m long, and 20 cm thick. Each support pole is covered with a retroreflective structure (e.g., SCOTCHLITE ^™ 9100 from 3M Corp. in St. Paul, Minnesota) to provide backlighting to any mosquitoes that pass through the field of view (i.e., the photon fence). The photon system may also have a laser light source and a photon detector incorporated on each side of the perimeter. For example, a titanium sapphire laser that generates 1180 nm laser pulses and a photon detection system can be used to detect hemozoin, a pigment associated with malarial parasites (e.g., Plasmodium) (see, e.g., Belisle et al., Biophys J. 94(4): L26–L28, Feb 15, 2008; doi: 10.1529/biophysj.107.125443, which is incorporated herein by reference). The photon system built on the perimeter also includes a processor, circuitry, and programming to identify, locate, count, and determine the biological characteristics of mosquitoes crossing the perimeter. For example, spectral patterns corresponding to wing vibration frequencies can be analyzed to obtain a plot of frequency versus amplitude, and computer methods can be used to identify the species and sex of closely related mosquito species (see, e.g., Moore, J. Insect Behavior, 4(3):391-396 (2005); Robertson et al., J. Amer. Mosquito Control Assoc., 18(4):316-320 (2002); and “An Automated Flying-Insect Detection System,” NASA Technical Briefs, SSC-00192 (2007), available at <www.techbriefs.com/content/view/2187/34/>; all of which are incorporated herein by reference). Detailed information about all mosquitoes that cross the photonic fence is automatically transmitted in real time to a central computer to create a record of mosquitoes observed every 12 hours (7 p.m. to 7 a.m.) for 7 days or more. Importantly, information on the number, species, sex, feeding status, malaria infection, and mating status of mosquitoes was reported.

A human landing capture (HLC) method and a photon fence system were established in each house, and the data of mosquitoes detected by the two systems were compared. To collect HLC data, adult male collectors exposed their lower limbs and collected mosquitoes with a suction device when mosquitoes landed on their legs. The catchers collected mosquitoes for 45 minutes/hour and rested for 15 minutes. Mosquito collection was carried out every night between 7 pm and 7 am for 7 days or longer. HLC catchers collected indoor and outdoor locations within the perimeter of the photon fence. The mosquitoes sucked out were processed with a dissecting microscope to identify sex and species by morphology. The abdominal state was divided into fed, unfed, pregnant or partially pregnant. For example, male and female Anopheles mosquitoes were classified and the malarial (circumsporozoite) protein of females was analyzed using an ELISA test. In addition, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to identify mosquito subspecies. Methods and materials for performing HLC, aspiration, and mosquito treatment are described (see, e.g., Sikaala et al., Parasites and Vectors 6:91, 2013, published online at <www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/6/1/91>, incorporated herein by reference). Data on mosquitoes collected using HLC for 12 hours each night for 7 days were entered into a central computer and compared with data collected by the photon fence during the same time period.

The HLC method and the photonic fence were compared with respect to the absolute number of mosquitoes detected for each species, the number of female mosquitoes, the number of mosquitoes infected (with Plasmodium), the number of fed and unfed mosquitoes, and the mating status of female mosquitoes. The efficacy and accuracy of the photonic system and HLC can depend on the diligence and endurance of the HLC trappers who collect for 12 hours every night for 7 days or more. In addition, the risk of infection with Plasmodium and other vector-borne diseases is a major disadvantage of HLC.

In a general sense, those skilled in the art will recognize that the various aspects described herein, which may be implemented individually or collectively by a wide range of hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof, may be considered to be comprised of various types of "circuits." Thus, as used herein, "circuitry" includes, but is not limited to, circuitry having at least one discrete circuit, circuitry having at least one integrated circuit, circuitry having at least one application-specific integrated circuit, circuitry forming a general-purpose computing device configured by a computer program (e.g., a general-purpose computer configured by a computer program to at least partially perform the processes or devices described herein, or a microprocessor configured by a computer program to at least partially perform the processes or devices described herein), circuitry forming a memory device (e.g., in the form of memory (e.g., random access, flash memory, read-only, etc.)), or circuitry forming a communication device (e.g., a modem, a communication switch, an optoelectronic device, etc.). Those skilled in the art will recognize that the subject matter described herein may be implemented in analog or digital form, or some combination thereof.

Those skilled in the art will recognize that at least a portion of the devices or processes described herein can be integrated into an image processing system. Those skilled in the art will recognize that a typical image processing system typically includes a system unit housing, a video display device, a memory such as volatile or non-volatile memory, a processor such as a microprocessor or digital signal processor, a computing entity (e.g., an operating system, drivers, applications), one or more interactive devices (e.g., a touch pad, a touch screen, an antenna, etc.), a control system including feedback loops and control motors (e.g., feedback for sensing lens position or velocity; control motors for moving/distorting the lens to produce a desired focus). The image processing system can be implemented using suitable commercially available components (e.g., components typically found in digital still systems or digital motion systems).

Those skilled in the art will recognize that at least a portion of the devices or processes described herein can be integrated into a data processing system. Those skilled in the art will recognize that a data processing system typically includes a system unit housing, a video display device, a memory such as a volatile or non-volatile memory, a processor such as a microprocessor or a digital signal processor, a computing entity (e.g., an operating system, a driver, a graphical user interface, and application programs), one or more interactive devices (e.g., a touch pad, a touch screen, an antenna, etc.) or a control system including a feedback loop and a control motor (e.g., feedback for sensing position or velocity; a control motor for moving or adjusting a component or quantity). The data processing system can be implemented using suitable commercially available components (e.g., components typically found in data computing/communication or network computing/communication systems).

In some implementations described herein, logic and similar implementations may include software or other control structures. For example, an electronic circuit may have one or more current paths constructed and arranged to implement various functions as described herein. In some embodiments, one or more media may be configured to carry device-detectable implementations when such media holds or sends device-detectable instructions operable to perform as described herein. In some variations, for example, an implementation may include an update or modification to existing software or firmware or gate arrays or programmable hardware, such as by receiving or transmitting one or more instructions for performing one or more operations described herein. Alternatively or additionally, in some variations, an implementation may include dedicated hardware, software, firmware components, or general components that execute or otherwise call dedicated components. Specifications or other implementations may be transmitted by one or more instances of a tangible transmission medium as described herein, optionally transmitted by packet transmission or otherwise transmitted through a distributed medium at various times.

Alternatively or additionally, the implementation may include executing a dedicated instruction sequence or calling a circuit to enable, trigger, coordinate, request or otherwise cause one or more of the virtual any functional operations described herein to occur. In some variations, the operations or other logical descriptions herein may be represented as source code and compiled or otherwise called as executable instruction sequences. In some environments, for example, the implementation may be provided in whole or in part by source code (such as C++) or other code sequences. In other implementations, source code or other code implementations using commercially available or state-of-the-art technology may be compiled/implemented/translated/converted into a high-level descriptor language (e.g., initially implementing the described technology in C or C++ programming languages, then converting the programming language implementation into a logic synthesizable language implementation, a hardware description language implementation, a hardware design simulation implementation or other such similar expression patterns). For example, some or all of the logical expressions (e.g., computer programming language implementations) may be expressed as Verilog-type hardware descriptions (e.g., via hardware description languages (HDL) or very high-speed integrated circuit hardware descriptor languages (VHDL)) or other circuit models, which may then be used to create a physical implementation with hardware (e.g., an application-specific integrated circuit). Those skilled in the art will recognize how to obtain, configure, and optimize suitable transmission or computing elements, material supplies, actuators, or other structures based on these teachings.

In one embodiment, several portions of the subject matter described herein may be implemented via an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), a digital signal processor (DSP), or other integrated form. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that some aspects of the embodiments disclosed herein may be equivalently implemented in whole or in part in an integrated circuit as one or more computer programs running on one or more computers (e.g., one or more programs running on one or more computer systems), one or more programs running on one or more processors (e.g., one or more programs running on one or more microprocessors), firmware, or indeed any combination thereof; designing circuits or writing code for software and/or firmware will be within the skill of those skilled in the art in accordance with the present disclosure. In addition, those skilled in the art will understand that the mechanisms of the subject matter described herein are capable of being distributed in various forms as a program product, and that the illustrative embodiments of the subject matter described herein apply regardless of the particular type of signal-bearing medium used to actually perform the distribution. Examples of signal-bearing media include, but are not limited to, the following: recordable media (e.g., floppy disks, hard drives, compact disks (CDs), digital video disks (DVDs), digital tape, computer memory, etc.); and transmission-type media such as digital or analog communication media (e.g., fiber optic cables, waveguides, wired communication links, wireless communication links (e.g., transmitters, receivers, transmission logic, reception logic, etc.), etc.).

It should be understood that, in general, the terms used herein, and particularly in the appended claims, are generally intended to be “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “comprising” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” etc.). It should be further understood that if a specific number of claim recitations is intended to be introduced, such intent will be explicitly stated in the claim, and in the absence of such a statement, no such intent is present. For example, to aid understanding, the following appended claims may contain the use of introductory phrases such as “at least one” or “one or more” to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that claim recitations introduced by the indefinite article “a” or “an” limit any particular claim containing such introduced claim recitation to inventions containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and an indefinite article such as “a” or “an” (e.g., “an imager” should generally be interpreted to mean “at least one imager”); the same applies to the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if a specific number of claimed subject matter is explicitly recited, it should be recognized that such recitation should generally be interpreted to mean at least that number of the recited subject matter (e.g., simply reciting "two images" or "a plurality of images" without other qualifiers generally means at least two images). Furthermore, in instances where expressions such as "at least one of A, B, and C," "at least one of A, B, or C," or "one selected from the group consisting of A, B, and C" are used, generally such construction is intended to distinguish (e.g., any of these expressions will include, but are not limited to, systems with only A, only B, only C, systems with both A and B, systems with both A and C, systems with both B and C, or systems with both A, B, and C, and may also include more than one of A, B, or C, such as systems with both A1, A2, and C, systems with both A, B1, B2, C1, and C2, or systems with both B1 and B2). It should be further understood that any disjunctive word or phrase that actually presents two or more alternative terms, whether in the specification, claims, or drawings, should be understood to include the possibility of one, either, or both of the terms. For example, the phrase "A or B" should be understood to include the possibility of "A" or "B" or "A and B."

While various aspects and embodiments are disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.

Claims (26)

1. A system for tracking airborne organisms, comprising: An imager that has image resolution and field of view; A backlight is configured to be placed in the field of view of the imager; A processor configured to analyze one or more images captured by the imager, which includes at least a portion of the backlight, the processor being configured to use at least one data point to identify biological characteristics of an organism in the imager's field of view, the at least one data point being selected from the group consisting of characteristic frequencies, harmonic amplitudes, shape, size, airspeed, ground speed, and position; and A detector configured to detect organisms in the field of view of the imager. At least one of the imager and the detector is configured to collect color data. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the system is configured to use the collected color data to determine the congestion state of the organism. 3. The system of claim 1, further comprising a forward light source configured to irradiate the organism. 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the backlight source includes a retroreflector. 5. The system according to claim 1, wherein the backlight is a retroreflector. 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector comprises a photodiode. 7. The system of claim 6, further comprising a targeting light source configured to be aimed at the organism, wherein the photodiode is configured to detect light reflected from the organism or from the backlight source. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the aiming light source is configured to be aimed at the organism from multiple directions. 9. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector comprises a four-unit photodiode. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector is configured to detect a signal indicating the distance from the imager to the organism. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the processor is configured to use the signal detected by the detector to determine the distance from the imager to the organism. 12. The system of claim 10, further comprising a second processor configured to use the signal detected by the detector to determine the distance from the imager to the organism. 13. The system of claim 9, further comprising a plurality of aiming light sources located at different positions, wherein the detector is configured to detect shadows cast by the organism in each light source. 14. The system of claim 9, wherein the detector comprises a plurality of optical position sensing devices configured to provide range information by triangulation of the organism. 15. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector has a bandwidth greater than half the frame rate of the imager. 16. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector has a bandwidth less than or equal to the frame rate of the imager. 17. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector has an image resolution smaller than the image resolution of the imager. 18. The system of claim 1, wherein the detector has an image resolution greater than the image resolution of the imager. 19. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor is configured to identify the genus of the organism. 20. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor is configured to identify the species of the organism. 21. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor is configured to identify the sex of the organism. 22. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor is configured to identify the age of the organism. 23. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor is configured to identify biological characteristics of the organism, the biological characteristics being selected from the group consisting of mating state, pregnancy, feeding state, and health state. 24. The system of claim 1, further comprising a disabling system configured to disable the organism in response to the identified characteristic. 25. A method for tracking airborne organisms, comprising: A first image with a first image resolution is acquired from an imager having a backlight in its field of view; The image is determined to include an organism at a location; Acquire a second image with a second image resolution including color data; and The biological characteristics of the organism are determined using the second image, wherein: The first image resolution is different from the second image resolution; or The first image is acquired at a first frame rate, and the second image is acquired at a second frame rate, wherein the first frame rate and the second frame rate are different from each other; or The second image includes color data that is not included in the first image. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the biological characteristic is the congestion state of the organism.