HK1234384B

HK1234384B - Power generation systems and methods regarding same

Info

Publication number: HK1234384B
Application number: HK17108123.4A
Authority: HK
Inventors: 米尔斯 R
Original assignee: 辉光能源公司
Priority date: 2013-11-20
Filing date: 2014-01-10
Publication date: 2019-08-09

Abstract

A solid fuel power source that provides at least one of thermal and electrical power such as direct electricity or thermal to electricity is further provided that powers a power system comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, (ii) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components chosen from: a source of H20 catalyst or H20 catalyst; a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; reactants to form the source of H20 catalyst or H20 catalyst and a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a material to cause the solid fuel to be highly conductive, (iii) at least one set of electrodes that confine the fuel and an electrical power source that provides a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to initiate rapid kinetics of the hydrino reaction and an energy gain due to forming hydrinos, (iv) a product recovery systems such as a condenser, (v) a reloading system, (vi) at least one of hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical systems to regenerate the fuel from the reaction products, (vii) a heat sink that accepts the heat from the power-producing reactions, (viii) a power conversion system that may comprise a direct plasma to electric converter such as a plasmadynamic converter, magnetohydrodynamic converter, electromagnetic direct (crossed field or drift) converter, direct converter, and charge drift converter or a thermal to electric power converter such as a Rankine or Brayton-type power plant.

Description

Power generation system and method related to the same

Cross Reference to Related Applications

This application claims priority from the following U.S. provisional applications: application No. 61/906,792, 11/20/2013; no. 61/909,216, filed on 26/11/2013; no. 61/911,932 filed on 4.12.2013; application No. 61/919,496, filed on 20/12/2013; and No. 61/924,697 of 1-7-2014, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The present invention relates to the field of power generation, and more particularly, to systems, devices, and methods for generating power. More particularly, embodiments of the invention relate to power generation devices and systems and related methods that generate plasma and thermal energy and generate electrical power via a plasma-to-electrical energy converter or a thermal-to-electrical energy converter. Further, embodiments of the present invention describe systems, devices, and methods for generating mechanical power and/or thermal energy using ignition of water or a water-based fuel source. In addition, the present invention relates to an electrochemical power system for generating electrical power and/or thermal energy. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present invention.

The generation of power may take many forms, utilizing energy from the plasma. Successful commercialization of plasmas may depend on power generation systems that are capable of efficiently forming plasmas and subsequently capturing the energy of the generated plasmas.

Plasma may be formed during the ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms of epithermal stripping electrons is formed and energetic particles are ejected outward. The most energetic particles ejected are hydrogen ions, which transfer kinetic energy to the plasma-electric converter of the present invention.

Power may also be generated through the use of a system or device that utilizes the energy generated by the ignition of fuel in a reaction vessel or combustion chamber. As mentioned above, these fuels may include water or a water-based fuel source. Examples of such systems or devices include internal combustion engines, which typically include one or more mechanisms for compressing a gas and mixing the gas with a fuel. The fuel and gas are then ignited in the combustion chamber. The expansion of the combustion gases applies a force to a movable element, such as a piston or turbine blade. The high pressure and temperature created by the expansion of the combustion gases move the piston or vane, creating mechanical power.

Internal combustion engines may be classified by the form of the combustion process and the type of engine in which the combustion process is used. The combustion process may include reciprocating, rotary, and continuous combustion. Different types of reciprocating combustion engines include two-stroke, four-stroke, six-stroke, diesel, Atkinson cycle, and Miller cycle. Wankel engines (Wankel engines) are a type of rotary engine, continuous combustion including gas turbines and jet engines. Other types of these engines may share one or more features with the types of engines listed above, and other variations of engines may be contemplated by those skilled in the art. Such variations may include, for example, thermal injection engines.

Reciprocating engines typically operate in a cycle having a plurality of strokes. The intake stroke may draw one or more gases into the combustion chamber. Fuel mixes with the gas and the compression stroke compresses the gas. The gas-fuel mixture is then ignited, which subsequently expands, thereby generating mechanical power in a power stroke. The product gases are then exhausted from the combustion chamber during the exhaust stroke. The entire cycle is then repeated. This process can provide continuous rotational power by balancing a single piston or using multiple pistons.

Different types of reciprocating engines typically operate in the above cycle, but there are some improvements. For example, instead of the four stroke cycle described above, a two-stroke engine combines the intake and compression strokes in one stroke and the expansion and exhaust processes in the other stroke. Unlike four-stroke or two-stroke engines, diesel engines eliminate spark plugs and use only heat and pressure to ignite the air-fuel mixture. The atkinson engine uses an improved crankshaft to provide higher efficiency, while the miller cycle operates with a super charger and improved compression stroke.

Wankel engines use a rotor that rotates asymmetrically within the combustion chamber instead of piston strokes. Rotation of the rotor (typically triangular) draws gas into the combustion chamber through the inlet apertures. As the rotor rotates, the asymmetric motion compresses the gas, which is then ignited in different parts of the combustion chamber. As the rotor continues its rotation, the gases expand into different portions of the combustion chamber. Finally, the rotor discharges the exhaust gas through the outlet hole and the cycle begins again.

Continuous combustion engines include gas turbines and jet engines, which use turbine blades to generate mechanical power. As with the engine described above, the gas is initially compressed and fuel is then added to the compressed gas. The mixture is then combusted and expands as it passes over the turbine blades, rotating the shaft. The shaft may drive a propeller and/or a compressor. Different types of continuous combustion engines include, for example, industrial gas turbines, auxiliary power units, compressed air storage, radial gas turbines, microturbines, turbojet engines, turbofan engines, turboprop engines, turboshaft engines, paddle fan engines, ramjet engines, and scramjet engines.

Other types of engines are also powered by the ignition process, as opposed to the detonation-dependent engines described above. Deflagration releases heat energy via subsonic combustion, while detonation is a supersonic process. For example, pulse jet engines and pulse detonation engines use a detonation process. These types of engines typically have few moving parts and are relatively simple to operate. Generally, a fuel and gas mixture is drawn into a combustion chamber by opening a valve, which is then closed, causing the mixture to react, generating thrust. These valves are then opened and fresh fuel and gas displace the exhaust and the process is repeated. Some engines do not use valves, but instead rely on engine geometry to achieve the same effect. The repeated reactions cause pulsating forces.

Power may also be generated through the use of an electrochemical power system that can generate power in the form of electricity and/or heat energy. Some electrochemical power systems typically include electrodes and reactants that produce a flow of electrons that are subsequently utilized.

The present invention details many systems for generating various forms of power. In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to an electrochemical power system that generates at least one of electricity and heat, the electrochemical power system comprising a vessel comprising:

at least one cathode;

at least one anode;

at least one bipolar plate, and

a reactant comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of:

a) at least one H₂A source of O;

b) a source of oxygen;

c) at least one catalyst source or catalyst comprising a compound selected from nH, O₂、OH、OH^-And newborn H₂At least one of the group of O, wherein n is an integer, and

d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

one or more reactants for forming at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source and the atomic hydrogen, and

one or more reactants for initiating catalysis of the atomic hydrogen,

the electrochemical power system further comprises an electrolysis system and an anode regeneration system.

In another embodiment, the present invention relates to a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising:

at least one container;

a reactant comprising:

a) at least one of the compounds containing nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O;

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and

at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactant;

a power supply for delivering short-pulse high-current electrical energy;

a heavy-duty system;

at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products, and

at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter and at least one thermal-to-electric energy converter.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention relates to an electrochemical power system comprising a vessel comprising:

at least one cathode;

at least one anode;

at least one electrolyte;

at least two reactants selected from the group consisting of:

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a source of conductor, a source of conductive matrix, a conductor, and a conductive matrix; and

at least one current source for generating a current comprising at least one of a high ionic and electronic current selected from an internal current source and an external current source;

wherein the electrochemical power system generates at least one of electricity and thermal energy.

In yet another embodiment, the invention relates to a water arc plasma power system comprising: at least one closed reaction vessel; comprising H₂Source of O and H₂A reactant of at least one of O; at least one set of electrodes; for transferring the H₂An initial high breakdown voltage of O and then providing a high current power supply; and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light and thermal energy.

In other embodiments, the present invention relates to a mechanical power system comprising:

at least one piston cylinder of an internal combustion engine;

a fuel, comprising:

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;

at least one fuel inlet having at least one valve;

at least one exhaust outlet having at least one valve;

at least one piston;

at least one crankshaft;

a source of high current; and

at least two electrodes that confine and conduct high currents through the fuel.

Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a power generation system comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a solid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver electrical power to the solid fuel, thereby generating a plasma; and a plasma energy converter disposed to receive at least a portion of the plasma. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading zone located between the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive an electrically conductive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply an electrical current to the electrically conductive fuel sufficient to ignite the electrically conductive fuel and generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy; a delivery mechanism for moving the conductive fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert the plasma into non-plasma form of power, or for converting thermal energy into electrical energyOr a thermo-electric or mechanical converter of non-thermal form of mechanical power. Other embodiments relate to a method of power generation, comprising: delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading zone, wherein the fuel loading zone is located between a plurality of electrodes; by applying at least about 2,000A/cm to the plurality of electrodes²Flowing an electric current through the fuel to ignite the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat; receiving at least a portion of the plasma in a plasma-to-electric converter; converting the plasma into a different form of power using the plasma-to-electricity converter; and outputting the different form of power.

Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power. The present invention additionally provides a power generation system comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power.

Another embodiment relates to a power generation system, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; a fuel loading zone configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that a compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading zone, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to load the fuel with fuelThe fuel received in the zone powers to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Other embodiments of the invention relate to a power generation system comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that a compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading zone, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to provide power to the fuel received in the fuel loading zone to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Embodiments of the invention also relate to a power generation system comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading zone surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel located in the fuel loading zone; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a removal system for removing by-products of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operably connected to the removal system for recycling the removed byproducts of the ignited fuel to a recovered fuel. Certain embodiments of the present invention also relate to a power generation system comprising: is configured to output at least about 2,000A/cm²A source of electrical current of (a); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to provide power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading zone; a delivery for moving the fuel to the fuel loading zoneA feeding mechanism; a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into electrical power; one or more output power terminals operably connected to the plasma-to-electric energy converter; and a power storage device.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to provide power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading zone; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to provide power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading zone; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system.

Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to receive the fuel thereinSupplying power to the fuel while in the fuel loading zone to ignite the fuel, and the pressure in the fuel loading zone being a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading zone configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to provide power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading zone, and a pressure in the fuel loading zone is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma-to-electrical energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power.

Other embodiments relate to a power generation cell comprising: an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to a power source of at least 5,000 kW; configured to receive primary content H₂O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal energy; and an energy converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy into electrical power. Also disclosed is a power generation system comprising: at least 5,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source; configured to receive primary content H₂O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal energy; and an energy converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy into electrical power.

Other embodiments relate to a method of power generation, comprising: loading fuel into a fuel loading zone, whichWherein the fuel loading zone comprises a plurality of electrodes; at least about 2,000A/cm²To ignite the fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy; performing at least one of: passing the arc plasma through a plasma-to-electric converter to generate electrical power, and passing the thermal energy through a thermal-to-electric converter to generate electrical power; and outputting at least a portion of the generated electrical power. Also disclosed is a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver electrical power to a substrate comprising primarily H₂O, thereby generating heat energy; and a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal energy into electrical power. Further, another embodiment relates to a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; configured to receive primary content H₂O, wherein the fuel loading zone is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that a compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading zone, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to power the water-based fuel received in the fuel loading zone to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the water-based fuel into the fuel loading zone; and a plasma energy converter configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy; and a piston located within the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

Other embodiments relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy, wherein the ignition chamber comprises an exit orifice; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the ignition chamber to generate at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the ignition chamber; and a turbine in fluid communication with the outlet aperture, configured to rotate, thereby outputting mechanical power.

Other embodiments relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein the impeller comprises a hollow region configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy, and the hollow region comprises an inlet orifice configured to receive a working fluid; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the hollow region; and a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply configured to supply power to the hollow region, thereby igniting the solid fuel and generating at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy.

Other embodiments relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; a movable element configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein the movable element at least partially defines an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the ignition chamber; and a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy.

Other embodiments relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the plurality of combustion chambers; and a plurality of electrodes connected to the power supply, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes is associated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and is configured to supply electrical power to the solid fuel, thereby generating at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy.

Embodiments of the invention relate to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy; and a piston fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

Furthermore, the invention relates to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy, wherein the ignition chamber comprises an exit orifice; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy; and a turbine in fluid communication with the outlet aperture, configured to rotate, thereby outputting mechanical power.

Embodiments are also directed to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein the impeller comprises a hollow region configured to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal energy, and the hollow region comprises an inlet orifice configured to receive a working fluid; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the hollow zone; and a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply and configured to supply electrical power to the hollow region, thereby igniting the water-based fuel and generating at least one of the arc plasma and thermal energy.

The invention also relates to a system for generating mechanical power, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the plurality of combustion chambers; and a plurality of electrodes connected to the power supply, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes is associated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and is configured to supply electrical power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy.

Also provided herein is an ignition chamber comprising: a housing defining a hollow chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel container in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, wherein the fuel container is electrically connected to a pair of electrodes; and a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber. Further disclosed is an ignition chamber comprising: a housing defining a hollow chamber; an injection device in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, wherein the injection device is configured to inject fuel into the hollow chamber;

a pair of electrodes electrically connected to the hollow chamber configured to supply electrical power to the fuel sufficient to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy in the hollow chamber; and a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber.

Embodiments of the invention relate to a method for generating mechanical power, comprising: delivering solid fuel to an ignition chamber; passing an electrical current of at least about 5,000A through the solid fuel and applying a voltage of less than about 10V to the solid fuel to ignite the solid fuel and generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy; mixing at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy with a working fluid; and directing the working fluid to a movable element to move the movable element and output mechanical power.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to a method for generating mechanical power, comprising: delivering the water-based fuel to an ignition chamber; passing an electrical current of at least about 5,000A through the water based fuel and applying a voltage of at least about 2kV to the water based fuel to ignite the water based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy; mixing at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy with a working fluid; and directing the working fluid to a movable element to move the movable element and output mechanical power.

Also disclosed is a method for generating mechanical power, comprising: supplying a solid fuel to an ignition chamber; supplying at least about 5,000A to an electrode electrically connected to the solid fuel; igniting the solid fuel to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy in the ignition chamber; and converting at least a portion of at least one of the plasma and the thermal energy into mechanical power. Another method for generating mechanical power is disclosed, comprising: supplying a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber; supplying at least about 5,000A to an electrode electrically connected to the water-based fuel; igniting the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy in the ignition chamber; and converting at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal energy into mechanical power.

Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a machine configured for onshore transport, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and the thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber, configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a drive shaft mechanically coupled to the movable element and configured to provide mechanical power to the transport element.

Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a machine configured for airborne transport, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and the thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber, configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and an aerospace member mechanically coupled to the movable member, configured to provide propulsion in an aerospace environment.

Embodiments of the present invention also relate to a machine configured for marine transport, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and the thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber, configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a marine element mechanically coupled to the movable element, configured to provide propulsion in a marine environment.

Other embodiments of the present invention relate to a work machine including: a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes connected to the power source configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and the thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber, configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a working element mechanically coupled to the movable element, configured to provide mechanical power.

Drawings

Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of a CIHT cell according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 2 is a schematic view of a bipolar plate of a CIHT cell according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT battery generator showing a carousel heavy load system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 4A is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT battery generator showing a hopper reload system, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 4B is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell generator showing electrodes that also function as structural elements and showing a power source that also functions as a starting power source, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the operation of a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter according to an embodiment of the invention.

Fig. 7 is a schematic diagram of system integration for SF-CIHT battery electrical applications, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 8 is a schematic diagram of system integration for thermal and hybrid electro-thermal SF-CIHT battery applications, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 9 is a schematic diagram of an internal SF-CIHT battery engine according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 10 illustrates the removal of H from the interior of an arc plasma vessel according to an embodiment of the present invention₂Schematic of an O-arc plasma cell generator.

FIG. 11 is an experimental H according to an embodiment of the present invention₂Schematic of an O-arc plasma generator.

FIG. 12 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13A depicts an exemplary power generation system in an open state, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 13B depicts the example power generation system of FIG. 13A in an off state.

FIG. 13C depicts an exemplary power generation system in an open state, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 13D depicts the example power generation system of FIG. 13C in an off state.

14A and 14B depict various perspective views of an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 15A depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15B depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15C depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15D depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 16 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 17A depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 17B depicts an alternative configuration of components of the example power generation system of FIG. 17A.

FIG. 18A depicts an exemplary electrode of a power generation system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 18B depicts an alternative configuration of the exemplary electrode of fig. 18A.

Fig. 19 depicts an exemplary plasma converter according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 20 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 21 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 22 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 23 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 24 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 25 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 26 is a diagrammatic view of a mechanical power generation system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 27 is an illustration of an enlarged view of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 28 is a schematic illustration of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 29 is a schematic illustration of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 30 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes according to an embodiment of the invention.

Fig. 31 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 32 is an illustration of one electrode according to an embodiment of the invention.

Fig. 33A and 33B are different views of an impeller according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 34 is a diagrammatic view of a mechanical power generation system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 35A and 35B are different views of a fuel delivery device and an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 36 is a diagrammatic view of a chamber array and fuel delivery apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 37A, 37B and 37C are illustrations of different embodiments of fuel containers and electrodes according to the invention.

Fig. 38 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 39 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 40 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Fig. 41 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Disclosed herein are catalyst systems for releasing energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, wherein the electron shells are in a more closed position relative to the core. The released power is used for power generation and additional novel hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted according to classical physical laws and require the catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen for the corresponding energy release transition.

Classical physics gives a closed-form solution to hydrogen atoms, hydrogen anions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules and predicts the corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Using maxwell's equations, an electronic structure is derived from the boundary value problem, wherein electrons contain the source current of the electromagnetic field that varies with time during the transition, with the constraint that electrons in the boundary n-1 state cannot radiate energy. The reaction predicted by the solution of the H atom involves a resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from an otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting energy to form hydrogen in an energy state lower than previously thought possible. In particular, classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen will undergo catalytic reactions with certain atomic, excimer, ionic, and diatomic hydrides, which provide a net enthalpy of atomic hydrogen potential E_hReaction at integer multiple of 27.2eV, where E_hIs a hartley. Identifiable specific species (e.g. He) based on known electronic energy levels⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺K, Li, HCl, NaH, OH, SH, SeH, H₂O, nH (n is an integer)) need to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer followed by continuous emission or q.13.6 eV transitionMove to H to form a very hot excited state H and hydrogen atoms with energies corresponding to fractional principal quantum numbers lower than that of unreacted atomic hydrogen. That is, in the formula of the main energy level of hydrogen atoms:

n＝1，2，3，...(2)

wherein a is_HIs the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom (52.947pm), e is the electron charge value, and ε_oFractional quantum number for vacuum permittivity:

the well-known parameter n in the rydberg equation replacing the hydrogen excited state is an integer and represents a lower energy state hydrogen atom known as "fractional hydrogen". Then, similar to the excited state with the analytical solution of maxwell's equations, the hydrino atoms also contain electrons, protons, and photons. However, the latter electric field increases the binding corresponding to energy desorption, rather than weakening the central field as energy is absorbed in the excited state, and the resulting photon-electron interaction of the fractional hydrogen is stable rather than radiative.

N-1 state of hydrogen and of hydrogenThe states are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states, such as n-1 to n-1/2, can occur via non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the steady state given by equations (1) and (3), where the corresponding radii of hydrogen or fractional hydrogen atoms are given by:

wherein p is 1,2,3 …. For energy conservation, the following units of energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst:

m·27.2eV，m＝1，2，3，4，.... (5)

and transforming the radius intoThe catalyst reaction includes two energy release steps: non-radiative energy is transferred to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius is reduced to a corresponding stable final state. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases as the net reaction enthalpy more closely matches m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net reaction enthalpy within 10%, preferably within 5%, of m.27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalysis of a hydrino atom to a lower energy state, the enthalpy of reaction for m.27.2 eV (equation (5)) is corrected relationally by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom.

Thus, the general reaction is given by:

Cat^(q+r)++re^-→Cat^q++m·27.2eV (8)

and the overall reaction is

q, r, m and p are integers.Has a hydrogen atom radius (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equal to (m + p) times that of a proton, andis of radius HCorresponding steady state. When the electron experiences a radius from a hydrogen atom toUpon radial acceleration of the radius of this distance, energy is released in the form of characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy. The emission may be marginal [ (p + m)²-p²-2m]13.6eV orAnd extends to the form of longer wavelength extreme ultraviolet continuous radiation. In addition to radiation, co-vibrational energy transfer can occur to form fast H. Such fast H (n ═ 1) atoms are then passed through with background H₂the collision of excitation followed by the emission of the corresponding H (n ═ 3) fast atoms can cause broadening of the barter α emission as an alternative, fast H is the direct product of H acting as a catalyst or fractional hydrogen where the resonance energy transfer is taken into account in relation to the potential energy rather than the ionization energy.

In the present invention, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalyzed reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, reaction of hydrogen to form fractional hydrogen, and hydrino forming reaction all refer to reactions such as: the reaction of equations (6-9) of the catalyst defined by equation (5) with atomic H forms a hydrogen state having the energy levels given by equations (1) and (3). When referring to a reaction mixture that can catalyze H to an H state or a hydrino state having an energy level given by equations (1) and (3), the corresponding terms, e.g., hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactant for hydrino formation, reactant that produces or forms lower energy state hydrogen or hydrino, can also be used interchangeably.

The catalytic lower energy hydrogen transition of the present invention requires a catalyst in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction that can take an integer m times the potential energy of the uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen of 27.2eV, accepting energy from the atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g., for Li → Li)²⁺M-3) and may further comprise a synergistic reaction of bond scission with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more initial bond partners (e.g., for NaH → Na)²⁺+H，m＝2)。He⁺Because it ionizes at 54.417eV (2 · 27.2eV) it meets the catalyst criteria-chemical or physical processes with enthalpy changes equal to integer multiples of 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms can also act as a catalyst for an integer multiple of the 27.2eV enthalpy. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can undergo a further transition towards a lower energy state given by equations (1) and (3), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more other H atoms accepting m · 27.2eV in a resonant and non-radiative manner with a phase reversal of the potential energy. The general equation for the transition of H (1/p) to H (1/(p + m)) induced by the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by:

H(1/p')+H(1/p)→H+H(1/(p+m))+[2pm+m²-p'²+1]·13.6eV (10)

a hydrogen atom may serve as a catalyst, wherein m is 1, m is 2, and m is 3 for one, two, and three atoms of the catalyst serving as another, respectively. The rate of 2H for a diatomic catalyst may be higher when the very fast H collides with the molecule to form 2H, where two atoms receive 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom resonance and non-radiative of the collision partner. By the same mechanism, two heats H₂The collision of (3) provided 3H to act as a fourth catalyst of 3 · 27.2 eV. Consistent with the prediction, EUV continuum at 22.8nm and 10.1nm, anomalous: (>100eV) broadening of the Barcol end alpha line, highly excited H-state, product gas H₂(1/4), and large energy release.

H (1/4) is the preferred hydrino state based on its multi-polarity and the selection rule for its formation. Thus, in the case of H (1/3) formation, the transition to H (1/4) can occur rapidly catalyzed by H according to equation (10). Similarly, H (1/4) is a preferred state of catalyst energy corresponding to m of 3, greater than or equal to 81.6eV in equation (5). In this case, the energy transfer towards the catalyst comprises an integer of 81.6eV for H x (1/4) intermediate forming equation (7) and 27.2eV from the decay of the intermediate. For example, a catalyst with enthalpy of 108.8eV may form H (1/4) by accepting 81.6eV and 27.2eV from H (1/4) decay energy of 122.4 eV. The residual decay energy of 95.2eV is released into the environment to form the preferred state H (1/4), which then reacts to form H₂(1/4)。

Suitable catalysts may thus provide a positive net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atom resonance and releases energy into the environment to achieve an electronic transition towards fractional quantum energy levels. Due to the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and emits other energy until it reaches a lower energy non-radiative state with a main energy level given by equations (1) and (3). Thus, the catalysis is correspondingly reduced from the hydrogen atom size (r)_n＝na_H) Wherein n is given by equation (3). For example, the catalytic release of H (n ═ 1) to H (n ═ 1/4) is 204eV, and the hydrogen radius is from a_HIs reduced to

The catalyst product H (1/p) may also react with electrons to form the hydridoanion H^-(1/p), or two H (1/p) can be reacted to form the corresponding molecular hydrido H₂(1/p). In particular, the catalyst product H (1/p) can also react with electrons to form a binding energy E_BOf (a) a novel hydride H^-(1/p)：

Where p is an integer greater than 1, s is 1/2, h is a planck constant term, μ_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs electron mass, mu_eIs composed ofGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of proton, a_oIs a Bohr radius and an ionic radius ofThe calculated ionization energy of the hydride was 0.75418eV according to equation (11), and the experimental value was 6082.99. + -. 0.15cm^-1(0.75418 eV). The binding energy of the hydridoanion can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

The high field displacement NMR peak is direct evidence of the presence of lower energy state hydrogen with reduced radius relative to normal hydride anions and increased diamagnetic shielding of protons. The displacement is given by the sum of the contributions of diamagnetism of the two electron and proton fields of order p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)):

wherein the first term applies to H^-(p ═ 1) and H^-the predicted hydridohydride peak is shifted towards a high magnetic field abnormally relative to normal hydride in one embodiment, the peak is at a high magnetic field of TMS^-、H、H₂Or H⁺At least one known NMR shift. The displacement may be greater than at least one of: 0ppm, -1ppm, -2ppm, -3ppm, -4ppm, -5ppm, -6ppm, -7ppm, -8ppm, -9ppm, -10ppm, -11ppm, -12ppm, -13ppm, -14ppm, -15ppm, -16ppm, -17ppm, -18ppm, -19ppm, -20ppm, -21ppm, -22ppm, -23ppm, -24ppm, -25ppm, -26ppm, -27ppm, -28ppm, -29ppm, -30ppm, -31ppm, -32ppm,-33ppm, -34ppm, -35ppm, -36ppm, -37ppm, -38ppm, -39ppm and-40 ppm. The range of absolute displacement relative to a bare proton (where the TMS displacement is about-31.5 relative to a bare proton) may be- (p29.9+ p²2.74) ppm (equation (12)), approximately in the range of at least one of: 5ppm, + -10ppm, + -20ppm, + -30ppm, + -40ppm, + -50 ppm, + -60 ppm, + -70 ppm, + -80 ppm, + -90 ppm and + -100 ppm. The range of absolute displacement relative to a bare proton may be- (p29.9+ p)²1.59×10^-3) ppm (equation (12)) approximately in the range of at least one of: about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrino species (e.g., hydrino atoms, hydride anions, or molecules) in a solid matrix (e.g., a matrix of hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH) causes the matrix protons to be displaced toward a high magnetic field. The substrate protons (e.g., NaOH or KOH protons) are exchangeable. In one embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in a range of about-0.1 ppm to-5 ppm relative to TMS. NMR measurements may include magic angle rotations¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS)¹H NMR)。

H (1/p) can react with a proton and two H (1/p) can react to form H separately₂(1/p)⁺And H₂(1/p). The hydrogen molecular ions and molecular charge and current density functional, bond distance and energy are solved under non-radiative constraints by laplace operators in ellipsoid coordinates.

Total energy E of hydrogen molecular ions having a central field of + pe at each focal point of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital_TIs composed of

Where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the approximate nuclear mass. The total energy of hydrogen molecules having a central field of + pe at each focal point of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

Hydrogen molecule H₂Bond dissociation energy of (1/p) E_DTotal energy and E for the corresponding hydrogen atom_TDifference therebetween

E_D＝E(2H(1/p))-E_T(16)

Wherein

E(2H(1/p))＝-p²27.20eV (17)

E_DIs derived from equations (16) to (17) and (15):

E_D＝-p²27.20eV-E_T

＝-p²27.20eV-(-p²31.351eV-p³0.326469eV)

＝p²4.151eV+p³0.326469eV (18)

H₂(1/p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), wherein the ionization products other than the ionized electrons can be, for example, a product containing two protons and electrons, an H atom, a fractional hydrogen atom, a molecular ion, a hydrogen molecular ion, and H₂(1/p)⁺And the like, wherein the energy may be displaced by the matrix.

NMR of the catalytic product gas to provide H₂(1/p) deterministic test of theoretical predicted chemical shifts. In general, H is due to the fractional radius in the elliptical coordinates (where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus), H₂(1/p) of¹HNMR resonance is predicted at H₂High field of (2). H₂(1/p) predicted DisplacementGiven by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of the two electron and photon magnetic fields of order p (Mills GUTCP equations (11.415-11.416)):

wherein the first term applies to H₂(p ═ 1) and H₂(1/p) (p ═ an integer greater than 1). 28.0ppm of the absolute H of the experiment₂The gas phase resonance shift is in good agreement with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of-28.01 ppm (equation (20)). Predicted molecular hydrino peak relative to normal H₂Abnormally displaced toward the high field. In one embodiment, the peak is at the high field of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS can be greater than for ordinary H alone or as a constituent compound^-、H、H₂Or H⁺At least one known NMR shift. The displacement may be greater than at least one of: 0ppm, -1ppm, -2ppm, -3ppm, -4ppm, -5ppm, -6ppm, -7ppm, -8ppm, -9ppm, -10ppm, -11ppm, -12ppm, -13ppm, -14ppm, -15ppm, -16ppm, -17ppm, -18ppm, -19ppm, -20ppm, -21ppm, -22ppm, -23ppm, -24ppm, -25ppm, -26ppm, -27ppm, -28ppm, -29ppm, -30ppm, -31ppm, -32ppm, -33ppm, -34ppm, -35ppm, -36ppm, -37ppm, -38ppm, -39ppm and-40 ppm. The range of absolute displacement relative to a bare proton (where the TMS displacement is about-31.5 relative to a bare proton) may be- (p28.01+ p²2.56) ppm (equation (20)) in a range of about at least one of: 5ppm, + -10ppm, + -20ppm, + -30ppm, + -40ppm, + -50 ppm, + -60 ppm, + -70 ppm, + -80 ppm, + -90 ppm and + -100 ppm. The range of absolute displacement relative to a bare proton may be- (p28.01+ p)²1.49×10^-3) ppm (equation (20)) in the range of about at least one of: about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%.

Hydrogen form of molecule H₂Vibration energy E of transition from 0 to 1 (/ 1)_vibIs composed of

E_vib＝p²0.515902eV (21)

Wherein p is an integer.

Hydrogen form of molecule H₂(1/p) rotational energy E of J to J +1 transition_rotIs composed of

Where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. H was observed for gas and electron beam excited molecules trapped in a solid matrix₂And (1/4) rotating and transmitting.

P of rotational energy²The correlation results from the inverse p-correlation of the inter-kernel distance and the corresponding influence on the moment of inertia I. Predicted H₂(1/p) an internuclear distance 2c' of

H₂At least one of the rotational energy and the vibrational energy of (1/p) can be measured by at least one of electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H₂(1/p) can be trapped in a matrix for measurement, e.g., at MOH, MX and M₂CO₃And (M ═ alkali metal; X ═ halide) matrix.

I. Catalyst and process for preparing same

According to prediction, He⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺Li, K, NaH, nH (n is an integer) and H₂O may act as a catalyst because it satisfies the catalyst criteria-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2 eV. Specifically, the catalytic system is provided as follows: the t electrons are each ionized from the atom to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. In addition, other catalytic transitions can occur:and the like. Once catalysis begins, the hydrinos are further autocatalytic in a process called disproportionation, where H or H (1/p) acts as a catalyst for another H or H (1/p ') (p can be equal to p').

Hydrogen and the fractional hydrogen may act as catalysts. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can undergo the transitions towards lower energy states given by equations (1) and (3), with the transition of one atom being catalyzed by the second which accepts m · 27.2eV in a resonant and non-radiative manner with a phase reversal of the potential energy. The general equation for the transition of H (1/p) to H (1/(m + p)) induced by the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is represented by equation (10). Thus, a hydrogen atom may act as a catalyst, where m is 1, m is 2, and m is 3 for one, two, and three atoms of the catalyst as another. The rate for the two or three atom catalyst case will be appreciable only when the H density is higher. However, high H density is not uncommon. High hydrogen atom concentrations that allow 2H or 3H to act as energy acceptors for the third or fourth can be achieved in several cases, for example in solar and star surfaces, in metal surfaces carrying monolayers, and in highly dissociative plasmas (especially compressed hydrogen plasmas) due to temperature and gravity driven density. In addition, when two H atoms are thermally H and H₂The presence of collisions facilitates the three-body H interaction. This event may typically occur in a plasma with a large amount of very fast H. This is evidenced by the anomalous intensity of atomic H emission. In such cases, energy transfer can occur via multipole coupling from a hydrogen atom to two other hydrogen atoms in sufficient proximity (typically a few angstroms). Next, the reaction between the three hydrogen atoms (whereby two atoms accept 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom in a resonant and non-radiative manner, such that 2H acts as a catalyst) is given by:

and the overall reaction is

WhereinHas a hydrogen atom radius and a central field equal to 3 times that of a proton, anCorresponding to a steady state radius of 1/3 of H. Because the electrons experience radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/3 this distance, energy is released in the form of characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy.

In relation to direct transition toIn another H atom catalyst reaction of state, two hot H₂The molecules collide and dissociate so that the three H atoms act as the fourth 3 · 27.2eV catalyst. Next, the reaction between the four hydrogen atoms (whereby the three atoms accept 81.6eV from the fourth hydrogen atom in a resonant and non-radiative manner, such that 3H acts as a catalyst) is given by:

and the overall reaction is

The prediction being due to equation (28)The extreme ultraviolet continuum band of the intermediate has a short wavelength cutoff at 122.4eV (10.1nm) and extends to longer wavelengths. This continuous band was experimentally confirmed. In general, H is transitioned to by accepting m.27.2 eVA continuous band is obtained with a short wavelength cutoff and energy given by

And extends to wavelengths greater than the respective cutoff values. Hydrogen emission sequences of 10.1nm, 22.8nm and 91.2nm continuum were observed experimentally in the interplanetary medium, the sun and white dwarf.

H₂The potential energy of O is 81.6eV (equation (43)) [ Mills GUT]. Then, by the same mechanism, nascent H₂O molecules (hydrogen not bonded in a solid, liquid or gaseous state) can be used as catalysts (equations (44) - (47)). The theoretically predicted migration of H to lower energy (so-called "hydrino") states was first observed in the BlackLightPower corporation (BLP) for a continuous spectral emission band (at 10.1 n)m and extending to longer wavelengths) result only from a pulse-pinch hydrogen discharge and are reproduced at the physical center of the harvard celestial body (CfA). It was observed that the continuous spectrum radiation in the 10nm to 30nm region that matches the predicted migration of H to hydrino states only stems from a pulse-pinch hydrogen discharge with a metal oxide that thermodynamically favors the occurrence of H reduction to form a HOH catalyst; those who do not show any continuum, even though the low melting point metal tested is highly favorable for forming a metal ion plasma with a strong short wavelength continuum in a more powerful plasma source.

energy transfer to both H also causes motion of the catalyst excited state and directly produces the fast H, as shown by the exemplary equations (24), (28) and (47) and by the resonant kinetic energy transfer.

Fraction hydrogen

Hydrogen atoms having a binding energy given by:

(wherein p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137) is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present invention. The binding energy (also called ionization energy) of an atom, ion or molecule is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. The hydrogen atoms having the binding energy given in equation (34) are hereinafter referred to as "fractional hydrogen atoms" or "fractional hydrogens". Radius of(wherein a)_HIs a radius of a common hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is represented byHaving a radius a_HIs hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom"or" normal hydrogen atom ". Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Hydrinos are formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst with a net reaction enthalpy of:

m·27.2eV (35)

wherein m is an integer. It is believed that the catalytic rate increases when the net reaction enthalpy is more closely matched to m.27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net reaction enthalpy within 10%, preferably within 5%, of m.27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications.

This catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atoms, which are correspondingly reduced in size (r)_n＝na_H). For example, the catalytic release of H (n ═ 1) to H (n ═ 1/2) is 40.8eV, and the hydrogen radius is from a_HIs reduced toThe catalytic system is provided as follows: the t electrons are each ionized from the atom to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. As an energy source, the energy released during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost to the catalyst. The energy released is greater than in conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen undergo combustion to form water,

known enthalpy of formation for water is Δ H per hydrogen atom_fAt-286 kj/mole or 1.48 eV. In contrast, each (n ═ 1) ordinary hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis releases 40.8eV net. In addition, other catalytic transitions can occur:

and the like. Once catalysis begins, the hydrinos are further autocatalytic in a process called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. But due to enthalpy and m.27.2eV, and therefore the reaction rate of hydrino catalysis should be higher than that of inorganic ionic catalysts.

Hydrino catalyst and hydrino product

A hydrogen catalyst capable of providing a net reaction enthalpy of about m.27.2 eV (where m is an integer) to produce hydrinos (whereby t electrons are ionized from atoms or ions) is given in table 1. The atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized to provide a net reaction enthalpy given in the tenth column of m.27.2 eV, where m is given in the eleventh column. The electrons participating in ionization are given together with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). Ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is represented by IP_nDenoted and given by CRC. I.e., for example, Li +5.39172eV → Li⁺+e^-And Li⁺+75.6402eV→Li²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁5.39172eV and a second ionization potential IP₂75.6402eV is given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net reaction enthalpy of Li double ionization is 81.0319eV as given in the tenth column, and m ═ 3 in formula (5) as given in the eleventh column.

TABLE 1 Hydrogen catalyst

The hydrino anions of the present invention can be formed by reaction of an electron source with hydrino, i.e., a binding energy of aboutA hydrogen atom of (A), whereinAnd p is an integer greater than 1. Hydrido anions consisting of H^-(n-1/p) or H^-(1/p) represents:

the hydrino anion is different from a common hydride anion containing a common hydrogen nucleus and two electrons with a binding energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter are referred to hereinafter as "common hydride anions" or "normal hydride anions". The hydrido anion comprises a hydrogen nucleus including protium, deuterium, or tritium, and two indistinguishable electrons whose binding energies are shown in equations (39) and (40).

The binding energy of the hydridoanion can be represented by the formula:

binding energy

Where p is an integer greater than 1, s is 1/2, pi is the circumference ratio, h is the Planck constant term, μ_oIs the vacuum permeability, m_eIs electron mass, mu_eIs composed ofGiven reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius, and e is the base charge. The radius is given by:

the hydridoanion H as a function of p is shown in Table 2^-(n-1/p) wherein p is an integer.

TABLE 2 hydridoanion H as a function of p^-(n-1/p) (equation (39)).

a equation (40)

b equation (39)

According to the present invention, there is provided a fractional hydrogen anion (H)^-) The binding energy according to equations (39) and (40) is greater than that of the common hydride anion (about 0.75eV) for p ═ 2 up to 23, and 24 (H) for p ═ 24 (H)^-) Then this is the case. For p2 to p 24 of equations (39) and (40), the hydride binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69eV, respectively. Also provided herein are exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ions.

Exemplary compounds comprising one or more hydridohydride anions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are referred to as "hydridotion compounds".

Common hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride, 0.754eV ("common hydride"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecules, 15.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecules"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e)22.6eV ("common trihydrogen molecular ion"). Herein, "normal" and "normal" are synonymous for the hydrogen form.

According to another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy, e.g., (a) a binding energy of aboutFor example, about 0.9 to 1.1 timesA hydrogen atom in the range of (1), wherein p is an integer of 2 to 137; (b) binding energy of about

For example, about 0.9 to 1.1 timesHydrogen anion (H) within the range of^-) Wherein p is an integer of 2-24; (c)(d) binding energy of aboutFor example, about 0.9 to 1.1 timesA fraction of hydrogen molecular ions in the range of (1)Wherein p is an integer of 2 to 137; (e) binding energy of aboutFor example, about 0.9 to 1.1 timesDi-hydrido in the range of (1), wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) binding energy of aboutFor example, about 0.9 to 1.1 timesA di-hydrido molecular ion in the range of (1), wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer of 2 to 137.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy, such as (a) a di-hydrino molecular ion, with a total energy of about

For example, the ratio is about 0.9 to 1.1 times ═ p²16.13392eV-p³0.118755eV, wherein p is an integer, h is a Planckian constant term, m_eIs the electron mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass; and (b) a di-hydric molecule, with a total energy of about

E.g. at about 0.9 to 1.1 times ═ p²31.351eV-p³0.326469eV, wherein p is an integer and a_oIs the Bohr radius.

According to one embodiment of the invention, wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged hydrogen species with increased binding energy, the compound further comprises one or more cations, e.g. protons, conventionalOr in general

Provided herein is a method of making a compound comprising at least one hydridohydride anion. Such compoundsHereinafter referred to as "hydrino anionic compounds". The process comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a net enthalpy of reaction of aboutWherein m is an integer greater than 1, preferably less than 400, to produce a binding energy of aboutWherein p is an integer, preferably an integer of 2 to 137. Another catalytic product is energy. The hydrogen atoms of increased binding energy can be reacted with an electron source to produce hydride ions of increased binding energy. The increased binding energy hydride can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride.

The novel hydrogen composition may comprise:

(a) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy (hereinafter "binding energy increasing hydrogen species"),

(i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding common hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the binding energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP) or is negative; and

(b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

In this context, "other elements" refer to elements other than hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased. Thus, the other element may be a common hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and hydrogen species whose binding energy is increased are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and the hydrogen species with increased binding energy are charged such that the other elements provide a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds are characterized by molecular and coordination bonding; the latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy,

(i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding common hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the total energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and

(b) at least one other element.

The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies at which all electrons are removed from the hydrogen species. The total energy of the hydrogen species of the present invention is greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species. The hydrogen species of the present invention having an increased total energy is also referred to as a "binding energy increased hydrogen species," but some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy that is less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species. For example, the first binding energy of the hydride of equations (39) and (40) for p 24 is less than the first binding energy of the common hydride, while the total energy of the hydride of equations (39) and (40) for p 24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydride.

Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having binding energies (hereinafter "binding energy increasing hydrogen species"),

(ii) Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding common hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the binding energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds having increased binding energy".

The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, a hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of the increased binding energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom, molecule or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy,

(i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

In one embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy selected from the group consisting of: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy according to equations (39) and (40) ("increased binding energy hydride" or "hydridoanion") of from 2 up to 23 greater for p and less than the binding energy of the common hydride ion (about 0.8eV) for p 24; (b) hydrogen atoms having a binding energy greater than that of ordinary hydrogen atoms (about 13.6eV) ("hydrogen atoms having increased binding energy" or "fractional hydrogen"); (c) hydrogen molecules having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3eV (an "increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "fractional hydrogen"); and (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a binding energy greater than about 16.3eV ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ions" or "binary hydrogen molecular ions"). In the present invention, hydrogen species and compounds that bind with increased energy are also referred to as hydrino species and compounds. Hydrinos contain hydrogen species with increased binding energy or equivalently lower energy.

Other MH-type catalysts and reactions

Generally, the MH type hydrogen catalysts used to produce hydrinos are provided in table 3A as follows: the M-H bond cleavage plus the ionization of t electrons from each atom M to a continuous energy level results in a sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons of about m.27.2 eV, where M is an integer. Each MH catalyst is given in the first column and the corresponding M-H bond energy is given in the second column. The atom M of the MH species given in the first column is ionized to provide a net reaction enthalpy of m.27.2 eV, plus the bond energy of the second column. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in the eighth column, where m is given in the ninth column. The electrons participating in ionization are given together with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). For example, the bond energy 1.9245eV for NaH is given in the second column. Ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is represented by IP_nDenoted and given by CRC. That is, for example, Na +5.13908eV → Na⁺+e^-And Na⁺+47.2864eV→Na²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁5.13908eV and a second ionization potential IP₂47.2864eV is given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net reaction enthalpy of NaH bond cleavage and Na double ionization is given as 54.35eV as in column eight, and m is 2 in equation (35) as given in column ninth. BaH bond energy of 1.98991eV and IP₁、IP₂And IP₃5.2117eV, 10.00390eV and 37.3eV, respectively. The net reaction enthalpy of BaH bond scission and Ba triplet ionization is given as 54.5eV as in column eight, and m ═ 2 in equation (35) as given in column ninth. SrH bond energy of 1.70eV and IP₁、IP₂、IP₃、IP₄And IP₅5.69484eV, 11.03013eV, 42.89eV, 57eV, and 71.6eV, respectively. SrH bond cleavage and Sr ionization to Sr⁵⁺The net reaction enthalpy of (a) is given as 190eV as in column eight, and m is 7 in equation (35) as given in column ninth.

TABLE 3A MH-type hydrogen catalyst capable of providing a net reaction enthalpy of about m.27.2 eV (energy is expressed in eV)

In other embodiments, MH-type hydrogen catalysts for producing hydrinos are provided in table 3B as follows: the electron transfer to acceptor A, M-H bond cleavage plus t electrons each ionize from atom M to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference in Electron Affinity (EA) energy of MH and a, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons ionizing from M, where M is an integer, is about m.27.2 eV. The electron affinity of each MH catalyst, acceptor A, MH, the electron affinity of a, and the M-H bond energy are given in the first, second, third, and fourth columns, respectively. The electrons of the corresponding atom M of the MH participating in the ionization are given in the subsequent column together with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy) and the enthalpy of the catalyst and the corresponding integer M in the last column. For example, the electron affinity energies of OH and H are 1.82765eV and 0.7542eV, respectively, so that the electron transfer energy is 1.07345eV, as given in the fifth column. The OH bond energy is 4.4556eV, as given in the sixth column. Ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is represented by IP_nAnd (4) specifying. That is, for example, O +13.61806eV → O⁺+e^-And O⁺+35.11730eV→O²⁺+e^-. First ionization potential IP₁13.61806eV and a second ionization potential IP₂35.11730eV is given in the seventh and eighth columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of electron transfer reaction, OH bond cleavage and O double ionization is 54.27eV as given in the eleventh column, and m is 2 in equation (35) as given in the twelfth column. In other embodiments, a catalyst for forming hydrino H is provided as follows: the negative ion is ionized such that the sum of its EA plus the ionization energy of one or more electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. Alternatively, a first electron of the negative ion can be transferred to the acceptor, followed by ionization of at least one electron such that the sum of the electron transfer energy plus the ionization energy of one or more electrons is about m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The electron acceptor may be H.

TABLE 3B MH-type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net reaction enthalpy of about m.27.2 eV (energy expressed in eV)

In other embodiments, MH for hydrino generation is provided as follows⁺type-I hydrogen catalyst: the transfer of electrons from the negatively chargeable donor a, the breaking of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuous energy level, such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference in ionization energy of MH and a, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons ionized from M, where M is an integer, is about m.27.2 eV.

In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises, for example, an atom, a positively or negatively charged ion, a positively or negatively charged molecular ion, a molecule, an excimer, a compound, or any combination thereof, at any species that is in a ground or excited state capable of accepting the energy of m.27.2 eV (m 1,2,3, 4.) (the ground or excited state of the energy of equation (5.) it is believed that the rate of catalysis increases when the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV.it has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within m.27.2 eV + -10%, preferably + -5%, are suitable for most applications.in the case of catalysis of fractional hydrogen atoms to a lower energy state, the enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (equation (5)) is corrected for relativistically by the same factor as the potential energy of the fractional hydrogen atom. The energy accepted reduces the magnitude of the catalyst potential by about the amount of transfer from atomic hydrogen. Energetic ions or electrons can be generated due to conservation of kinetic energy of the initially bound electrons. At least one atom H acts as a catalyst for at least one other atom H, with the 27.2eV potential of the acceptor being offset by the 27.2eV atom transfer from the catalysed donor H. The kinetic energy of the acceptor catalyst H can be preserved in the fast proton or electron form. In addition, the intermediate state formed in catalytic H (equation (7)) decays as continuous energy is emitted in the form of radiation or kinetic energy induced in a third body. Such energy release may generate current in a CIHT cell of the invention.

In one embodiment, at least one of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion acts as a catalyst accepting about m27.2ev from the atom H, wherein the potential energy value of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion is reduced by about m27.2 ev. For example, H as given in Mills GUTCP₂O has a potential energy of

Molecules that accept m.27.2 eV from atomic H and have the same energy of decreasing magnitude of molecular potential energy may act as catalysts. For example, with respect to H₂The potential energy of O and the catalytic reaction (m is 3) is

And the overall reaction is

WhereinHas a hydrogen atom radius and a central field equal to 4 times that of a proton, anCorresponding to a steady state radius of 1/4 of H. When the electrons undergo radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/4 the distance, the energy characterizes the luminescence shapeOr a third body kinetic energy form. The average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water was 3.6 based on 10% energy change in heat of vaporization from 0 ℃ ice to 100 ℃ water. Thus, in one embodiment, H₂O must be chemically formed in a separate molecule with suitable activation energy to act as a catalyst to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, H₂O catalyst is nascent H₂O。

In one embodiment, nH, O, nO, O₂OH and H₂At least one of O (n ═ integer) may serve as a catalyst. The product of H and OH (as catalyst) can be H (1/5), with a catalyst enthalpy of about 108.8 eV. H and H₂The product of the reaction of O (as catalyst) may be H (1/4). The hydrino product may also react to a lower state. H (1/4) and the product of H (as catalyst) can be H (1/5) with a catalyst enthalpy of about 27.2 eV. The product of H (1/4) and OH (as catalyst) can be H (1/6) with a catalyst enthalpy of about 54.4 eV. H (1/5) and the product of H (as catalyst) can be H (1/6) with a catalyst enthalpy of about 27.2 eV.

In addition, OH can be used as a catalyst because the potential energy of OH is:

the energy difference between the H states of p ═ 1 and p ═ 2 was 40.8 eV. Thus, OH can accept about 40.8eV from H to act as a catalyst to form H (1/2).

Like H₂Amine function NH as given in O, Mills GUTCP₂Has a potential of-78.77719 eV. From the CRC, each corresponding Δ H_fCalculated NH₂React to form KNH₂Δ H of (-128.9-184.9) kj/mol-313.8 kj/mol (3.25 eV). From the CRC, each corresponding Δ H_fCalculated NH₂Reaction to form NaNH₂Δ H of (-123.8-184.9) kj/mol-308.7 kj/mol (3.20 eV). From the CRC, each corresponding Δ H_fCalculated NH₂Reaction to form LiNH₂Δ H of(-179.5-184.9) kj/mol-364.4 kj/mol (3.78 eV). Thus, the alkali metal amide MNH which can be used as H catalyst for forming fractional hydrogen₂The net enthalpies accepted (M ═ K, Na, Li) are about 82.03eV, 81.98eV, and 82.56eV, respectively (in equation (5), M ═ 3), corresponding to the sum of the potential energy of the amine groups and the energy of amine compound formation from the amine groups. The hydrino products (e.g., molecular fraction hydrogen) can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts as observed by methods such as MAS NMR.

Like H₂O, H given in Mills GUTCP₂The potential energy of the S functional group is-72.81 eV. The cancellation of this potential energy will also eliminate the energy associated with the 3p shell hybridization. This hybridization energy of 7.49eV is given by the ratio of the hydride orbital radius to the initial atom orbital radius multiplied by the total energy of the shell. In addition, the energy change of the S3p shell due to the formation of two S-H bonds of 1.10eV is taken into the catalyst energy. Thus, H₂The net enthalpy of the S catalyst is 81.40eV (in equation (5), m ═ 3). H₂The S catalyst may be formed from MHS (M ═ alkali metal) by the following reaction:

2MHS→M₂S+H₂S (49)

the reversible reaction can form H in an active catalytic state₂S, this state is the product H₂S, which can catalyze the formation of H to fractional hydrogen. The reaction mixture may comprise formation of H₂S and atomic H. The hydrino products (e.g., molecular fraction hydrogen) can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts as observed by methods such as MAS NMR.

Atomic oxygen is a special atom having two unpaired electrons with the same radius and equal to the bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. When atomic H acts as a catalyst, an energy of 27.2eV is accepted, so that the kinetic energy of each ionized H of the catalyst acting as another is 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O can ionize with kinetic energy transfer to the O ion of 13.6eV, such that the net enthalpy of O-H bond scission of OH followed by ionization of the two external unpaired electrons is 80.4eV, as given in Table 3. At OH^-During ionization to OH, further reactions may occurTo form H (1/4) and O²⁺+2e^-Wherein the released 204eV energy contributes to the power of the CIHT cell. The reaction is given as follows:

and the overall reaction is

Wherein m in equation (5) is 3. Kinetic energy can also be stored in hot electrons. This mechanism is demonstrated by the observation of an H population inversion phenomenon in a water vapor plasma. The hydrino products (e.g., molecular fraction hydrogen) can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts observed by methods such as MAS NMR. Other methods of identifying molecular hydrino products are given in the present invention (e.g., FTIR, raman, and XPS).

In one embodiment where oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds participate in the oxidation or reduction reaction, O₂May serve as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806eV, 35.11730eV, and 54.9355eV, respectively. Reaction O₂→O+O²⁺、O₂→O+O³⁺And 2O → 2O⁺Providing about 2,4 and 1 times E, respectively_hAnd comprises a catalyst reaction that forms hydrinos by accepting such energy from H to form hydrinos.

Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) cell

The catalyst-induced hydrino transition (CIHT) cell 400 shown in fig. 1 comprises a cathode compartment 401 having a cathode 405, an anode compartment 402 having an anode 410, optionallyA salt bridge 420 and reactants comprising at least one bipolar plate. The reactants constitute a hydrino reactant under separated electron flow and ion mass transport during cell operation to produce at least one of electrical power and thermal energy. The reactants comprise at least two components selected from: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) a source of oxygen; (c) at least one catalyst source or catalyst comprising a compound selected from nH, O₂、OH、OH^-And newborn H₂At least one of the group of O, wherein n is an integer; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants for forming at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants for initiating catalysis of atomic hydrogen, wherein the combination of the cathode, anode, reactants, and bipolar plates allows catalytic atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos for propagation, thereby maintaining a chemical potential or voltage between each cathode and the respective anode, thereby causing an external current to flow through the load 425, and the system further comprises an electrolysis system. In another embodiment, the CIHT cell produces at least one of electrical and thermal energy gains that exceed the electrolytic energy applied via electrodes 405 and 410. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises at least one of a porous electrode capable of gas sparging, a gas diffusion electrode, and a hydrogen permeable anode, wherein oxygen and H are₂At least one of O is supplied from a source 430 to the cathode 405 via a channel 430 and H₂Is supplied to anode 420 from source 431 via channel 461.

In certain embodiments, an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of electricity and thermal energy comprises a vessel comprising: at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one bipolar plate; and reactants comprising at least two components selected from: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) a source of oxygen; (c) at least one catalyst source or catalyst comprising a compound selected from nH, O₂、OH、OH^-And newborn H₂At least one of the group of O, wherein n is an integer; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more catalysts for forming the source,A reactant of at least one of the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants for initiating catalysis of atomic hydrogen, the electrochemical power system further comprising an electrolysis system and an anode regeneration system.

In other embodiments, an electrochemical power system that generates an electrical voltage and at least one of electricity and thermal energy comprises a vessel comprising: at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one bipolar plate; and reactants comprising at least two components selected from: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) a source of oxygen; (c) at least one catalyst source or catalyst comprising a compound selected from nH, O₂、OH、OH^-And newborn H₂At least one of the group of O, wherein n is an integer; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants for forming at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants for initiating catalysis of atomic hydrogen.

In one embodiment, at least one reactant is formed during operation of the cell in the presence of a separate electron flow and ion mass transport. In one embodiment, the combination of the cathodes, anodes, reactants, and bipolar plates allows catalytic atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos for propagation, thereby maintaining a chemical potential or voltage between each cathode and the respective anode. In addition, the system may further comprise an electrolysis system (if not already present). In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises at least one of a porous electrode, a gas diffusion electrode, and a hydrogen permeable anode, wherein oxygen and H are present₂At least one of O is supplied to the cathode and H₂Is supplied to the anode. The electrochemical power system can include at least one of a hydrogenation anode and an enclosed hydrogen reservoir having at least one surface comprising a hydrogen permeable anode. The electrochemical power system may include a stacked unit comprising cells of back-to-back hydrogen permeable anodes and cathodes electrically connected in at least one of series and parallel. In one embodiment, electrochemicalThe chemical power system further comprises at least one gas supply system, each comprising a manifold, a gas line, and a gas channel connected to the electrode. In one embodiment, the anode comprises Mo, which is regenerated from the electrolyte reactants in the charging phase by performing the following regeneration reaction steps:

MoO₃+3MgBr₂to 2MoBr₃+3MgO(-54kJ/mol(298K)-46(600K))

MoBr₃To Mo +3/2Br₂(284kJ/mol 0.95V/3 electrons)

MoBr₃+ Ni to MoNi +3/2Br₂(283kJ/mol 0.95V/3 electrons)

MgO+Br₂+H₂To MgBr₂+H₂O(-208kJ/mol(298K)-194kJ/mol(600K))。

In one embodiment, the anode comprises Mo, which is regenerated in the charging phase by an electrolyte reactant comprising MoO₂、MoO₃、Li₂O and Li₂MoO₄At least one of (1).

The electrochemical power system of the invention may comprise an enclosed hydrogen reservoir having at least one surface comprising a hydrogen permeable anode. The electrochemical power system of the invention may include back-to-back hydrogen permeable anodes and cathodes comprising stacked units of cells electrically connected in at least one of series and parallel. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system cathode comprises at least one of: capillary system and radial gas channel with perforations, porous electrode and capillary tube₂O and O₂Towards the center of the cell relative to the outer periphery. The hydrogen permeable anode may comprise at least one of: mo, Mo alloy, MoNi, MoCu, TZM,Alloys, Ni, Co, Ni alloys, NiCo and other transition and internal transition metals and alloys, and CuCo. In embodiments, the film thickness is in at least one range selected from: about 0.0001cm to 0.25cm, 0.001cm to 0.1cm and 0.005cm to 0.05 cm. The pressure of hydrogen supplied to the permeable or gas sparged anode can be maintained within a range of at least one of: about 1 Torr (Torr) to 500atm, 10 Torr to 100atm, and 100 Torr to 5atm, and the hydrogen permeation or spray rate may be in the range of at least one of: about 1X 10^-13Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-4Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-12Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-5Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-11Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-6Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-10Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-7Mole s^-1cm^-2And 1X 10^-9Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-8Mole s^-1cm^-2. In one embodiment, the hydrogen-permeable anode comprises a high permeability membrane coated with a material effective to promote catalytic formation of hydrinos by atomic hydrogen. The coating material of the hydrogen permeable anode may comprise at least one of: mo, Mo alloys, MoNi, MoCu, MoCo, MoB, MoC, MoSi, MoCuB, MoNiB, MoSiB, Co, CoCu, CoNi, and Ni, and the H-permeable material may comprise at least one of: ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂)、Fe(H₂)、Ta(H₂) Stainless Steel (SS) and 430SS (H)₂). In one embodiment, the electrolysis system of the electrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzes H₂There is a gain in providing a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen and discharging the cell to balance the net energy of the cycle.

In one embodiment, the reactants of the cell comprise at least one electrolyte selected from the group consisting of: at least one molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture; of molten hydroxide with at least one other compoundAt least one mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a halide salt; at least one mixture of an alkali metal hydroxide and an alkali metal halide; LiOH-LiBr, LiOH-NaOH, LiOH-LiBr-NaOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaBr, NaOH-NaI, NaOH-NaX and KOH-KX (wherein X represents a halide), at least one matrix and at least one additive. The additive may comprise a compound that is a source of a common ion for at least one anodic corrosion product, wherein the corresponding common ionic effect at least partially prevents corrosion of the anode. The common ion source may prevent the formation of at least one of CoO, NiO, and MoO 2. In one embodiment, the additive comprises at least one of: compounds, hydroxides, halides, oxides, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, chromates, perchlorates and periodates comprising anodic metal cations and anions, and compounds and oxides, cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, CuO, CrO comprising this matrix₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P2O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂And CrO₃. In an embodiment, the cell temperature to maintain at least one of a molten state of the electrolyte and a hydrogen permeability state of the membrane is within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 25 ℃ to 2000 ℃, about 100 ℃ to 1000 ℃, about 200 ℃ to 750 ℃, and about 250 ℃ to 500 ℃, the cell temperature above the melting point of the electrolyte being in the range of at least one of: about 0 ℃ to 1500 ℃ above the melting point, 0 ℃ to 1000 ℃ above the melting point, 0 ℃ to 500 ℃ above the melting point, 0 ℃ to 250 ℃ above the melting point and0 ℃ to 100 ℃ above the melting point. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is aqueous and alkaline, and at least one of the pH of the electrolyte and the cell voltage is controlled to achieve stability of the anode. The cell voltage of each cell during the intermittent electrolysis and discharge may be maintained above a potential that prevents substantial oxidation of the anode.

In one embodiment, the battery is intermittently transitioned between a charge phase and a discharge phase, wherein (i) the charge phase comprises at least electrolysis of water at electrodes of opposite voltage polarity, and (ii) the discharge phase comprises at least formation of H at one or both of these electrodes₂An O catalyst; wherein (i) the role of each electrode of each cell as a cathode or anode is reversed in the back and forth transition between the charging phase and the discharging phase, and (ii) the polarity of the current is reversed in the back and forth transition between the charging phase and the discharging phase, and wherein charging comprises applying at least one of an applied current and a voltage. In an embodiment, the waveform of at least one of the applied current and voltage comprises: a duty cycle in the range of about 0.001% to about 95%; a peak voltage per cell in a range of about 0.1V to 10V; about 0.001W/cm²To 1000W/cm²And at about 0.0001W/cm²To 100W/cm²An average power within a range, wherein the impressed current and voltage further comprises a direct current voltage, at least one of a direct current, and at least one of an alternating current and a voltage waveform, wherein the waveform comprises a frequency within a range of about 1Hz to about 1000 Hz. The waveform of the intermittent cycle may comprise at least one of constant current, power, voltage and resistance and variable current, power, voltage and resistance for at least one of the electrolysis and discharge phases of the intermittent cycle. In an embodiment, the parameters of at least one phase of the cycle comprise: the frequency of the intermittent phase is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001Hz to 10MHz, about 0.01Hz to 100kHz, and about 0.01Hz to 10 kHz; the voltage of each cell is within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1V to 100V, about 0.3V to 5V, about 0.5V to 2V, and about 0.5V to 1.5V; the current per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1 μ Acm^-2To 10Acm^-2About 0.1mAcm^-2To 5Acm^-2And about 1mAcm^-2To 1Acm^-2(ii) a The power per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1. mu. Wcm^-2To 10Wcm^-2About 0.1mWcm^-2To 5Wcm^-2And about 1mWcm^-2To 1Wcm^-2(ii) a A constant current per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos of about 1 μ Acm^-2To 1Acm^-2Within the range of (1); the constant power per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is about 1mWcm^-2To 1Wcm^-2Within the range of (a): the time interval is within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^- ⁴s to 10,000s, 10^-3s to 1000s and 10^-2s to 100s and 10^-1s to 10 s; the resistance of each cell is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1M Ω to 100M Ω, about 1 Ω to 1M Ω, and 10 Ω to 1k Ω; the conductivity of a suitable load per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^-5Ω^-1cm^-2To 1000 omega^-1cm^-2、10^-4Ω^-1cm^-2To 100 omega^-1cm^-2、10^-3Ω^-1cm^-2To 10 omega^-1cm^-2And 10^-2Ω^-1cm^-2To 1 omega^-1cm^-2And at least one of a discharge current, voltage, power or time interval is greater than the electrolysis phase to produce at least one of power or energy gain within the cycle. The voltage during discharge can be maintained above the voltage that prevents excessive corrosion of the anode.

In one embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises an anode comprising Mo, such as Mo, MoPt, MoCu, MoNi, MoC, MoB, and MoSi. The electrolyte may comprise a molten salt or an aqueous alkaline electrolyte solution, such as a hydroxide or carbonate solution. The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide and may further comprise a mixture of salts, for example a eutectic salt mixture or a mixture of compositions similar to that of the eutectic salt mixture, or which has its melting point reduced from that of the highest melting point compoundAnd (c) a mixture thereof. The hydroxide may comprise at least one of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydroxide. The mixture may comprise a halide compound, such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal halide. A suitable exemplary molten electrolyte comprises a LiOH-LiBr mixture. Other suitable electrolytes that can be melt mixtures, such as melt eutectic mixtures, are given in table 4. The molten salt may be conducted at a temperature in the range of about melting point to a temperature above 500 ℃. The anode may be supplied with H by, for example, infiltration or spraying₂To the surface for protection. The pressure of the supplied hydrogen gas may be in the range of about 1 to 100 atm. The feed rate may range from 0.001nmol per square centimeter of anode surface to 1,000,000nmol per square centimeter of anode surface. In one embodiment, the pressure controls at least one of the permeation rate and the spray rate. The rate selected should protect the anode from corrosion (e.g., oxidative corrosion) while allowing the corresponding H₂Consumption is minimal, and thus net electrical energy can be produced from the battery.

TABLE 4 molten salt electrolyte

In one embodiment, as shown in fig. 2, the hydrogen electrode and optional oxygen electrode are replaced by elements of bipolar plate 507. The cell design may be based on a planar square geometry configuration, where cells can be stacked to establish voltage. Each cell may form a repeating unit comprising an anode current collector, a porous anode, an electrolyte matrix, a porous cathode, and a cathode current collector. One cell may be separated from the next by a separator plate, which may comprise a bipolar plate that acts as a gas separator plate and a current collector in series. The plate may have a cross flow gas configuration or internal manifolds. As shown in fig. 2, in a CIHT cell stack 500 comprising a plurality of individual CIHT cells, an interconnect or bipolar plate 507 separates an anode 501 from an adjacent cathode 502. Anode or H₂The plate 504 may be corrugated or include channels 505 that distribute hydrogen supplied via a manifold having apertures 503. A plate 504 with channels 505 replaces the hydrogen permeable membrane or intermittent electrolysis cathode (discharge anode) of other embodiments. The apertures may receive hydrogen from the manifold along apertures 503, the hydrogen being supplied by a hydrogen source (e.g., a tank). The plate 504 may also desirably distribute the hydrogen uniformly to be bubbled or otherwise sprayed into the active area where the electrochemical reaction takes place. The bipolar plate may further comprise a bipolar plate having a metal layer with H₂The oxygen plates of similar construction are configured to distribute oxygen to active areas where oxygen is supplied from the oxygen manifold along oxygen apertures 506. The corrugated or channeled plates are electrically conductive and are connected to and maintain electrical contact with the anode and cathode current collectors in the active area. In one embodiment, all of the interconnected or bipolar plates constitute a gas distribution network structure that allows separation of the anode and cathode gases. The wet seal may be formed by extending an electrolyte/matrix (e.g., LiOH-LiBr-Li) compressed between two individual plates₂TiO₃Or MgO flakes). The seal prevents leakage of reactant gases. The electrolyte may comprise the pressed pellets of the present invention. The pressure to form the electrolyte pellet is in the range of about 1 to 500 tons per square inch, such as a pellet comprising a hydroxide (e.g., an alkali metal hydroxide, such as LiOH) and a halide (e.g., an alkali metal halide, such as LiBr) and a matrix (e.g., MgO). The stack may also include tie rods that hold pressure plates at the ends of the stack to apply pressure to the cells to maintain the desired contact between the electrolyte (e.g., pellet electrolyte) and the electrodes. In embodiments where the electrolyte or component (e.g., hydroxide, such as LiOH) is transferred by means such as evaporation, the electrolyte may be collected and recycled. The mobile species may be collected in an electrolyte-absorbing structure, such as a collection structure or a wicking structure, and may be thermally recycled, such as by heating the collection structure or wicking structure to cause retrograde transport.

The CIHT cell system may include a modified conventional fuel cell, such as a modified alkaline or molten carbonate type cell. In one embodiment, a CIHT cell includes, for example, a bipolar plate stack as shown in FIG. 2, whereinOxygen and H₂At least one of O is supplied to the cathode and H is supplied₂Is supplied to the anode. The gas may be provided by diffusion through a porous or diffusion electrode, and the H may also be provided by permeation through a suitable hydrogen permeable electrode₂. The hydrogen permeable electrode may include at least one of: mo, Mo alloys (e.g., MoNi, MoCu), TZM andni, Co, Ni alloys (e.g., NiCo), and other transition metals and internal transition metals and alloys (e.g., CuCo). Applying H in an amount sufficient to retard anodic corrosion while maintaining power gain₂. The permeation anode can be operated at an increased current density with a proportional increase in hydrogen permeation rate. The hydrogen permeation rate can be controlled by at least one of: increasing the hydrogen pressure of the membrane, increasing the cell temperature, decreasing the membrane thickness, and changing the membrane composition (e.g., weight% of metal of an alloy such as a Mo alloy). In one embodiment, a hydrogen dissociating agent (e.g., a noble metal such as Pt or Pd) is coated inside a permeation anode (e.g., a Mo or MoCu anode) to increase the amount of atomic H and thereby increase the permeation rate. The gas pressure may be such as to maintain the desired power output, H, of each cell₂Permeation Rate, H of the Anode₂Any pressure required for at least one of protection, reduction rate of oxygen at the cathode. At least one of the hydrogen and oxygen pressures may be in a range of at least one of about 0.01 to 1000atm, 0.1 to 100atm, and 1 to 10 atm.

In the event that the anode experiences corrosion, the metal may be plated from the electrolyte. Mo corrosion products may be soluble in the electrolyte. In one embodiment, the electrolyte further comprises a regeneration compound that promotes electrodeposition of Mo corrosion products from the electrolyte to the anode and allows thermodynamic cycling to re-form the regeneration compound. The regenerative compound can react with the Mo corrosion products to form an electrodeposited compound that is soluble in the electrolyte and capable of being electroplated onto the anode. The reaction may involve an anion exchange reaction, such as an oxide-halide exchange reaction, to additionally form an oxide product. The electrodepositable compound promotes in situ anode re-growthResulting in a favorable thermodynamic cycle. Hydrogen may be added to the anode to make the cycle thermodynamically favorable. In one embodiment, the step comprises (1) reacting the corrosion product, i.e., the metal oxide of the anode metal, with a regenerating compound of the electrolyte to form an electrodeposited compound comprising cations of the anode metal and counterions capable of oxidizing to form the oxidant reactant, thereby regenerating the regenerating compound. The reaction may additionally form oxide products. Exemplary anode metals are Mo and Mo alloys. An exemplary regeneration compound is MgBr₂And MgI₂. (2) By applying a suitable voltage and current, the cations causing electrodeposition of the anodic metal are reduced and the counter ions forming the oxide reactant are oxidized; an exemplary oxidant reactant is Br₂And I₂And (3) at least one oxidant reactant with optionally H₂(thermodynamically necessary for the formation of regenerated compounds in the presence of the oxide products) and additional H₂O (required to make the reaction thermodynamically favorable). In one embodiment, the regeneration compound (e.g., MgBr) maintained₂And MgI₂At least one of) is in a range of about 0.001 mole% to 50 mole%. H₂The feed rate may range from 0.001nmol per square centimeter of anode surface to 1,000,000nmol per square centimeter of anode surface.

In one embodiment, the molten electrolyte (e.g., LiOH — LiBr) comprises MgBr₂As an additive to electrodeposit Mo to the anode of a cell having a Mo anode, wherein the in situ regeneration reaction is:

MoO₃+3MgBr₂to 2MoBr₃+3MgO(-54kJ/mol(298K)-46(600K)) (53)

MoBr₃To Mo +3/2Br₂(284kJ/mol 0.95V/3 electrons) (54)

MoBr₃+ Ni to MoNi +3/2Br₂(283kJ/mol 0.95V/3 electrons) (55)

MgO+Br₂+H₂To MgBr₂+H₂O(-208kJ/mol(298K)-194kJ/mol(600K)) (56)。

In one embodiment, the maximum charging voltage is higher than the voltage at which electroplating on Mo or re-electroplating of other anode metals onto the anode occurs. The voltage may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.4V to 10V, 0.5V to 2V, and 0.8V to 1.3V. The anode may comprise Mo in the form of an alloy or metal mixture, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCo and MoCu. The alloy or mixture may enhance the electrodeposition of Mo. In one embodiment, OH from the electrolyte is removed^-H of (A) to (B)₂In addition, Mo and H₂Reaction of O also forms H₂(ii) a Therefore, the charging voltage is operated at a voltage higher than that at which Mo mainly from Mo ions in the electrolyte is electrodeposited onto the anode. In one embodiment, separate long durations of continuous discharge and continuous charge are maintained such that the energy released during discharge is higher than the charge. The charging time may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.1 seconds to 10 days, 60 seconds to 5 days, and 10 minutes to 1 day. The discharge time is longer than the corresponding charge time. In one embodiment, sufficient anodic metal (e.g., Mo) is deposited during charging to replace that lost by corrosion, thereby maintaining a constant Mo content of the electrode at steady state of the electrode and concentration of Mo compounds in the electrolyte.

In one embodiment, the molten electrolyte (e.g., LiOH-LiBr) comprises MgI₂As an additive to electrodeposit Mo to the anode of a cell having a Mo anode, wherein the in situ regeneration reaction is:

MoO₂+2MgI₂to MoI₂+I₂+2MgO(16kJ/mol(298K)-0.35kJ/mol(600K)) (57)

MoI₂To Mo + I₂(103kJ/mol 0.515V/2 electrons) (58)

MoI₂+ Ni to MoNi + I₂(102kJ/mol 0.515V/2 electrons) (59)

MgO+I₂+H₂To MgI₂+H₂O(-51kJ/mol(298K)5kJ/mol(600K)) (60)。

The anode may comprise Mo in the form of an alloy or metal mixture, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCo and MoCu. The alloy or mixture may enhance the electrodeposition of Mo.

In one embodiment, the molten electrolyte (e.g., LiOH-LiBr) comprises MgSO₄As an additive to electrodeposit Mo to the anode of a cell having a Mo anode. The sulfate reacts with oxygen of the molybdenum oxide in an exchange reaction to form molybdenum sulfate, thereby allowing Mo to be electrodeposited on the anode.

In one embodiment, the molten electrolyte (e.g., LiOH — LiBr) comprises MoS₂、MoSe₂And Li₂MoO₄As an additive to electrodeposit Mo to the anode of a battery having a Mo anode. In one embodiment, at least one of a sulfide and a selenide is exchange reacted with oxygen of molybdenum oxide to form molybdenum sulfide or molybdenum selenide, thereby allowing electrodeposition of Mo on the anode. To prevent oxidation of sulfide to sulfate or selenide to selenate, the oxygen reduction cathode may be replaced with a molten hydroxide electrolyte stable cathode that participates in oxidation-reduction reaction chemistry involving an anaerobic hydroxide, such as a oxyhydroxide cathode, e.g., a FeOOH or NiOOH cathode. An exemplary cell is sealed [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr-MoS₂/FeOOH]、[Mo/LiOH-LiBr-MoSe₂/FeOOH]、[Mo/LiOH-LiBr-MoS₂-MoSe₂/FeOOH]、[Mo/LiOH-LiBr-Li₂MoO₄-MoS₂/FeOOH]And [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr-Li₂MoO₄-MoSe₂-MoS₂/FeOOH]Or with an inert atmosphere such as an argon atmosphere.

In another embodiment, a compound that reacts with anodic metal oxide corrosion products to form a compound that is soluble in the electrolyte and capable of being electrodeposited onto the anode is added to the electrolyte. In one embodiment of a battery having an anode comprising Mo, Li is added₂O is added to the LiOH-LiBr electrolyte. Li₂O and MoO₃Reaction of corrosion products to form Li₂MoO₄Which can be dissolved in an electrolyte and plated again toOn the anode. In one embodiment, a dry oxygen source (e.g., O) is supplied to the sealed cell₂Gas) or dry air to make Li₂O remains unhydrated to LiOH. H formation in the cell during operation₂O; thus, dry O is maintained₂Flow rate of the source to achieve Li tolerance in the battery₂O can be used to react to form Li₂MoO₄H of (A) to (B)₂The O concentration. In one embodiment, the maintained Li₂The O concentration is in the range of about 0.001 mol% to 50 mol%. H₂O can be added to the cell by cooling the cell below H₂The temperature at which O reacts with Mo increases the desired H₂O amount, then raising the battery temperature again to replenish H consumed₂And O. An exemplary cell is [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr-Li₂MoO₄/NiO(O₂)]And [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr-Li₂MoO₄-MoS₂/NiO(O₂)]。

In one embodiment, the cell includes a nickel-containing anode and a molten electrolyte (e.g., LiOH-LiBr) and an additional metal halide electrolyte additive, such as a transition metal halide, e.g., a halide of the anode, e.g., a nickel halide, e.g., NiBr₂. In one embodiment, the cell is sealed without the addition of oxygen. In the presence of H₂O and H₂The battery is maintained with an O source (e.g., a heated reservoir). The cathodic reaction may be the reaction of H by internal electrolysis₂O is reduced to hydroxide and oxygen. The absence of an external additional supply of oxygen will prevent anode corrosion. The formation of oxyanions, in turn, may lead to the formation of oxyhydroxides to promote the hydrino reaction.

The catalyst formation reaction and the corresponding half-cell reaction taking into account that occur during discharge are given by

Anode: OH group^-+H₂→H₂O+e^-+H(1/p) (61)

Cathode: o is₂+2H₂O+4e^-→4OH^-(62)

The overall reaction may be

2H₂+1/2O₂→H₂O+2H(1/p) (63)

Wherein H₂O acts as a catalyst. Also cause H₂Exemplary ion-carrying electrolytes for O electrolysis-H₂O is reacted with

Anode: 2OH^-→2H+O₂ ^-+e^-(64)

Cathode: o is₂ ^-+H₂O+e^-→1/2O₂+2OH^-(65)

Anode: 2OH^-→H+HOO^-+e^-(66)

Cathode: HOO^-+1/2H₂O+e^-→2OH^-+1/4O₂(67)

Anode: 3OH^-→O₂+H₂O+H+3e^-(68)

Cathode: 3/4O₂+3/2H₂O+3e^-→3OH^-(69)

Wherein the hydrogen of equations (64), (66) and (68) can react to form hydrinos:

2H→2H(1/4) (70)

the overall reaction is

H₂O→1/2O₂+2H(1/4) (71)

H₂O→1/2O₂+H₂(72)

Wherein the hydrogen of equations (64), (66) and (68) may additionally react to form H₂O catalyst, and the oxygen of equations (65), (67) and (69) can react according to equations (61) and (62), respectively, and form OH^-. Other oxygen species, e.g. oxides, peroxides, superoxides and HOO^-And the corresponding oxidation-reduction reaction may take part in H₂Spontaneous electrolysis of O to form H, catalyst andat least one of the hydrinos, while carrying excess current generated by the energy released from hydrinos formation. In another embodiment, the anode comprises Mo and the electrolyte additive comprises a molybdenum halide.

In one embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte, anode and cathode comprises materials and compounds that form the HOH catalyst and H via a metal oxyhydroxide intermediate. The cell may contain a molten salt electrolyte, such as LiOH-LiBr; or an aqueous electrolyte solution, such as KOH. An exemplary reaction of hydroxides and oxyhydroxides (e.g., of Ni or Co) to form a HOH catalyst at the anode is

Ni(OH)₂+OH^-To NiOOH + H₂O+e^-(73)

And

Ni(OH)₂to NiO + H₂O (74)。

The one or more reactions may be driven at least in part by heat. In one embodiment, the surface of the anode is maintained in a partially oxidized state. The oxidation state comprises at least one of hydroxyl, oxyhydroxy, and oxide groups. The oxidized surface groups can participate in the formation of at least one of a hydrino-forming catalyst (e.g., HOH) and atomic hydrogen, wherein the atomic hydrogen can react with at least one species of the anode and the electrolyte to form at least one of a hydrino catalyst and hydrino. In one embodiment, at least one of the anode and the electrolyte comprises a species or material that supports partial oxidation. The anode may comprise a metal, alloy or mixture that forms an oxidized surface, wherein the oxidized surface may not substantially corrode. The anode may comprise at least one of rare metal, noble metal, Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Ru, Ag, Co, Cu and Ni that reversibly forms an oxide coating. Other suitable materials are oxidizable materials and the oxidized form is readily reduced with hydrogen. In one embodiment, at least one compound or species is added to the electrolyte to maintain the oxidation state of the anode. Exemplary additives are alkali and alkaline earth metal halides, such as LiF and KX (X ═ F, Cl, Br, I). In one embodiment, the cell is operated in a voltage range that maintains the anode in a suitable oxidation state to propagate the hydrino reaction. This voltage range may further allow operation without significant anodic corrosion. The intermittent electrolysis waveform can maintain a suitable voltage range. The range may be at least one of: about 0.5V to 2V, about 0.6V to 1.5V, about 0.7V to 1.2V, about 0.75V to 1.1V, about 0.8V to 0.9V, and about 0.8V to 0.85V. The waveforms during the respective charge and discharge phases of the intermittent cycle may be voltage limited or at least one of voltage controlled, time limited controlled and current controlled. In one embodiment, the oxygen ions formed by the reduction of oxygen at the cathode carry the ionic current of the cell. The oxygen ion current is controlled to maintain a desired anodization state. The oxygen ion current may be increased by at least one of increasing the cell current and increasing the rate of oxygen reduction by, for example, increasing at least one of the cathode and anode oxygen pressures. The oxygen flux can be increased by increasing the oxygen reduction rate at the cathode using a cathodic oxygen reaction catalyst (e.g., NiO, lithiated NiO, CoO, Pt, and rare earth metal oxides), where an increase in oxygen current supports the formation of oxyhydroxide at the anode. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell temperature is adjusted to maximize the hydrino reaction kinetics that favor high temperatures, while avoiding oxyhydroxide decomposition that favors lower temperatures. In one embodiment, the temperature is within a range of at least one of: 25 ℃ to 1000 ℃, 300 ℃ to 800 ℃ and 400 ℃ to 500 ℃.

In one embodiment, the current density of at least one of the charge and discharge in the intermittent or continuous discharge cycle is extremely high such that the kinetics of the formation of hydrinos are increased. The peak current density may be in a range of at least one of: 0.001mA/cm²To 100,000A/cm²、0.1mA/cm²To 10,000A/cm²、1mA/cm²To 1000A/cm²、10mA/cm²To 100A/cm²And 100mA/cm²To 1A/cm². The battery may be intermittently charged and discharged at high current for short durations for each phase of the cycle, in order to maintain an allowable difference between the charge and discharge voltage ranges,thereby generating net power from the battery. The time interval is selected from about 10^-6s to 10s and 10^-3s to 1 s. The current may be AC, DC, or AC-DC hybrid. In one embodiment comprising a magnetohydrodynamic plasma-electric energy converter, the electric current is DC, whereby a DC magnetic field is generated by the electric current. In one embodiment, at least one of the charging and discharging currents comprises AC modulation. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. The modulated peak voltage may be within at least one range selected from: about 0.001V to 10V, 0.01V to 5V, 0.1V to 3V, 0.2V to 2V, 0.3V to 1.5V, and 0.5V to 1V. In one embodiment, the current pulses are transmitted along a transmission line to achieve at least one of a higher voltage or current. In the exemplary case where the applied high current pulse is AC, the fastest kinetics are achieved when the current is varied at its maximum rate, corresponding to the maximum ability to extract charge from the sample, at about 0A. Electrode spacing can be minimized to reduce cell resistance, allowing for high current densities. The separation distance may be dynamically controlled by monitoring current density, cell resistance, voltage, and other electrical parameters and using one or more of these values to adjust the separation. The electrodes may be designed to concentrate the current at a particular area of the surface, such as at a sharp edge or point. In one embodiment, the electrodes comprise a cube or needle or other geometry with sharp edges to concentrate the electric field and current density to achieve a high current density, e.g., about 500mA/cm²The above.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a material that forms at least one of hydrides and hydrogen bonds, such as a metal, for example at least one of a rare metal, a transition metal, and an internal transition metal. The material can increase the available atomic hydrogen on the anode surface. The surface hydrogen increase may cause the hydrogen spray or permeation rate to decrease to maintain at least one of a desired hydrino reaction rate and prevent anode corrosion. Exemplary metals are Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Ru, Co, Cu, Ni, V and Nb, and mixtures thereof, which can be present alone or in mixtures or alloys in any desired amount. TheA material (e.g., a metal) may act as a hydrogen dissociating agent. The increase in atomic hydrogen may be used to provide at least one of an increase in the rate of the hydrino reaction and an increase in the effectiveness of the hydrogen present to prevent corrosion. Exemplary dissociative metals are Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Co, Ni, V, and Nb. In one embodiment, a compound or material that increases the voltage of the battery is added to at least one of the anode and the electrolyte. The increase may be attributable to a change in at least one of electrode overpotential, hydrino reaction rate, and anode fermi level. The dissociative metal may increase the flow rate of hydrogen through the hydrogen-permeable anode. Exemplary anode metal additives are Pt and Au, wherein the additives can be Ni dominated anodes, thereby forming an alloy or mixture. An exemplary electrolyte additive is MgI₂、CaI₂MgO and ZrO₂. In one embodiment, an anode comprising a noble metal or a metal in the form of a mixture or alloy (e.g., PtNi or ptaaupd) doped with a noble metal operates at a higher voltage than the base metal (e.g., Ni) in the absence of the noble metal because of its lower overpotential and higher yield of electrolytically generated hydrogen during the charging phase. H₂Maintaining a flat high voltage band may be due to electrolysis stored in the reservoir that permeates out during discharge. In one embodiment, H supplied to the surface of the anode₂Only from electrolysis.

In one embodiment, a compound may be added to an electrolyte such as LiOH — LiBr to increase the reaction rate at the cathode surface and stabilize the anode. Suitable additives are at least one of the following: alkali metal hydroxides (e.g., at least one of CsOH and NaOH), alkaline earth metal hydroxides, alkali metal or alkaline earth metal halides and oxides (e.g., CoO, NiO, LiNiO)₂、CoO、LiCoO₂) And rare earth metal oxides (e.g. ZrO, MgO), other compounds for increasing basicity, CeO₂、La₂O₃、MoOOH、MoCl₄、CuCl₂、CoCl₂Oxyhydroxides (e.g., TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH), Fe compounds (e.g., oxides, e.g., Fe₂O₃(ii) a Or halides, e.g. FeBr₂) Sulfates (e.g. Li)₂SO₄) Phosphates (e.g. Li)₃PO₄) Tungstate (e.g. Li)₂WO₄) Carbonates (e.g. Li)₂CO₃) LiNiO can be formed at the anode₂NiO or Ni (OH)₂Forming LiFeO at the anode₂Iron compound (e.g. Fe)₂O₃) Forming MgNiO at the anode_xAnd compounds having a larger cation (e.g., those having a larger stable molecular cation or stable metal complexes (e.g., 1-butyl-3-methylimidazol-3-onium hexafluorophosphate, bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) iminobetaine or bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) iminoN-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium), and compositions comprising HS^-A compound of (e.g., LiHS). In one embodiment, the additive comprises Cs with larger cations (e.g., CsOH)⁺Ions) or Bi having a higher charge (e.g. the charge of an alkaline earth metal compound or a bismuth compound³⁺Cationic) compounds. The concentration is adjusted to avoid excessive corrosion. An exemplary low concentration is about<1 mol% or<5 mol percent. In one embodiment, the added additive may be reduced at the cathode, migrate to the anode, and oxidize at the anode. Thus, this compound causes parasitic currents in addition to the currents from the reactions given in equations (61) - (63). The additive may have a variety of stable oxidation states. Exemplary suitable additives are iron compounds, such as FeBr₂、FeBr₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃、Fe(OH)₂And Fe (OH)₃And other metals, such as transition metals, in place of Fe. The additive can induce high currents to increase the hydrino reaction rate.

In one embodiment, the anode comprises a primary metal and an additive, such as at least one of: ag. Rare earth metal oxides (e.g. CeO)₂Or La₂O₃) And a noble metal or mixture or alloy of noble metals (e.g., Pt, Ir, Re, Pd, or AuPdPt). Li₂CO₃、Li₂O, NiO or Ni (OH)₂Can be used as an additiveLiNiO formation in the anode₂。LiNiO₂Can alter conductivity, promote interconversion of oxide-hydroxides during electrochemical operation of the cell, or promote Li⁺The + electron reacts to facilitate the hydrino reaction. The additive can reduce H at the anode during charging and discharging respectively₂Or H₂O emits an overpotential of at least one of the elements. In an embodiment, the cell comprising the Pt anode additive and the CsOH electrolyte additive is [ NiPt (H2)/LiOH-LiBr-CsOH)/NiO]、[CoPt(H2)/LiOH-LiBr-CsOH)/NiO]And [ MoPt (H2)/LiOH-LiBr-CsOH)/NiO]. In one embodiment, the additive added to at least one of the anode (e.g., a cast anode) and the electrolyte comprises a solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte, an oxide conductor, yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ; which may also comprise Sr) (e.g., the common 8% form Y8SZ), scandia stabilized zirconia (ScSZ) (e.g., the common 9 mol% Sc2O3-9ScSZ), Gadolinium Doped Ceria (GDC) or gadolinium oxide doped Ceria (CGO), lanthanum gallate, bismuth copper vanadium oxide (e.g., BiCuVO VO)_x)、MgO、ZrO₂、La₂O₃、CeO₂Perovskite materials (e.g. La)_1-xSr_xCo_yO_3-□) Proton conductor, doped barium cerate and barium zirconate, and SrCeO₃Proton conductors of the type, e.g. strontium cerium yttrium niobium oxide and H_xWO₃. Furthermore, the additive may comprise a metal, such as Al, Mo, a transition metal, an internal transition metal or a rare earth metal.

In one embodiment, at least one of the anode, cathode or electrolyte comprises an additive that functions to increase the reaction rate of the hydrino catalyst as high current. The additive can remove electrons formed during H catalysis. The additive can undergo an electron exchange reaction. In one exemplary embodiment, the additive comprises carbon, which may be added to the anode or cathode, for example. The electrons react with carbon to form C_x ^-Which intercalates Li from the electrolyte⁺To maintain neutrality. Thus, the carbon acts as a receiving channel to remove electrons in a similar manner to high current.

In CIHT electricityIn one embodiment of the cell, the anode comprises H₂Reservoir to provide H by osmosis or spraying₂Wherein the outer wall is in contact with the electrolyte and comprises an anode surface. The anode further comprises an additive comprising a compound or material added to the interior of the reservoir. The additive can modify the voltage at the anode to facilitate the hydrino reaction at a higher rate and/or maintain the voltage to substantially prevent anode corrosion. The additive may comprise a compound that can react reversibly with H, wherein H can be transported across the reservoir wall. May be transferred into the reservoir during charging and out of the reservoir during discharging. The additive comprising a hydride or hydrogen storage material inside the anode can act as a source of hydrogen during discharge, which is regenerated by charging. Hydrogen dissociating agents, such as noble metals (e.g., Pt), may increase hydrogen dissociation and hydrogen flux through the hydrogen permeable anode. The additive may comprise a hydrogen storage material, such as LiH, titanium hydride, MgH₂、ZrH₂、VH、NbH、LaNi₆H_x、LiH+LiNH₂Or Li₃N, or a mixture, such as a eutectic mixture of an alkali metal nitride or other metal nitride (e.g., aluminum or magnesium nitride), to produce a conductive liquid inside the anode. The additive that reacts with the H transported across the H-permeable anode may produce an anode voltage contribution. This voltage may be attributed to the dependence of the additive and H reaction on the transport of H across the anode, where the external electrochemical reaction at the anode surface either generates or consumes H. Other suitable additives are MoO₂、MoS₂Metals (e.g., transition metals such as Co; and noble metals such as Pd). An exemplary reaction of the additive that contributes to the voltage through interaction of the internal additive with the outside is

4OH^- _(exterior)+Li₃N_(interior)To LiNH_{2 (inner)}+2LiH_(interior)+4e^-+2O_{2 (exterior)}(75)

OH^- _(exterior)+Li_(interior)To LiH_(interior)+e^-+1/2O_{2 (exterior)}(76)

And

6OH^- _(exterior)+LaNi_{5 (inner)}To LaNi₅H_{6 (inner)}+6e^-+3O_{2 (exterior)}(77)

In one embodiment, NH₂ ^-The catalyst and H are formed inside the anode such that hydrinos are formed inside as well as outside the anode. The catalyst in the latter case may be HOH. Inside of anode NH₂ ^-The formation of catalyst and H can be attributed to H transport across the hydrogen permeable anode. The formation of H for transport can be attributed to OH^-Oxidation of or electrolysis of H from energy released in the formation of hydrinos₂And O. The H can be attributed to oxidation at the anode and reduction at the cathode, and the resulting formation of hydrinos and large energy release involves the use of HOH and NH₂ ^-As a catalyst. Formation of NH₂ ^-The reactants of the catalyst may comprise the Li-N-H system of the invention.

In one embodiment of a CIHT cell (e.g., a CIHT cell comprising an aqueous electrolyte solution), the anode comprises alkali etched NiAl. The anode may comprise a cast NiAl alloy. The alkali-etched alloy may comprise R-Ni. Alternatively, the anode may comprise a metallized polymer which acts as H₂Permeable anodes, for example for aqueous batteries. In one embodiment, the metallized polymer anode comprises at least one of Ni, Co, and Mo. Molten salt electrolyte cells as well as aqueous electrolyte cells may contain a metallized anode polymer with a high melting point, such as Teflon (Teflon).

In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. CIHT cells can be charged and then discharged at high current to increase the rate of the hydrino reaction. The cell can be intermittently charged and discharged so that an electrical energy gain is achieved due to the contribution of the hydrino reaction. In an embodiment capable of achieving at least one of high charge and discharge currents, a nickel metal hydride battery type (NiMH type battery) CIHT battery includes: a container; a positive electrode plate containing a nickel hydroxide,which is at least partially charged to form nickel oxyhydroxide as its active material; containing hydrogen-absorbing alloys (e.g. NiFe, MgNi and LaNi)₅) The negative electrode plate of (1), which is charged to form the corresponding hydride as an active material; separators, such as Celgard or other fine fibers, such as polyolefins, which may be non-woven or woven; and an alkaline electrolyte. Suitable electrolytes are aqueous hydroxide solutions, for example alkali metal hydroxides, such as KOH, NaOH or LiOH. Another salt, such as an alkali metal halide (e.g., LiBr), may be added to improve conductivity. In one embodiment, an electrolyte (e.g., LiOH — LiBr) with high conductivity to carry high current is selected to limit any oxygen reduction reaction and limit corrosion.

In one embodiment, the catalyst HOH is formed at the negative electrode in the presence of a source of H or H, such that the H is catalyzed to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, the active anode material is a source of H and the active material of the cathode is a source of oxygen or contains O (e.g., OH)^-) The compound of (1). For a NiMH type cell, a suitable active anode material is nickel metal hydride and a suitable active cathode material is nickel oxyhydroxide NiO (OH). The reactions that occur in this NiMH type cell are:

anode reaction (negative electrode): OH group^-+ MH to H₂O+M+e^-(78)

Cathode reaction (positive electrode): NiO (OH) + H₂O+e^-To Ni (OH)₂+OH^-(79)

The "metal" M in the negative electrode of a NiMH type battery comprises at least one compound that functions to reversibly form a mixture of metal hydride compounds. M may comprise an intermetallic compound, such as at least one of: AB₅Wherein A is a mixture of rare earth metals of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium and praseodymium, and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese and/or aluminum; and based on AB₂Higher capacity negative electrode materials of compounds wherein a is titanium and/or vanadium and B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium, cobalt, iron and/or manganese. M may comprise other suitable hydrides, such as the hydrides of the present invention.

At one endIn one embodiment, the hydrogen absorbing alloy combines a metal (a) where hydride is exothermic and a metal (B) where hydride is endothermic to generate suitable binding energy, whereby hydrogen can be absorbed and released at or near normal pressure and normal temperature levels. Depending on the manner in which the metals are combined, the alloys comprise the following types: AB, e.g., TiFe; AB₂For example ZnMn; AB₅For example LaNi₅(ii) a And A₂B, e.g. Mg₂And (3) Ni. An exemplary suitable anode alloy is a lanthanum group metal, with nickel as the host metal; and AB₂Type alloys in which titanium and nickel act as the host metal.

In one embodiment, in addition to passive internal discharge reactions (e.g., the reactions of equations (78) - (79)), the discharge is driven with an external current or power source to force a high current through the CIHT cell, thereby achieving a higher hydrino reaction rate. The high discharge current density may be in the range of at least one of: 0.1A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²、1A/cm²To 10,000A/cm²、1A/cm²To 1000A/cm²、10A/cm²To 1000A/cm²And 10A/cm²To 100A/cm². The fractional hydrogen reaction then contributes to the discharge power, thereby achieving power and energy gains in the net output minus the input required to recharge the battery and any external current source. In one embodiment, the external current source may comprise another CIHT cell. The reaction to form hydrinos produces oxygen as a product in the cell as given in equation (71). The fractional hydrogen gas can diffuse out of the cell and oxygen can be reconverted to water by adding hydrogen that can be supplied at the anode, as given in fig. 1 and 2.

In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprises a molten salt, such as a molten salt of the invention, e.g., LiOH — LiBr, and the anode H source and the cathode oxygen source are stable under exposure to operating temperatures of the molten salt electrolyte. An exemplary high current drive cell is [ MH/LiOH-LiBr/FeOOH]Wherein MH is a metal hydride that is stable at operating temperatures and conditions. The hydride may comprise a hydrogen storage material, such as a metal, e.g., titanium, vanadium, titanium,Niobium, tantalum, zirconium and hafnium hydrides, rare earth metal hydrides, yttrium and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetallic hydrides, and alloys thereof as known in the art as given in the following documents: w.m.mueller, j.p.blackridge and g.g.libowitz,Metal Hydrides,Academic Press,NewYork,(1968)，Hydrogen in Intermetallic Compounds IL.Schlapbach eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, andHydrogen in Intermetallic Compounds IIschlapbach, eds, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, which is incorporated herein by reference. The metal hydride may comprise rare earth metal hydrides, such as hydrides of lanthanum, gadolinium, ytterbium, cerium, and praseodymium; internal transition metal hydrides, such as hydrides of yttrium and neodymium; transition metal hydrides, such as hydrides of scandium and titanium; and alloy hydrides, such as zirconium-titanium (50%/50%) hydride. In one embodiment, H₂The gas is the source of H at the anode. An exemplary battery is [ Ni (H)₂)/LiOH-LiBr/FeOOH]。

The invention further relates to a power system for generating thermal energy, comprising: at least one container capable of withstanding a pressure of at least one of: atmospheric, above atmospheric, and below atmospheric; at least one heater; reactants comprising a hydrino reactant comprising: a) catalyst source or catalyst comprising nascent H₂O; b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) reactants comprising a hydroxide compound and a halide compound for forming at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen, wherein the reaction occurs upon at least one of mixing and heating the reactants. At least one of the hydroxide compound and the halide compound comprises at least one of: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo and Ni, Sb, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W and Zn. In one embodiment, the reactants further comprise H that reacts with the product to regenerate the reactants₂Source of O。

The present invention relates to an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of electricity and thermal energy, comprising: a container closed to the atmosphere, the container comprising at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one bipolar plate; and transporting a reactant comprising a hydrino reactant during cell operation using a separated electron flow and ionic mass, the reactant comprising at least two components selected from: a) at least one H₂A source of O; b) comprising a compound selected from nH, OH^-New generation of H₂O、H₂S or MNH₂At least one catalyst source or catalyst of at least one of (a), wherein n is an integer and M is an alkali metal; and c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, one or more reactants for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support, wherein the combination of the cathodes, anodes, reactants, and bipolar plates maintain a chemical potential between each cathode and the respective anode to allow for catalytic propagation of atomic hydrogen, and the system further comprises an electrolysis system. In one embodiment, the electrolysis system of the electrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzes H₂O to provide a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen and to discharge the cell to gain the net energy balance of the cycle. The reactant may comprise at least one electrolyte selected from: at least one molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and at least one other compound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a halide salt; at least one mixture of an alkali metal hydroxide and an alkali metal halide; LiOH-LiBr, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaBr, NaOH-NaI, NaOH-NaX and KOH-KX (wherein X represents a halide), at least one matrix and at least one additive. The electrochemical power system may further comprise a heater. The cell temperature of the electrochemical power system above the melting point of the electrolyte may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: higher than the melting point by about 0 to 1500 ℃, higher than the melting point by about 0 to 1000 ℃, higher than the melting point by about 0 to 500 ℃, and higher than the melting point by about 0 to 250 DEG CAnd about 0 to 100 ℃ above the melting point. In an embodiment, the matrix of the electrochemical power system comprises at least one of: oxyanion compounds, aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromates and manganates, oxides, nitrides, borides, chalcogenides, silicides, phosphides and carbides, metals, metal oxides, non-metals and non-metal oxides; oxides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge and B and other elements forming oxides or oxyanions; at least one oxide, such As alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and oxides of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge and B and other elements forming oxides and one oxyanion, and which further comprises at least one cation from the group of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn and Pb cations; LiAlO₂、MgO、Li₂TiO₃Or SrTiO₃(ii) a Oxides and electrolyte compounds of the anode material; at least one of a cation and an electrolyte oxide; an oxide of an electrolyte MOH (M ═ alkali metal); an electrolytic oxide of an element, metal, alloy or mixture of the group consisting of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co and M '(wherein M' represents an alkaline earth metal); MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MnO、Mn₃O₄、Mn₂O₃、MnO₂、Mn₂O₇、HfO₂、Co₂O₃、CoO、Co₃O₄、Co₂O₃And MgO; a cathode material oxide and optionally an electrolyte oxide; li₂MoO₃Or Li₂MoO₄、Li₂TiO₃、Li₂ZrO₃、Li₂SiO₃、LiAlO₂、LiNiO₂、LiFeO₂、LiTaO₃、LiVO₃、Li₂B₄O₇、Li₂NbO₃、Li₂SeO₃、Li₂SeO₄、Li₂TeO₃、Li₂TeO₄、Li₂WO₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂MnO₄、Li₂HfO₃、LiCoO₂And M 'O (wherein M' represents an alkaline earth metal) and MgO; an anode element or an oxide of the same group element, and Li with Mo anode₂MoO₄、MoO₂、Li₂WO₄、Li₂CrO₄And Li₂Cr₂O₇And the additive comprises at least one of the following: s, Li₂S, oxide, MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MgO、TiO₂、Li₂TiO₃、LiAlO₂、Li₂MoO₃Or Li₂MoO₄、Li₂ZrO₃、Li₂SiO₃、LiNiO₂、LiFeO₂、LiTaO₃、LiVO₃、Li₂B₄O₇、Li₂NbO₃、Li₂SeO₃、Li₂SeO₄、Li₂TeO₃、Li₂TeO₄、Li₂WO₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂MnO₃Or LiCoO₂MnO and CeO₂. At least one of the following reactions may occur during operation of the electrochemical power system: a) at the discharge anode with H₂Electrolytic formation of H and H from O₂At least one of; b) at the cathode of the discharge with H₂Electrolytic formation of O to O and O₂At least one of; c) forming a hydrogen catalyst from the reaction of the reaction mixture; d) forming hydrinos during the discharge to produce at least one of electricity and heat; e) OH group^-Oxidized and reacted with H to form nascent H which acts as a hydrido catalyst₂O; f) oxidation of OH^-Oxygen forming ions and H; g) reduction of oxygen ions, oxygen and H at the discharge cathode₂At least one of O; h) h and nascent H₂The O catalyst reacts to form a fractional hydrogen; and i) forming hydrinos during discharge to produce at least one of electrical power and thermal energy. In one embodiment of the electrochemical power system, OH occurs during cell discharge^-And oxygen ions, oxygen and H₂At least one of the reductions of at least one of the O reacts to produce energy that exceeds the energy during the electrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. The time-varying discharge current may exceed the time-varying current during the electrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. In one embodiment, the anode half-cell reaction may be

OH^-+2H→H₂O+e^-+H(1/4)

Wherein the first H and OH^-Reaction to form H₂O catalyst and e^-And a second H through H₂The O catalysis takes place together with the formation of hydrinos. In an embodiment, the voltage of the discharge anode half-cell reaction is at least one of: after the working temperature is corrected thermodynamically relative to the standard hydrogen electrodeAbout 1.2 volts; and a voltage in a range of at least one of about 1.5V to 0.75V, 1.3V to 0.9V, and 1.25V to 1.1V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode and 25 ℃, and the voltage of the cathode half cell reaction is at least one of: about 0 volts after thermodynamic correction of the operating temperature; and a voltage in at least one range of about-0.5V to +0.5V, -0.2V to +0.2V, and-0.1V to +0.1V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode and 25 ℃.

In one embodiment of the electrochemical power system of the invention, the cathode comprises NiO and the anode comprises Ni, Mo,At least one of an alloy and carbon, and the bimetallic junction comprises a hastelloy of a metal different from the anode, Ni, Mo, andat least one of the alloys. An electrochemical power system may comprise at least one cell stack wherein the bipolar plate comprises a bimetallic junction separating an anode and a cathode. In one embodiment, H is supplied to the battery₂O, wherein H₂The O vapor pressure is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001 torr to 100atm, about 0.001 torr to 0.1 torr, about 0.1 torr to 1 torr, about 1 torr to 10 torr, about 10 torr to 100 torr, about 100 torr to 1000 torr, and about 1000 torr to 100atm, and a pressure difference to achieve at least atmospheric pressure is formed by including a rare gas and N₂Is supplied with the supplied inert gas. In one embodiment, an electrochemical power system may include a water vapor generator to supply H to the system₂And O. In one embodiment, the battery is intermittently switched between a charging phase and a discharging phase, wherein (i) the charging phase comprises at least the electrolysis of water at electrodes having opposite voltage polarities, and (ii) the discharging phase comprises at least the formation of H at one or both of said electrodes₂An O catalyst; wherein (i) the role of each electrode of each cell as cathode or anode is reversed in switching back and forth between charge and discharge phases, and (ii) the polarity of the current is reversed in switching back and forth between charge and discharge phasesAnd wherein charging comprises applying at least one of an applied current and a voltage. In an embodiment, the waveform of at least one of the applied current and voltage comprises a duty cycle in a range of about 0.001% to about 95%; a peak voltage per cell in a range of about 0.1V to 10V; about 0.001W/cm²～1000W/cm²And at about 0.0001W/cm²～100W/cm²An average power within a range, wherein the impressed current and voltage further comprises a direct current voltage, at least one of a direct current, and at least one of an alternating current and a voltage waveform, wherein the waveform comprises a frequency within a range of about 1Hz to about 1000 Hz. The waveform of the intermittent cycle may comprise at least one of constant current, power, voltage and resistance and variable current, power, voltage and resistance of at least one of the electrolysis and discharge phases of the intermittent cycle. In an embodiment, the parameters of at least one phase of the cycle comprise: the frequency of the intermittent phase is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001Hz to 10MHz, about 0.01Hz to 100kHz, and about 0.01Hz to 10 kHz; the voltage per cell is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1V to 100V, about 0.3V to 5V, about 0.5V to 2V, and about 0.5V to 1.5V; the current per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1. mu.A cm^-2～10A cm^-2About 0.1mA cm^-2～5A cm^-2And about 1mA cm^-2～1A cm^-2(ii) a The power per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1. mu.W cm^-2～10W cm^-2About 0.1mW cm^-2～5W cm^-2And about 1mW cm^-2～1W cm^-2(ii) a A constant current per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is about 1 muA cm^-2～1A cm^-2Within the range of (1); constant power per unit electrode area effective for forming hydrinos is about 1mW cm^-2～1W cm^-2Within the range of (a): the time interval is within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^-4s～10,000s、10^-3s-1000 s and 10^-2s 100s and 10^-1s-10 s; the resistance per cell is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1m omega E100 MOmega, about 1 MOmega to 1 MOmega, and 10 MOmega to 1 kmega; the conductivity of a suitable load per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^-5～1000Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-4～100Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-3～10Ω^-1cm^-2And 10^-2～1Ω^-1cm^-2And at least one of a discharge current, voltage, power or time interval is greater than the electrolysis phase, thereby producing at least one of a power or energy gain within the cycle. The voltage during discharge can be maintained above the voltage that prevents excessive corrosion of the anode.

In one embodiment of the electrochemical power system, the reaction to form the catalyst is:

O₂+5H⁺+5e^-→2H₂O+H(1/p)；

the half-cell reaction is:

H₂→2H⁺+2e^-(ii) a And is

The total reaction is as follows:

3/2H₂+1/2O₂→H₂O+H(1/p)。

at least one of the following products may be formed from hydrogen during operation of the electrochemical power system: a) the Raman peak is 0.23-0.25 cm^-1The integral multiple of the length of the first electrode plus 0-2000 cm^-1The substrate-displaced hydrogen product of (a); b) the infrared peak is 0.23-0.25 cm^-1The integral multiple of the length of the first electrode plus 0-2000 cm^-1The substrate-displaced hydrogen product of (a); c) a hydrogen product of X-ray photoelectron spectrum peak in the range of 475-525 eV or 257 + -25 eV, 509 + -25 eV, 506 + -25 eV, 305 + -25 eV, 490 + -25 eV, 400 + -25 eV or 468 + -25 eV plus matrix shift of 0-10 eV; d) hydrogen products that cause matrix shifts in high magnetic field MAS NMR; e) a high magnetic field MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift relative to TMS of greater than-5 ppm of hydrogen product; f) at least two electron beams having emission spectrum peaks within 200-300 nm and interval of 0.23-0.3 cm^-1At integral multiple of plus matrix positionMoving to 0-5000 cm^-1Hydrogen products within the range; and g) at least two UV fluorescence emission spectra peaks in the range of 200-300 nm and spaced 0.23-0.3 cm apart^-1The integral multiple of the total length of the carbon fiber is added with 0-5000 cm^-1The substrate-displaced hydrogen product of (a).

The present invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising: a hydrogen anode comprising a hydrogen permeable electrode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide; and O₂And H₂At least one of O cathodes. In embodiments, the cell temperature to maintain at least one of the electrolyte in a molten state and the membrane in a hydrogen permeable state is within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 25 to 2000 ℃, about 100 to 1000 ℃, about 200 to 750 ℃, about 250 to 500 ℃, and a cell temperature above the melting point of the electrolyte is in at least one of the following ranges: from about 0 to about 1500 ℃ above the melting point, from about 0 to about 1000 ℃ above the melting point, from about 0 to about 500 ℃ above the melting point, from about 0 to about 250 ℃ above the melting point, and from about 0 to about 100 ℃ above the melting point; the film thickness is in at least one range selected from: about 0.0001 to 0.25cm, 0.001 to 0.1cm, and 0.005 to 0.05 cm; the hydrogen pressure is maintained within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1 torr to 500atm, 10 torr to 100atm, and 100 torr to 5 atm; the hydrogen permeation rate is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1X 10^-13Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-4Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-12Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-5Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-11Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-6Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-10Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-7Mole s^-1cm^-2And 1X 10^-9Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-8Mole s^-1cm^-2. In one embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises: a hydrogen anode including a hydrogen injection electrode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide; and O₂And H₂At least one of O cathodes. In embodiments, the temperature of the cell, at which the electrolyte is maintained in a molten state, is selected fromAt least one of the following ranges: higher than the melting point of the electrolyte by about 0-1500 ℃, higher than the melting point of the electrolyte by about 0-1000 ℃, higher than the melting point of the electrolyte by about 0-500 ℃, higher than the melting point of the electrolyte by about 0-250 ℃ and higher than the melting point of the electrolyte by about 0-100 ℃; h₂The hydrogen flow rate per unit geometric area of the sparging or sparging electrode is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 1X 10^-13Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-4Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-12Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-5Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-11Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-6Mole s^-1cm^-2、1×10^-10Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-7Mole s^-1cm^-2And 1X 10^-9Mole s^-1cm^-2～1×10^-8Mole s^-1cm^-2(ii) a The reaction rate at the counter electrode matches or exceeds the reaction rate at the electrode where the hydrogen reacts; h₂O and O₂Is sufficient to maintain H or H₂And the counter electrode has a surface area and material sufficient to support a sufficient rate.

The invention also relates to a power system for generating thermal energy, comprising: at least one container capable of withstanding a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric; at least one heater comprising a reactant of the hydrino reactant, the reactant comprising: a) comprising nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O; b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) reactants for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen, wherein the reaction occurs upon at least one of mixing and heating the reactants. In an embodiment, the reaction of the power system to form at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen comprises at least one reaction selected from the group consisting of: carrying out dehydration reaction; carrying out combustion reaction; reaction of Lewis acids or bases with protic acids or bases(ii) a An oxide-base reaction; an acid anhydride-base reaction; acid-base reaction; an alkali-active metal reaction; oxidation-reduction reaction; carrying out decomposition reaction; carrying out exchange reaction; and halides, O, S, Se, Te, NH₃An exchange reaction with a compound having at least one OH; a hydrogen reduction reaction of a compound comprising O, and the source of H is at least one of nascent H formed upon reaction of the reactants and hydrogen from a hydride or gas source and a dissociator.

VI chemical reactor

The invention also relates to other reactors for producing the hydrogen species and compounds of the invention (e.g., di-and hydrino compounds) having increased binding energy. Other catalytic products are power and optionally plasma and light, depending on the cell type. This reactor is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrogen reactor" or "hydrogen cell". The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell used to produce hydrinos may take the form of: chemical reactors or gas fuel cells (e.g., gas discharge cells), plasma torch cells or microwave power cells, and electrochemical cells. Exemplary embodiments of the cell for producing hydrinos may take the form of liquid-fuel cells, solid-fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT cells. Each of the batteries includes: (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst for the production of hydrino selected from the group consisting of solid catalysts, molten catalysts, liquid catalysts, gaseous catalysts or mixtures thereof; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst for producing hydrino. As used herein and as encompassed by the present invention, unless otherwise specified, the term "hydrogen" does not only encompass protium (l¹H) And also contains deuterium (²H) And tritium (f)³H) In that respect Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT cells or thermal cell embodiments of the present invention. Other exemplary embodiments are given in this chemical reactor section. With H formed during reaction of the mixture₂Examples of reaction mixtures in which O is used as a catalyst are given in the present invention. Other catalysts (examples)Such as those given in tables 1 and 3) may be used to form hydrogen species and compounds having increased binding energy. An exemplary M-H type catalyst of Table 3A is NaH. May be in the range of, for example, the reactants, the weight% of the reactants, H₂The reaction and conditions are adjusted according to these exemplary conditions in terms of parameters such as pressure and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions and parameter ranges are those of the present invention. The otherwise unexplained ultrahigh H kinetic energy, measured by doppler line broadening of the H-line, by a predicted continuous radiation band of an integer multiple of 13.6eV, H-line inversion, plasma formation without magnetic field disruption, and irregular plasma afterglow durations as reported in the Mills prior publication show hydrinos and molecular hydrinos as products of the reactor of the present invention. Other researchers have independently validated data outside the device, such as data on CIHT cells and solid fuels. The formation of hydrinos from the cells of the invention is also evidenced by the continuous output of electrical energy over a longer duration, which is many times the electrical input, which in most cases exceeds 10 times the input without an alternative source. Predicted molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(1/4) products identified as CIHT cells and solid fuels by: MAS H NMR, which shows a predicted matrix peak of high magnetic field shift of about-4.4 ppm; ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS, which show H₂(1/4) compounding with getter matrix to M/e ═ M + n2 peak, where M is the mass of parent ion and n is an integer; electron beam excitation emission spectrum and photoluminescence emission spectrum showing predicted H₂16 times the energy or 4 quanta p ═ H₂(1/4) rotation and vibration spectra; raman and FTIR spectra showing H of 1950cm-1₂(1/4) rotational energy of H₂16 times the rotational energy or the quantum number p ═ 4 squared; XPS, which shows a predicted H of 500eV₂(1/4) Total binding energy; and a ToF-SIMS peak having an arrival time before the m/e-1 peak corresponding to H having a kinetic energy of about 204eV, which changes the predicted H to H₂The energy release of (1/4) matches the energy transferred to the third body H, as reported in: mills previous publications, and R.Mills X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "CatalystInduced Hydrino Transfer (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell ", international journal of Energy Research, (2013), and r.mills, j.lotoski, j.kong, G Chu, j.he, j.trevey," High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transfer (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell "(2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Cells of the invention (e.g., cells comprising solid fuels) were confirmed to form hydrinos to generate thermal energy using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter by observing thermal energy from hydrinos-forming solid fuels that exceeded 60 times the maximum theoretical energy. MAS H NMR showed predicted H at about-4.4 ppm₂(1/4) high magnetic field substrate displacement. At 1950cm^-1Initial Raman peak matching H₂(1/4) free space rotation energy (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills prior publications and r.mills, j.lotoski, w.good, j.he, "Solid Fuels thatForm HOH Catalyst" (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel reacts to form H₂O and H as products or intermediate reaction products. H₂O can be used as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The reactants include at least one oxidizing agent and one reducing agent, and the reaction includes at least one oxidation-reduction reaction. The reducing agent may comprise a metal, such as an alkali metal. The reaction mixture may further comprise a hydrogen source and H₂In one embodiment, the hydrogen carrier comprises Mo or Mo alloys (e.g., those alloys of the present invention, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCu, and MoCo.) in one embodiment, oxidation of the carrier is avoided by, for example, selecting other components of the reaction mixture that do not oxidize the carrier, selecting non-oxidizing reaction temperatures and conditions, and maintaining a reducing atmosphere (e.g., H), as is known to those skilled in the art₂Atmosphere). The H source can be selected from hydrides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals and the hydrogen of the inventionGroup of compounds. The hydrogen source can be hydrogen gas, which can further include dissociating agents such as those of the present invention, e.g., noble metals on a support (e.g., carbon or alumina) and other dissociating agents of the present invention. The water source may include compounds that undergo dehydration, such as hydroxides or hydroxide complexes, for example those of Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb. The water source may include a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. The oxygen source may comprise a compound containing oxygen. An exemplary compound or molecule is O₂Alkali metal or alkaline earth metal oxides, peroxides or superoxides, TeO₂、SeO₂、PO₂、P₂O₅、SO₂、SO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、CO₂、M₂S₂O₈、MMnO₄、M₂Mn₂O₄、M_xH_yPO₄(x, y are integers), POBr₂、MClO₄、MNO₃、NO、N₂O、NO₂、N₂O₃、Cl₂O₇And O₂(M ═ alkali metal; and alkaline earth metal or other cations can replace M). Other exemplary reactants include reagents selected from the group consisting of: li, LiH, LiNO₃、LiNO、LiNO₂、Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂、LiX、NH3、LiBH₄、LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiOH、Li₂S、LiHS、LiFeSi、Li₂CO₃、LiHCO₃、Li₂SO₄、LiHSO₄、Li₃PO₄、Li₂HPO₄、LiH₂PO₄、Li₂MoO₄、LiNbO₃、Li₂B₄O₇(lithium tetraborate), LiBO₂、Li₂WO₄、LiAlCl₄、LiGaCl₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂TiO₃、LiZrO₃、LiAlO₂、LiCoO₂、LiGaO₂、Li₂GeO₃、LiMn₂O₄、Li₄SiO₄、Li₂SiO₃、LiTaO₃、LiCuCl₄、LiPdCl₄、LiVO₃、LiIO₃、LiFeO₂、LiIO₄、LiClO₄、LiScO_n、LiTiO_n、LiVO_n、LiCrO_n、LiCr₂O_n、LiMn₂O_n、LiFeO_n、LiCoO_n、LiNiOn、LiNi₂O_n、LiCuO_nAnd LiZnO_n(wherein n is 1,2,3 or 4), oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizing agents, molecular oxidizing agents (e.g., V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂And NH₄X (where X is nitrate or other suitable anion given in CRC)) and a reducing agent. Another alkali metal or other cation may replace Li. The other oxygen source may be selected from the group: MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_nAnd MZnOn (where M is an alkali metal and n is 1,2,3 or 4), oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizing agents, molecular oxidizing agents (e.g., V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂、I₂O₄、I₂O₅、I₂O₉、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₄、N₂O₅、Cl₂O、ClO₂、G₂O₃、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅). The reactants can have any desired ratio of forming hydrinos. An exemplary reaction mixture is 0.33g LiH, 1.7g LiNO₃And 1g MgH₂And 4g of activated carbon powder. Another exemplary reaction mixture is black powder, such as KNO₃(75% by weight), charcoal of soft material (which may generally comprise formula C)₇H₄O) (15 wt%) and S (10 wt%); KNO₃(70.5 wt.%) and soft charcoal (29.5 wt.%); or these ratios within the range of about + -1-30 wt.%. The hydrogen source can be a hydrogen source generally comprising formula C₇H₄O charcoal.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises nitrogen, carbon dioxide and H are formed₂The reactant of O, the latter of which acts as a hydric catalyst, since H is also formed in the reaction. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a hydrogen source and H₂Source of O, H₂The source of O may comprise nitrates, sulfates, perchlorates, peroxides (e.g., hydrogen peroxide), peroxy compounds (e.g., triacetone-triperoxide (TATP) or diacetone-diperoxide (DADP)), which may also serve as a source of H, particularly upon addition of O₂Or another source of oxygen (e.g., nitro compounds such as nitrocellulose (APNC), oxygen or other oxygen-containing compounds or oxyanion compounds). The reaction mixture may comprise a source of compounds or functional groups comprising at least two of hydrogen, carbon, hydrocarbon, and oxygen bound to nitrogen. The reactants may include nitrates, nitrites, nitro groups, and nitramines. The nitrate may comprise a metal (e.g. alkali metal) nitrate, may comprise ammonium nitrate or other nitrates known to those skilled In the art, for example, nitrates of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal or rare earth metals or Al, Ga, In, Sn or Pb. The nitro group may comprise organic compounds such as nitromethane, nitroglycerol, trinitrotoluene, or similar compounds known to those skilled in the artFunctional groups of the compound. An exemplary reaction mixture is NH₄NO₃And a carbon source, such as a long chain hydrocarbon (C)_nH_2n+2) (e.g., heating oil, diesel, kerosene), the long chain hydrocarbons may comprise oxygen (e.g., molasses or sugar) or nitro groups (e.g., nitromethane); or a carbon source such as coal dust. The source of H may also comprise NH₄Hydrocarbons (e.g., fuel oil) or sugars, wherein the carbon-bound H provides for controlled release of H. H release can be achieved by radical reactions. C can react with O to release H and form carbon-oxygen compounds, e.g. CO, CO₂And a formate salt. In one embodiment, a single compound may comprise nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and H, which form₂A functional group of O. The nitramine which also contains a hydrocarbon functionality is cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, commonly known as a cyclone explosive (Cyclonite) or as RDX. Can serve as a source of H and H₂Other exemplary compounds of at least one of the sources of O catalyst (e.g., a source of at least one of a source of O and a source of H) are at least one selected from the group consisting of: ammonium Nitrate (AN), black powder (75% KNO)₃+ 15% charcoal + 10% S), ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO) (94.3% AN + 5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate, trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatut explosive (amatol) (80% TNT + 20% AN), terbutal explosive (tetrytol) (70% terbutal + 30% TNT), terbutal (2,4, 6-trinitrobenzyl ammonium nitrate (C)₇H₅N₅O₈) C-4 (91% RDX), C-3 (based on RDX), composition B (63% RDX + 36% TNT), nitroglycerin, RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN + 5.7% RDX), PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen (octohydro-1, 3,5, 7-tetranitro-1, 3,5, 7-tetraazacyclooctane), HNIW (CL-20) (2,4,6,8,10, 12-hexanitro-2, 4,6,8,10, 12-hexaazaisowurtzitane), DDF (4,4 '-dinitro-3, 3' -azofuroxan), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane, 2,4, 6-tris (trinitromethane) -1,3, 5-triazine, TATNB (1,3, 5-trinitrobenzene, 3, 5-triazo-2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene), trinitroaniline, TNP (2,4, 6-trinitrophenol or picric acid), Dunnite explosive (Dunnite) (ammonium picrate), methyl picrate, ethyl picrate, picrate (2-chloro-1, 3, 5-trinitrobenzene), trinitrocresol, astringent acidLead (2,4, 6-trinitroresorcinolic lead, C)₆HN₃O₈Pb), TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene), methyl nitrate, nitroethylene glycol, mannitol hexanitrate, ethanedinitramine, nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycoluril, nitrocellulose, urea nitrate, and hexamethylene triperoxydiamine (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen can be any desired ratio. In one embodiment of a reaction mixture of Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Fuel Oil (FO), referred to as ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO), suitable stoichiometries to produce AN equilibrium reaction are about 94.3 wt.% AN and 5.7 wt.% FO, although the FO may be in excess. AN exemplary equilibrium reaction of AN and nitromethane is

3NH₄NO₃+2CH₃NO₂→4N₂+2CO₂+9H₂O (80)

Wherein part of the H is also converted to a relatively fractional hydrogen species, e.g. H₂(1/p) and H^-(1/p), for example, p ═ 4. In one embodiment, the molar ratios of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen are similar, for example in the formula C₃H₆N₆O₆In RDX of (1).

In one embodiment, the energy is increased by using an added source of atomic hydrogen, such as H₂Gases or hydrides (e.g., alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth hydrides) and dissociating agents (e.g., Ni, Nb, or noble metals/supports (e.g., carbon, carbides, borides or nitrides or silica or alumina)). The reaction mixture may be subjected to the formation of H₂Compression or shock waves are generated during the reaction of the O catalyst and atomic H to increase the kinetics of hydrino formation. The reaction mixture may comprise at least one reactant to form H and H₂Heat is increased during the reaction of the O catalyst. The reaction mixture may contain a source of oxygen (e.g., air) that may be dispersed between the particles or beads of the solid fuel. For example, AN beads may contain about 20% air. The reaction mixture may further comprise a sensitizer, such as air-filled glass beads. In an exemplary embodiment, metal powder (e.g., Al) is added to increase the heat and kinetics of the reaction. For example, Al metalPowder may be added to the ANFO. Other reaction mixtures include those that also have a source of H and a source of catalyst (e.g., H)₂O) a pyrotechnic material. In one embodiment, the formation of hydrinos has a high activation energy that can be provided by an energy reaction (e.g., an energy or energy reaction of a pyrotechnic material), wherein the formation of hydrinos facilitates self-heating of the reaction mixture. Alternatively, the activation energy may be provided by an electrochemical reaction, such as that of a CIHT cell having a high equivalent temperature corresponding to 11,600K/eV.

Another exemplary reaction mixture is H, which can be in the pressure range of about 0.01atm to 100atm₂Gases, nitrates (e.g. alkali metal nitrates, e.g. KNO)₃) And hydrogen dissociators (e.g., Pt/C, Pd/C, Pt/Al)₂O₃Or Pd/Al₂O₃). The mixture may also contain carbon, such as graphite or GTA Grade flexible graphite (Grade GTA graphite) (Union Carbide). The reaction ratio can be any desired value, for example about 0.1 to 10 wt% of the mixture about 1 to 10% Pt or Pd/carbon mixed with about 50 wt% nitrate, with the remainder being carbon; in exemplary embodiments, however, the ratio may vary by a factor of about 5 to 10. In the case of using carbon as a support, the temperature is maintained below the temperature of the C reaction which produces compounds forming, for example, carbonates (e.g., alkali metal carbonates). In one embodiment, the temperature is maintained in the range of, for example, about 50 ℃ to 300 ℃ or about 100 ℃ to 250 ℃ so as to be in the range of N₂To form NH on₃。

The reactant and regeneration reactions and systems may comprise the reactant and regeneration reactions and systems of the present invention and my prior U.S. patent applications: for example, the Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, 4/24/2008 filing PCT; heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, 7/29/2009 filed PCT; heterenous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, 3/18/2010 filing PCT; electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, 3/17/2011 filed PCT; h₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369, 3/30/2012 filing, and CIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938, 5/21/13 filing ("Mills prior application"), incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment, the reaction may include a nitrogen oxide (e.g., N)₂O、NO₂Or NO) instead of nitrate. Alternatively, a gas is also added to the reaction mixture. NO, NO₂And N₂The O and alkali metal nitrates can be produced by known industrial processes, for example by the hatberd process and the Ostwald process in this order. In one embodiment, an exemplary sequence of steps is:

in particular, Haber method can be used for the synthesis of N₂And H₂preparation of NH at high temperature and pressure using catalysts (e.g., some oxides containing alpha-iron)₃. The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO under a catalyst (e.g., a hot platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst)₂And N₂And O. In one embodiment, the product is at least one of ammonia and an alkali metal compound. NO₂Can be prepared from NH₃Formed by oxidation. NO₂Soluble in water to form nitric acid, nitric acid and alkali metal compounds (e.g. M)₂O、MOH、M₂CO₃Or MHCO₃) The reaction forms M nitrate, where M is an alkali metal.

In one embodiment, the oxygen is derived from an oxygen source (e.g., an MNO)₃M ═ alkali metal) to form H₂O catalyst, (ii) from a source (e.g. H)₂) At least one of the reactions forming atomic H and (iii) forming hydrinos is carried out over or on a conventional catalyst (e.g., a noble metal, such as Pt) that can be heated. The thermal catalyst may comprise a thermal filament. The filaments may comprise hot Pt filaments. Oxygen source (e.g. MNO)₃) May be at least partially gaseous. The gas state and its vapor pressure can be controlled by heating the MNO₃(e.g., KNO)₃) To control. Oxygen source (e.g. MNO)₃) Can be in an open boatIn the vessel, the open boat can be heated to release gaseous MNO₃. Heating may be performed with a heater (e.g., hot filament). In an exemplary embodiment, the MNO₃Placed in a quartz boat and Pt filaments were wound around the boat to act as heaters. MNO₃The vapor pressure of (a) may be maintained within a pressure range of about 0.1 torr to 1000 torr or about 1 torr to 100 torr. The hydrogen source may be gaseous hydrogen maintained at a pressure in the range of about 1 torr to 100atm, about 10 torr to 10atm, or about 100 torr to 1 atm. The filaments are also used to dissociate hydrogen gas that can be supplied to the cell via the gas line. The cell may also include a vacuum line. Cell reaction to produce H₂O catalyst and atomic H, which react to form hydrinos. The reaction may be maintained in a vessel capable of being maintained at least one of a vacuum, ambient pressure, or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. Products (e.g. NH)₃And MOH) can be removed from the cell and regenerated. In an exemplary embodiment, the MNO₃With a hydrogen source to form H₂O catalyst and NH₃，NH₃It can be regenerated in another reaction vessel or in another step by oxidation. In one embodiment, the hydrogen source (e.g., H)₂Gas) is generated from the water by at least one of electrolysis or thermal means. Exemplary thermal processes are iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc-zinc oxide cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles, and mixed sulfur cycles, and others known to those skilled in the art. Forming H which also reacts with H to form hydrinos₂An exemplary cell reaction of an O catalyst is

KNO₃+9/2H₂→K+NH₃+3H₂O。 (82)

KNO₃+5H₂→KH+NH₃+3H₂O。 (83)

KNO₃+4H₂→KOH+NH₃+2H₂O。 (84)

KNO₃+C+2H₂→KOH+NH₃+CO₂。 (85)

2KNO₃+C+3H₂→K₂CO₃+1/2N₂+3H₂O。 (86)

An exemplary regeneration reaction to form nitrogen oxides is given by equation (81). Products (e.g. K, KH, KOH and K)₂CO₃) Can react with nitric acid formed by adding nitrogen oxides to water to form KNO₂Or KNO₃. Formation of reactant H₂O catalyst and H₂Other suitable exemplary reactions of at least one of (a) are given in table 5, table 6, and table 7.

TABLE 5 about H₂O catalyst and H₂And (3) thermal reversible reaction cycles. [ L.C.Brown, G.E.BesenBruch, K.R.Schultz, A.C.Marshall, S.K.Showalter, P.S.Pickard and J.F.Funk, Advanced production of Hydrogen Using thermo Water-Splitting Cycles, preprinting of a paper submitted on International conference on Advanced Nuclear Power stations (ICAPP) in Hollyda, 6.19-13.2002, and published in a meeting record.]

T-thermochemical and E-electrochemical.

TABLE 6 about H₂O catalyst and H₂And (3) thermal reversible reaction cycles. Perkins and A.W.Weimer, Solar-Thermal Production of Renewable Hydrogen, AIChE Journal, 55(2), (2009), pages 286-293.]

Form H₂The reactants for the O catalyst may include a source of O (e.g., an O species) and a source of H. The source of O species may comprise O₂Air and a compound or mixture of compounds including O. The compound comprising oxygen may comprise an oxidizing agent. The compound including oxygen may include at least one of oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, peroxide, and superoxide. Suitable exemplary metal oxides are alkali metal oxides (e.g., Li)₂O、Na₂O and K₂O), alkaline earth metal oxides (e.g., MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO), transition metal oxides (e.g., NiO, Ni)₂O₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃And CoO) and oxides of internal transition metals and rare earth metals and other metals and metalloids (e.g., those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te) and mixtures of such oxides and other elements including oxygen. The oxide can include oxide anions (e.g., those of the present invention, e.g., metal oxide anions) and cations (e.g., bases)Metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal and rare earth metal cations, and those of other metals and metalloids (e.g., those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te)), e.g., MM'_2xO_3x+1Or MM'_2xO₄(M ═ alkaline earth metal, M ═ transition metal (e.g. Fe or Ni or Mn), x ═ integer) and M₂M’_2xO_3x+1Or M₂M’_2xO₄suitable exemplary metal oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (α -MnO (OH) and γ -MnO (OH) (manganite)), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni (OH), Fe (OH), co (OH), Ni (OH), rh (OH), ga (OH), co (OH), Ni (OH), Fe (OH), co (OH), cr (OH), rh (OH), and Mn (OH), where x is an_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). Suitable exemplary hydroxides are: those of metals such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals; and those of other metals and metalloids (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te); and mixtures thereof. A suitable complex ionic hydroxide is Li₂Zn(OH)₄、Na₂Zn(OH)₄、Li₂Sn(OH)₄、Na₂Sn(OH)₄、Li₂Pb(OH)₄、Na₂Pb(OH)₄、LiSb(OH)₄、NaSb(OH)₄、LiAl(OH)₄、NaAl(OH)₄、LiCr(OH)₄、NaCr(OH)₄、Li₂Sn(OH)₆And Na₂Sn(OH)₆. Other exemplary suitable hydroxides are those from Co (OH)₂、Zn(OH)₂、Ni(OH)₂Other transition metal hydroxides Cd (OH)₂、Sn(OH)₂And Pb (OH). A suitable exemplary peroxide is H₂O₂Those peroxides of organic compounds and those peroxides of metals (e.g. M)₂O₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, e.g. Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂、K₂O₂) Other ionic peroxides (e.g., those of alkaline earth metals, such as Ca, Sr, or Ba peroxides), those of other electropositive metals (e.g., those of lanthanides), and covalent metal peroxides (e.g., those of Zn, Cd, and Hg). Suitable exemplary superoxides are those of metals, the superoxide MO₂(wherein M is an alkali metal, e.g. NaO)₂、KO₂、RbO₂And CsO₂) And alkaline earth metal superoxides. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises an alkali metal peroxide and a source of hydrogen, such as a hydride, hydrocarbon, or hydrogen storage material, such as BH₃NH₃. The reaction mixture may include hydroxides, such as those of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and other elements forming hydroxides, and an oxygen source, such as a compound including at least one oxyanion, such as a carbonate, for example, a compound including alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and other compounds of the invention. Other suitable compounds comprising oxygen are at least one of the oxyanion compounds of the following group: aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromates, dichromates and manganates, oxides, oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, silicates, titanates, tungstates and other compounds of the invention. An exemplary reaction of hydroxide and carbonate is given by the formula:

Ca(OH)₂+Li₂CO₃→CaO+H₂O+Li₂O+CO₂(87)

in other embodiments, the oxygen source is gaseous or readily-forming gas (e.g., NO)₂、NO、N₂O、CO₂、P₂O₃、P₂O₅And SO₂). From H₂Reduced oxide products formed from O catalysts (e.g. C, N, NH)₃P or S) can be converted back to the oxide by combustion using oxygen or a source thereof, e.g.As given in previous applications to Mills. The battery may generate excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or may convert the heat to electricity by means such as a rankine system or a brayton system. Alternatively, the cell can be used to synthesize lower energy hydrogen species, such as molecular hydrinos and hydrino anions and corresponding compounds.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture for forming hydrinos (which are used to generate at least one of lower energy hydrogen species and compounds and generate energy) includes a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of catalyst (which includes at least one of H and O, such as those catalysts of the present invention, e.g., H₂An O catalyst). The reaction mixture may further include an acid (e.g., H)₂SO₃、H₂SO₄、H₂CO₃、HNO₂、HNO₃、HClO₄、H₃PO₃And H₃PO₄) Or an acid source (e.g., an anhydride or anhydrous acid). The latter may comprise at least one of the following group: SO (SO)₂、SO₃、CO₂、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₅、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅. The reaction mixture may include a base and a base anhydride (e.g., M)₂O (M ═ alkali metal), M' O (M ═ alkaline earth metal), ZnO or other transition metal oxides, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO or Al₂O₃) At least one of (1). Other exemplary anhydrides include p-H₂O-stable metals, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The anhydride may be an alkali or alkaline earth metal oxide and the hydrated compound may include a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may include an oxyhydroxide compound, such as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may include H₂Source of O and H₂At least one of O. Can reversibly form H by hydration and dehydration reaction in the presence of atomic hydrogen₂And O. Form H₂An exemplary reaction of the O catalyst is

Mg(OH)₂→MgO+H₂O (88)

2LiOH→Li₂O+H₂O (89)

H₂CO₃→CO₂+H₂O (90)

2FeOOH→Fe₂O₃+H₂O (91)

In one embodiment, H is formed by dehydration of the following species₂O catalyst: at least one compound including a phosphate group, such As phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogen phosphate, such As those of cations (e.g., cations of metals including, for example, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals; and those of other metals and metalloids, such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te); and formation of condensed phosphates (e.g. polyphosphates (e.g. [ P ]))_nO_3n+1]^(n+2)-) Long chain metaphosphates (e.g., [ (PO))₃)_n]^n-) Cyclic metaphosphates (e.g., [ (PO))₃)_n]^n-Wherein n.gtoreq.3) and perphosphates (e.g. P)₄O₁₀) At least one of (1) or (b) is used. An exemplary reaction is

The reactant for the dehydration reaction may include R-Ni, which may include Al (OH)₃And Al₂O₃At least one of (1). The reactants may further include a metal M (e.g., those metals of the invention, such as alkali metals), a metal hydride MH, a metal hydroxide (e.g., those metal hydrogens of the invention)Compounds, e.g. alkali metal hydroxides) and sources of hydrogen (e.g. H)₂And intrinsic hydrogen). An exemplary reaction is

2Al(OH)₃+→Al₂O₃+3H₂O (94)

Al₂O₃+2NaOH→2NaAlO₂+H₂O (95)

3MH+Al(OH)₃+→M₃Al+3H₂O (96)

MoCu+2MOH+4O₂→M₂MoO₄+CuO+H₂O(M＝Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs) (97)

The reaction product may comprise an alloy. R-Ni can be regenerated by rehydration. Form H₂The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction of the O catalyst may include and involve oxyhydroxides, such as those of the present invention, as given in the following exemplary reactions:

3Co(OH)₂→2CoOOH+Co+2H₂O (98)

can be dissociated from H₂The gas forms atomic hydrogen. The hydrogen dissociating agent may be one of those of the present invention, such as R-Ni or a noble metal or transition metal on a support (e.g., on carbon or Al)₂O₃Ni or Pt or Pd on). Alternatively, atomic H may come from H permeating through membranes such as those of the present invention. In one embodiment, the cell includes a membrane, such as a ceramic membrane, to selectively remove H₂Diffusion through while preventing H₂And O is diffused. In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprising a source of hydrogen (e.g., comprising H) is electrolyzed by₂Aqueous or molten electrolytes of O) to remove H₂And atoms H are supplied to the cell. In one embodiment, H is reversibly formed by dehydrating an acid or base to the anhydride form₂And (3) an O catalyst. In one embodiment, the pH or activity of the cell, temperature and pressure are varied to control the pH or activity of the cellSeeding to form catalyst H₂O and hydrino, wherein the pressure can be varied by varying the temperature. The activity of species such as acids, bases or anhydrides can be altered by the addition of salts as known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include a source of a gas (e.g., H) that can absorb the gas used to react to form hydrinos₂Or anhydride gas) or a material (e.g., carbon) from which the gas is derived. The reactants may have any desired concentration and ratio. The reaction mixture may be a melt or include an aqueous slurry.

In another embodiment, H₂The source of the O catalyst is a reaction between an acid and a base, such as a reaction between a base and at least one of a halogen acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and nitrous acid. Other suitable acid reactants are aqueous solutions of the following species: h₂SO₄HCl, HX (X-halide), H₃PO₄、HClO₄、HNO₃、HNO、HNO₂、H₂S、H₂CO₃、H₂MoO₄、HNbO₃、H₂B₄O₇(M tetraborate), HBO₂、H₂WO₄、H₂CrO₄、H₂Cr₂O₇、H₂TiO₃、HZrO₃、MAlO₂、HMn₂O₄、HIO₃、HIO₄、HClO₄Or an organic acid (e.g., formic acid or acetic acid). Suitable exemplary bases are hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides comprising an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, or rare earth metal, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb.

In one embodiment, the reactant may comprise an acid or base which reacts with a basic anhydride or anhydride, respectively, to form H₂O catalyst and a compound having a cation of a base and an anion of an acid anhydride or a cation of a base anhydride and an anion of an acid, respectively. Anhydride SiO₂An exemplary reaction with the base NaOH is

4NaOH+SiO₂→Na₄SiO₄+2H₂O (99)

Wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is

H₄SiO₄→2H₂O+SiO₂(100)

Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may include elements, metals, alloys or mixtures, such as from the group: mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co and Mg. The corresponding oxide may include at least one of: MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MnO、Mn₃O₄、Mn₂O₃、MnO₂、Mn₂O₇、HfO₂、Co₂O₃、CoO、Co₃O₄、Co₂O₃And MgO. In an exemplary embodiment, the base comprises a hydroxide (e.g., an alkali metal hydroxide, such as MOH (M ═ alkali metal), such as LiOH), which can form the corresponding basic oxide (e.g., M ═ alkali metal), such as LiOH₂O, e.g. Li₂O) and H₂And O. The basic oxide can be reacted with the anhydride oxide to form a product oxide. Liberation of H at LiOH with anhydride oxides₂In an exemplary reaction of O, the product oxide compound may include Li₂MoO₃Or Li₂MoO₄、Li₂TiO₃、Li₂ZrO₃、Li₂SiO₃、LiAlO₂、LiNiO₂、LiFeO₂、LiTaO₃、LiVO₃、Li₂B₄O₇、Li₂NbO₃、Li₂SeO₃、Li₃PO₄、Li₂SeO₄、Li₂TeO₃、Li₂TeO₄、Li₂WO₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂MnO₄、Li₂HfO₃、LiCoO₂And MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are at least one of the following group: as₂O₃、As₂O₅、Sb₂O₃、Sb₂O₄、Sb₂O₅、Bi₂O₃、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₅、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅And other similar oxides known to those skilled in the art. Another example is given by equation (91). A suitable reaction of the metal oxide is

2LiOH+NiO→Li₂NiO₂+H₂O (101)

3LiOH+NiO→LiNiO₂+H₂O+Li₂O+1/2H₂(102)

4LiOH+Ni₂O₃→2Li₂NiO₂+2H₂O+1/2O₂(103)

2LiOH+Ni₂O₃→2LiNiO₂+H₂O (104)

Other transition metals (e.g., Fe, Cr, and Ti), internal transition metals, and rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te) may replace Ni, and other alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, Rb, and Cs) may replace K. In one embodiment, the oxide may include Mo, where H is being formed₂During the reaction of O, nascent H may be formed which further reacts to form hydrinos₂O catalyst and H. Exemplary solid Fuel reaction and possible Redox routeHas a diameter of

3MoO₂+4LiOH→2Li₂MoO₄+Mo+2H₂O (105)

2MoO₂+4LiOH→2Li₂MoO₄+2H₂(106)

O^2-→1/2O₂+2e^-(107)

2H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-+H₂(108)

2H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-+H+H(1/4) (109)

Mo⁴⁺+4e^-→Mo (110)

The reaction may further include a hydrogen source (e.g., hydrogen gas) and a dissociating agent (e.g., Pd/Al)₂O₃). The hydrogen may be protium, deuterium, or tritium, or any combination thereof. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. The cations of the hydroxides may have different oxidation states, such as those of the reaction of alkali metal hydroxides with transition metal or alkaline earth metal hydroxides. The reaction mixture and reaction may further comprise and involve H from a source₂As given in the exemplary reaction:

LiOH+2Co(OH)₂+1/2H₂→LiCoO₂+3H₂O+Co (111)

the reaction mixture and reaction may further include and involve a metal M, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, as given in the exemplary reactions:

M+LiOH+Co(OH)₂→LiCoO₂+H₂O+MH (112)

in one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises metal oxides and hydroxides (which may be used as a source of H) and optionally another source of H, where the metal of the metal oxide (e.g., Fe) may have multiple oxidation states such that it is being formedH₂The oxidation-reduction reaction is carried out during the reaction of O (which acts as a catalyst to react with H to form hydrinos). An example is FeO, where Fe²⁺Can be oxidized to Fe during the reaction to form the catalyst³⁺. An exemplary reaction is

FeO+3LiOH→H₂O+LiFeO₂+H(1/p)+Li₂O (113)

In one embodiment, at least one reactant (e.g., a metal oxide, hydroxide, or oxyhydroxide) acts as an oxidizing agent, wherein a metal atom (e.g., Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn) can be in an oxidation state that is higher than another possible oxidation state. The reaction to form the catalyst and the hydrinos reduces the atoms to at least one lower oxidation state. Metal oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides forming H₂An exemplary reaction of the O catalyst is

2KOH+NiO→K₂NiO₂+H₂O (114)

3KOH+NiO→KNiO₂+H₂O+K₂O+1/2H₂(115)

2KOH+Ni₂O₃→2KNiO₂+H₂O (116)

4KOH+Ni₂O₃→2K₂NiO₂+2H₂O+1/2O₂(117)

2KOH+Ni(OH)₂→K₂NiO₂+2H₂O (118)

2LiOH+MoO₃→Li₂MoO₄+H₂O (119)

3KOH+Ni(OH)₂→KNiO₂+2H₂O+K₂O+1/2H₂(120)

2KOH+2NiOOH→K₂NiO₂+2H₂O+NiO+1/2O₂(121)

KOH+NiOOH→KNiO₂+H₂O (122)

2NaOH+Fe₂O₃→2NaFeO₂+H₂O (123)

Other transition metals (e.g., Ni, Fe, Cr, and Ti), internal transition metals, and rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te) may be substituted for Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) may be substituted for K or Na. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises p-H₂At least one of oxides and hydroxides of O-stable metals (e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In). In addition, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Gas) and optionally a dissociating agent (e.g., a noble metal on a support). In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a metal halide (e.g., at least one transition metal halide, such as a bromide, e.g., FeBr)₂) And H and at least one of a metal forming an oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or oxide₂A mixture of O. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises metal oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides (e.g., at least one transition metal oxide, such as Ni₂O₃) With H₂A mixture of O.

An exemplary reaction of the basic anhydride NiO with the acid HCl is

2HCl+NiO→H₂O+NiCl₂(124)

Wherein the corresponding base is dehydrated as

Ni(OH)₂→H₂O+NiO (125)

The reactants may include at least one of a lewis acid or base and a protic acid or base. The reaction mixture and reaction may further include and involve an oxygen-containing compound, wherein the acid reacts with the oxygen-containing compound to form water, as given in the following exemplary reactions:

2HX+POX₃→H₂O+PX₅(126)

(X ═ halide). Similar to POX₃The compounds of (3) are suitable, for example those in which P is replaced by S. Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may include oxides of elements, metals, alloys or mixtures that are soluble In acid, including, for example, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides or oxides of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition or rare earth metals or Al, Ga, In, Sn or Pb (e.g., from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co and Mg). The corresponding oxide may comprise MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MnO、Mn₃O₄、Mn₂O₃、MnO₂、Mn₂O₇、HfO₂、Co₂O₃、CoO、CO₃O₄、Co₂O₃And MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are those of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In one exemplary embodiment, the acid comprises a hydrohalic acid and the product is H₂O and metal halides of oxides. The reaction mixture further includes a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents (e.g., Pt/C), where H and H₂The O catalyst reacts to form hydrinos.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂Source (e.g. osmotic membrane or H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents (e.g., Pt/C) and H₂Source of O catalyst (which includes reduction to H)₂Oxide or hydroxide of O). The metal of the oxide or hydroxide may form a metal hydride that serves as a source of H. Alkali metal hydroxides and oxides (e.g. LiOH and Li)₂An exemplary reaction of O) is

LiOH+H₂→H₂O+LiH (127)

Li₂O+H₂→LiOH+LiH (128)

The reaction mixture may include hydrogen reduction to H₂Oxides or hydroxides of O metals (e.g., those of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, In and Pb) and hydrogen sources (e.g., H₂Gas) and dissociating agents (e.g., Pt/C).

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises H₂Source (e.g. H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents (e.g., Pt/C) and peroxide compounds (e.g., H)₂O₂Which decomposes into H₂O catalysts and other products including oxygen (e.g. O)₂)). Some H₂And decomposition products (e.g. O)₂) Can react to also form H₂And (3) an O catalyst.

In one embodiment, H is formed₂Reactions with O catalysts include organic dehydration reactions, e.g. dehydration of alcohols such as polyols, e.g. sugars to aldehydes and H₂And O. In one embodiment, the dehydration reaction involves liberation of H from the terminal alcohol₂O forms an aldehyde. The terminal alcohol may include liberation of H which may be used as a catalyst₂A sugar of O or a derivative thereof. Suitable exemplary alcohols are meso-erythritol, galactitol or dulcitol and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). An exemplary reaction mixture includes a sugar + hydrogen dissociating agent (e.g., Pd/Al)₂O₃+H₂). Alternatively, the reaction comprises dehydrating a metal salt (e.g., a metal salt having at least one water of hydration). In one embodiment, dehydration includes from hydrates (e.g., hydrated ions and salt hydrates, such as BaI)₂2H₂O and EuBr₂nH₂O) loss of H acting as catalyst₂O。

In one embodiment, H is formed₂The reaction of the O catalyst involves hydrogen reduction of: oxygen containing compounds (e.g. CO), oxyanions (e.g. MNO)₃(M ═ alkali metal)), metal oxides (e.g., NiO, Ni), and the like₂O₃、Fe₂O₃Or SnO), hydroxides (e.g. Co (OH)₂) Oxyhydroxides (e.g., FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH), and oxygen-containing materials (e.g., those of the present invention that can be reduced to H from hydrogen₂Species of O), oxyanions, oxides, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, and other compositions. An exemplary compound comprising oxygen or oxyanion is SOCl₂、Na₂S₂O₃、NaMnO₄、POBr₃、K₂S₂O₈、CO、CO₂、NO、NO₂、P₂O₅、N₂O₅、N₂O、SO₂、I₂O₅、NaClO₂、NaClO、K₂SO₄And KHSO₄. The source of hydrogen for hydrogen reduction can be H₂At least one of a gas and a hydride (e.g., a metal hydride, such as those of the present invention). The reaction mixture may further include a reducing agent that can form oxygen-containing compounds or ions. The cation of the oxyanion may form a product compound containing another anion (e.g., a halide, other chalcogenide, phosphide, other oxyanion, nitride, silicide, arsenide, or other anion of the present invention). An exemplary reaction is

4NaNO₃(c)+5MgH₂(c)→5MgO(c)+4NaOH(c)+3H₂O(l)+2N₂(g) (129)

P₂O₅(c)+6NaH(c)→2Na₃PO₄(c)+3H₂O(g) (130)

NaClO₄(c)+2MgH₂(c)→2MgO(c)+NaCl(c)+2H₂O(l) (131)

KHSO₄+4H₂→KHS+4H₂O (132)

K₂SO₄+4H₂→2KOH+2H₂O+H₂S (133)

LiNO₃+4H₂→LiNH₂+3H₂O (134)

GeO₂+2H₂→Ge+2H₂O (135)

CO₂+H₂→C+2H₂O(136)

PbO₂+2H₂→2H₂O+Pb (137)

V₂O₅+5H₂→2V+5H₂O (138)

Co(OH)₂+H₂→Co+2H₂O (139)

Fe₂O₃+3H₂→2Fe+3H₂O (140)

3Fe₂O₃+H₂→2Fe₃O₄+H₂O (141)

Fe₂O₃+H₂→2FeO+H₂O (142)

Ni₂O₃+3H₂→2Ni+3H₂O (143)

3Ni₂O₃+H₂→2Ni₃O₄+H₂O (144)

Ni₂O₃+H₂→2NiO+H₂O (145)

3FeOOH+1/2H₂→Fe₃O₄+2H₂O (146)

3NiOOH+1/2H₂→Ni₃O₄+2H₂O (147)

3CoOOH+1/2H₂→Co₃O₄+2H₂O (148)

FeOOH+1/2H₂→FeO+H₂O (149)

NiOOH+1/2H₂→NiO+H₂O (150)

CoOOH+1/2H₂→CoO+H₂O (151)

SnO+H₂→Sn+H₂O (152)

The reaction mixture may include a source of anions or anions and a source of oxygen or oxygen (e.g., an oxygen-containing compound) wherein H is formed₂The reaction of the O catalyst includes the optional use of H from a source₂With oxygen to form H₂Anion-oxygen exchange reaction of O. An exemplary reaction is

2NaOH+H₂+S→Na₂S+2H₂O (153)

2NaOH+H₂+Te→Na₂Te+2H₂O (154)

2NaOH+H₂+Se→Na₂Se+2H₂O (155)

LiOH+NH₃→LiNH₂+H₂O (156)

In another embodiment of a solid fuel or CIHT cell reaction mixture, the hydrino reaction includes an exchange reaction between chalcogenides, such as an exchange reaction between reactants including O and S. An exemplary chalcogenide reactant (e.g., tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate) contains ([ MoS)₄]^2-) An anion. Formation of nascent H₂An exemplary reaction of the O catalyst and optionally nascent H includes molybdate [ MoO ]₄]^2-Reaction with hydrogen sulfide in the presence of ammonia:

[NH₄]₂[MoO₄]+4H₂S→[NH₄]₂[MoS₄]+4H₂O (157)

in one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a hydrogen source, an oxygen-containing compound, and at least one element capable of forming an alloy with at least one other element of the reaction mixture. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include an exchange reaction of oxygen of an oxygen-containing compound and an element capable of forming an alloy with a cation of the oxygen compound, wherein the oxygen reacts with hydrogen from the source to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

NaOH+1/2H₂+Pd→NaPb+H₂O (158)

NaOH+1/2H₂+Bi→NaBi+H₂O (159)

NaOH+1/2H₂+2Cd→Cd₂Na+H₂O (160)

NaOH+1/2H₂+4Ga→Ga₄Na+H₂O (161)

NaOH+1/2H₂+Sn→NaSn+H₂O (162)

NaAlH₄+Al(OH)₃+5Ni→NaAlO₂+Ni₅Al+H₂O+5/2H₂(163)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an oxygen-containing compound (e.g., an oxyhydroxide) and a reducing agent (e.g., an oxide-forming metal). Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include the formation of a metal oxide and H from the oxyhydroxide and the metal₂And (4) reaction of O. An exemplary reaction is

2MnOOH+Sn→2MnO+SnO+H₂O (164)

4MnOOH+Sn→4MnO+SnO₂+2H₂O (165)

2MnOOH+Zn→2MnO+ZnO+H₂O (166)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxygen-containing compound (e.g., hydroxide), a hydrogen source, and at least one other compound comprising a different anion (e.g., halide) or another element. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include reaction of the hydroxide with another compound or element, wherein the anion or element is exchanged with the hydroxide to form another compound of the anion or element, and the hydroxide is reacted with H₂Reaction to form H₂And O. The anion may comprise a halide. An exemplary reaction is

2NaOH+NiCl₂+H₂→2NaCl+2H₂O+Ni (167)

2NaOH+I₂+H₂→2NaI+2H₂O (168)

2NaOH+XeF₂+H₂→2NaF+2H₂O+Xe (169)

BiX₃(X ═ halide) +4Bi (OH)₃→3BiOX+Bi₂O₃+6H₂O (170)

The hydroxide and halide compounds may be selected such that H is formed₂The reaction of O and another halide is thermally reversible. In one embodiment, the exchange reaction is generally

NaOH+1/2H₂+1/yM_xCl_y＝NaCl+6H₂O+x/yM (171)

Wherein exemplary Compound M_xCl_yIs AlCl₃、BeCl₂、HfCl₄、KAgCl₂、MnCl₂、NaAlCl₄、ScCl₃、TiCl₂、TiCl₃、UCl₃、UCl₄、ZrCl₄、EuCl₃、GdCl₃、MgCl₂、NdCl₃And YCl₃. At high temperatures (e.g., in the range of about 100 ℃ to 2000 ℃), at least one of the enthalpy and free energy of the reaction of equation (232) is about 0kJ and the reaction is reversible. The reversible temperature was calculated from the corresponding thermodynamic parameters of each reaction. A representative temperature range is NaCl-ScCl₃: about 800-900K, NaCl-TiCl₂: about 300-400K, NaCl-UCl₃: about 600-800K, NaCl-UCl₄: about 250-300K, NaCl-ZrCl₄: about 250-300K, NaCl-MgCl₂: about 900-1300 g 1300K, NaCl-EuCl₃: about 900 to 1000K, NaCl-NdCl₃: about>1000K and NaCl-YCl₃: about>1000K。

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes oxides (e.g., metal oxides, such As those of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals and other metals and metalloids) (e.g., those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te)), peroxides (e.g., M₂O₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, e.g. Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂And K₂O₂) And superoxide (e.g. MO)₂Wherein M is an alkali metal, e.g. NaO₂、KO₂、RbO₂And CsO₂And alkaline earth metal superoxides) and a source of hydrogen. The ionic peroxides may further include those of Ca, Sr, or Ba. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include hydrogen reduction of oxides, peroxides or superoxides to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

Na₂O+2H₂→2NaH+H₂O (172)

Li₂O₂+H₂→Li₂O+H₂O (173)

KO₂+3/2H₂→KOH+H₂O (174)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen (e.g., H)₂At least one of hydrides (such as alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal and rare earth metal hydrides and at least one of those of the invention) and hydrogen sources or other compounds (such as metal amides) comprising combustible hydrogen and oxygen sources (such as O₂). Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include H₂Oxidation of hydrides or hydrogen compounds (e.g. metal amides) to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

2NaH+O₂→Na₂O+H₂O (175)

H₂+1/2O₂→H₂O (176)

LiNH₂+2O₂→LiNO₃+H₂O (177)

2LiNH₂+3/2O₂→2LiOH+H₂O+N₂(178)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include decomposition of at least one of a hydrogen source and an oxygen source to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

NH₄NO₃→N₂O+2H₂O (179)

NH₄NO₃→N₂+1/2O₂+2H₂O (180)

H₂O₂→1/2O₂+H₂O (181)

H₂O₂+H₂→2H₂O(182)

The reaction mixture disclosed herein in this chemical reactor section further comprises a hydrogen source that forms hydrinos. The source may be an atomic hydrogen source, such as a hydrogen dissociating agent and H₂Gases or metal hydrides, such as the dissociating agents and metal hydrides of the present invention. The source of hydrogen providing atomic hydrogen may be a compound comprising hydrogen, such as a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide. The H reacted to form hydrinos may be nascent H formed by the reaction of one or more reactants, at least one of which includes a hydrogen source, such as the reaction of a hydroxide with an oxide. The reaction may also form H₂And (3) an O catalyst. The oxide and the hydroxide may constitute the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide compound (e.g., FeOOH) can be dehydrated to provide H₂O catalyst and also provides nascent H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration:

4FeOOH→H₂O+Fe₂O₃+2FeO+O₂+2H(1/4) (183)

wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to form hydrinos. Other exemplary reactions are hydroxides and oxyhydroxides or oxides (e.g., NaOH + FeOOH or Fe)₂O₃) Forming alkali metal oxide (e.g., NaFeO)₂+H₂O), wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction can form hydrinos, wherein H₂O is used as a catalyst. The oxide and the hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide compound (e.g., FeOOH) can be dehydrated to provide H₂O catalyst, and also provides nascent H for the hydriding reaction during dehydration:

4FeOOH→H₂O+Fe₂O₃+2FeO+O₂+2H(1/4) (184)

wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to form hydrinos. Other exemplary reactions are hydroxides and oxyhydroxides or oxides (e.g., NaOH + FeOOH or Fe)₂O₃) Forming alkali metal oxide (e.g., NaFeO)₂+H₂O), wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction can form hydrinos, wherein H₂O is used as a catalyst. Hydroxide ions are reduced and oxidized to form H₂O and oxide ions. The oxide ion can react with H₂O reacts to form OH^-. The same pathway can be obtained using hydroxide-halide exchange reactions, such as the following:

2M(OH)₂+2M'X₂→H₂O+2MX₂+2M'O+1/2O₂+2H(1/4) (185)

wherein exemplary M and M' metals are alkaline earth metals and transition metals, respectively, such as Cu (OH)₂+FeBr₂、Cu(OH)₂+CuBr₂Or Co (OH)₂+CuBr₂. In one embodiment, the solid fuel may include a metal hydroxide and a metal halide, wherein at least one metal is Fe. H may be added₂O and H₂To regenerate the reactants. In one embodiment, M and M' may be selected from the group consisting of: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, elements of groups 13, 14, 15 and 16 and other cations of hydroxides or halidesCations such as those of the present invention. An exemplary reaction to form at least one of the HOH catalyst, nascent H, and hydrino is

4MOH+4M'X→H₂O+2M'₂O+M₂O+2MX+X₂+2H(1/4) (186)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of a hydroxide and a halide compound (e.g., those of the present invention). In one embodiment, the halide may be used to promote at least one of the formation and maintenance of at least one of a nascent HOH catalyst and H. In one embodiment, the mixture may be used to lower the melting point of the reaction mixture.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises Mg (OH)₂+CuBr₂A mixture of (a). The product CuBr can sublime to form CuBr condensation products, which are separated from the non-volatile MgO. Br₂And can be trapped by a cold trap. CuBr can react with Br₂React to form CuBr₂And MgO may react with H₂O reacts to form Mg (OH)₂。Mg(OH)₂Can be reacted with CuBr₂Combine to form a regenerated solid fuel.

The acid-base reaction is H₂Another mode of the O catalyst. Thus, the thermochemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction that forms hydrinos. Exemplary halide and hydroxide mixtures are those of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo and Cd, and hydroxides and halide mixtures of metals having low water reactivity in the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W and Zn. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises H that can be used as a source of at least one of H and a catalyst₂O (e.g. nascent H)₂O). The water may be in the form of a hydrate, which decomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂O and formation of nascent H and nascent H₂Reaction of inorganic compounds of OAnd (3) mixing. The inorganic compound may include a compound of formula (I) and (II)₂O reactive halides, such as metal halides. The reaction product may be at least one of a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate. Other products may include anions containing oxygen and halogen, e.g. XO^-、XO₂ ^-、XO₃ ^-And XO₄ ^-(X ═ halogen). The product may also be at least one of reduced cations and halogen gas. The halide may be a metal halide, such As a halide of one of the alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge and B and other elements that form halides. The metal or element can additionally be one that forms at least one of a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, hydrate, and forms a complex with an anion that includes oxygen and a halogen (e.g., XO^-、XO₂ ^-、XO₃ ^-And XO₄ ^-(X ═ halogen)) or an element of a compound. Suitable exemplary metals and elements are at least one of the following: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge and B. An exemplary reaction is

5MX₂+7H₂O→MXOH+M(OH)₂+MO+M₂O₃+11H(1/4)+9/2X₂(187)

Wherein M is a metal (e.g., a transition metal such as Cu) and X is a halogen (e.g., Cl).

In one embodiment, H₂O acts as a catalyst, which is maintained at low concentrations to provide nascent H₂And O. In one embodiment, the low concentration is achieved by passing H₂O molecules are dispersed in another material (e.g., solid, liquid, or gas). H₂The O molecule can be diluted to the limit of the isolated nascent molecule. The material also includes a source of H. The material may comprise an ionic compound, e.g.Alkali metal halides, such as potassium halides, e.g. KCl. Low concentrations of nascent H can also be achieved dynamically, where H₂O is formed from the reaction. Product H₂O may be removed at a rate that produces a steady-state low concentration relative to the rate of formation to provide at least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. Form H₂The reaction of O may comprise dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions, and other reactions, such as those of the present invention. H₂O can be removed by methods such as evaporation and concentration. Exemplary reactants are the formation of iron oxide and H₂FeOOH of O, wherein nascent H is also formed from this further reaction, thereby forming hydrinos. Other exemplary reaction mixture is Fe₂O₃+ NaOH and H₂And FeOOH + NaOH and H₂At least one of (1). The reaction mixture may be maintained at an elevated temperature, for example in the range of about 100 ℃ to 600 ℃. H₂The O product can be removed by condensing the vapor in a cold zone of the reactor (e.g., a gas line maintained at less than 100 ℃). In another embodiment, the H-containing compound dispersed or absorbed in the crystal lattice (e.g., the crystal lattice of an ionic compound (e.g., an alkali metal halide, such as a potassium halide, such as KCl))₂O as a material of inclusion or mixture or part of a compound (e.g. H)₂O) can accept high-energy particle bombardment. The particles may comprise at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles may comprise a beam, such as an electron beam. Bombardment can provide H₂At least one of O catalyst, H, and activation of the hydrino forming reaction. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, H₂The O content may be higher. H₂O can be ignited by high current to form hydrinos at a high rate.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a support, such as an electrically conductive high surface area support. Suitable exemplary supports are those of the present invention, such as metal powders (e.g., Ni or R-Ni), metal meshes (e.g., Ni porous bodies, Ni meshes), carbon, carbides (e.g., TiC and WC), and borides. The support may include a dissociating agent (e.g., Pd/C or Pd/C). The reactants may have any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, the stoichiometry is such that completion of the reaction to form H is favored₂O catalyst and providing H to form hydrinos. The reaction temperature may be in any desired range, for example in the range of about ambient temperature to 1500 ℃. The pressure range may be any desired value, for example, in the range of about 0.01 torr to 500 atmospheres. The reaction is at least one of a regenerative and reversible reaction carried out by the methods disclosed herein and in the Mills prior applications: for example, the HydrogenCatalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, 4/24/2008 filed PCT; heterogeneous hydrogenomic catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, 7/29/2009 filed PCT; heterogenous HydrogenCatalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, 3/18/2010 filing PCT; electrochemical hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, 3/17/2011 filed PCT; h₂O-base electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369, 3/30/2012; and CIHT Power System, PCT/US 13/041938, 5/21/13 filing, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. As known to those skilled in the art, H can be consumed by varying the reaction conditions (e.g., temperature and pressure)₂The reverse reaction of O takes place to form H₂The reaction of O is reversible. For example, H can be increased in a reverse reaction₂O pressure to reform reactants from the product by rehydration. In other cases, the oxidation may be carried out (e.g., by reaction with oxygen and H)₂At least one of O reacts) to regenerate the hydrogen reduction product. In one embodiment, the reverse reaction product may be removed from the reaction, thereby allowing the reverse reaction or regeneration reaction to continue. The reverse reaction may be favored (even in cases where it is not favored based on equilibrium thermodynamics) by removing at least one reverse reaction product. In an exemplary embodiment, the regeneration reactant (reverse reaction or regeneration reaction product) comprises a hydroxide, such as an alkali metal hydroxide. The hydroxide may be removed by methods such as solvation or sublimation. In the latter case, the alkali metal hydroxide sublimes and does not change at temperatures in the range of about 350 ℃ to 400 ℃. The reaction can be maintained in the power plant system of the Mills prior application. Thermal energy from the power producing cell may provide heat to at least one other cell that is regenerated as previously disclosed. Alternatively, the same may be done by changing as previously describedThe disclosed system designs (having a temperature gradient due to having coolant in selected cell areas) the water wall temperature to cause H to form₂The equilibrium of the reaction of the O catalyst and the reverse regeneration reaction shifts.

In one embodiment, the halide and oxide may undergo an exchange reaction. The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other. The exchange reaction may be carried out by heating the product mixture. The separation may be achieved by sublimation, which may be driven by at least one of heating and applying a vacuum. In an exemplary embodiment, CaBr ₂And CuO may undergo an exchange reaction by heating to an elevated temperature (e.g., in the range of about 700 ℃ to 900 ℃) to form CuBr₂And CaO. Any other suitable temperature range may be used, for example in the range of about 100 ℃ to 2000 ℃. CuBr₂Separation and collection can be achieved by sublimation, which can be achieved by applying heat and low pressure. CuBr₂A separate strip may be formed. CaO can be reacted with H₂Reaction of O to form Ca (OH)₂。

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a singlet oxygen source. An exemplary reaction to produce singlet oxygen is

NaOCl+H₂O₂To O₂+NaCl+H₂O (188)

In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a source or reagent of a fenton reaction, such as H₂O₂。

In one embodiment, a catalyst comprising at least one of H and O (e.g., H) is used₂O) synthesis of lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Reaction mixtures for the synthesis of exemplary lower energy hydrogen compounds MHX, where M is an alkali metal and can be another metal (e.g., an alkaline earth metal), where the compounds have the corresponding stoichiometry, H is hydrino (e.g., hydrino), and X is an anion (e.g., halide), comprising a source of M and X (e.g., an alkali metal halide, such as KCl) and a metal reducing agent (e.g., an alkali metal), a hydrogen dissociating agent (e.g., Ni, such as Ni mesh or R-Ni), and optionally a support(s) (M)E.g., carbon), a hydrogen source (e.g., a metal hydride (e.g., MH, alternative to M), and H₂At least one of the gases) and an oxygen source (e.g., a metal oxide or an oxygen-containing compound). A suitable exemplary metal oxide is Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. The reaction temperature may be maintained in the range of about 200 ℃ to 1500 ℃ or about 400 ℃ to 800 ℃. The reactants can be in any desired ratio. The KHCl-forming reaction mixture may comprise K, Ni mesh, KCl, hydrogen, and Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. Exemplary weights and conditions are 1.6g K, 20g KCl, 40g Ni mesh from metal oxide (e.g., 1.5g Fe)₂O₃And 1.5g NiO) of oxygen equimolar to K, 1atm H₂And a reaction temperature of about 550-600 ℃. The reaction forms H by reaction of H with O from the metal oxide₂O catalyst and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino ions (forming KHCl product). The reaction mixture forming the KHI may comprise K, R-Ni, KI, hydrogen, and Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. Exemplary weights and conditions are 1gK, 20g KI, 15g R-Ni 2800 from metal oxides (e.g., 1g Fe₂O₃And 1g NiO) of oxygen equimolar to K, 1atm H₂And a reaction temperature of about 450-500 ℃. The reaction forms H by reaction of H with O from the metal oxide₂O catalyst, and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino ions (forming KHI product). In one embodiment, the product of at least one of a CIHT cell, SF-CIHT cell, solid fuel, or chemical cell is H₂(1/4), which causes high field H NMR matrix displacements. In one embodiment, the presence of hydrino species (e.g., hydrino atoms or molecules) in a solid matrix (e.g., a matrix of hydroxide (e.g., NaOH or KOH)) causes the matrix protons to shift to a high field. The substrate protons (e.g., NaOH or KOH protons) are exchangeable. In one embodiment, the shift may be such that the matrix peak is in the range of about-0.1 ppm to-5 ppm relative to TMS.

In one embodiment, H may be added by adding₂And H₂O to a mixture of hydroxide and halide compounds (e.g. Cu (OH)₂+CuBr₂) The regeneration reaction of (1). Products such as halides and oxides may be separated by sublimating the halide. In one embodiment, H may be heated₂O is added to the reaction mixture to form hydroxides and halides (e.g., CuBr) from the reaction product₂And Cu (OH)₂). In one embodiment, regeneration may be achieved by a thermal cycling step. In one embodiment, the halide (e.g., CuBr)₂) Having H₂O is soluble, and hydroxide (e.g., Cu (OH)₂) Insoluble. The regenerated compound can be isolated by filtration or precipitation. The chemical species may be dried, where the thermal energy may come from the reaction. Heat may be recovered from the separated water vapor. The recovery may be performed by heat exchangers or by direct heating using steam or by power generation using, for example, turbines and generators. In one embodiment, by using H₂Regeneration of Cu (OH) from CuO by O cracking catalyst₂. Suitable catalysts are noble metals on a support (e.g. Pt/Al)₂O₃) And by sintering CuO and Al₂O₃Formed CuAlO₂Cobalt phosphate, cobalt borate, cobalt methyl borate, nickel borate, RuO₂、LaMnO₃、SrTiO₃、TiO₂And WO₃. Form H₂An exemplary method of O-cracking catalyst is to subject Co to a potential of 0.92V and 1.15V (relative to a standard hydrogen electrode) in about 0.1M potassium phosphate borate electrolyte (pH 9.2)²⁺And Ni²⁺The solution is subjected to controlled electrolysis. An exemplary thermally reversible solid fuel cycle is

T 100 2CuBr₂+Ca(OH)₂→2CuO+2CaBr₂+H₂O (189)

T 730 CaBr₂+2H₂O→Ca(OH)₂+2HBr (190)

T 100 CuO+2HBr→CuBr₂+H₂O (191)

T 100 2CuBr₂+Cu(OH)₂→2CuO+2CaBr₂+H₂O (192)

T 730 CuBr₂+2H₂O→Cu(OH)₂+2HBr (193)

T 100 CuO+2HBr→CuBr₂+H₂O (194)

In one embodiment, the selection has H₂(as a reactant) and H₂At least one of O (as product) and H₂Or H₂The solid fuel reaction mixture of one or more of O (as at least one of reactants and products) such that the maximum theoretical free energy of any conventional reaction is about zero, in the range of-500 kJ/mole to +500 kJ/mole of the limiting reagent or preferably in the range of-100 kJ/mole to +100 kJ/mole of the limiting reagent. The mixture of reactants and products may be maintained at one or more of an optimal temperature at about zero free energy and an optimal temperature at which the reaction is reversible to achieve regeneration or stable kinetics without maintaining the mixture and temperature for at least a duration longer than the reaction time. The temperature may be within about +/-500 ℃ or about +/-100 ℃ of the optimum temperature. Exemplary mixtures and reaction temperatures are Fe, Fe₂O₃、H₂And H₂Stoichiometric mixture of O at 800K and Sn, SnO and H₂And H₂Stoichiometric mixture of O at 800K.

In one embodiment, wherein the alkali metal M (e.g., K or Li) and nH (n ═ integer), OH, O, 2O, O₂And H₂At least one of O acts as a catalyst, the source of H is at least one of a metal hydride (e.g., MH), and at least one of a metal M and a metal hydride MH reacts with the source of H to form H. One product may be an oxidized M, such as an oxide or hydroxide. The reaction that generates at least one of atomic hydrogen and the catalyst may be an electron transfer reaction or a redox reaction. The reaction mixture may further comprise H₂、H₂Dissociating agents (e.g., H of the invention)₂Dissociating agents, e.g. Ni mesh or R-Ni) and electrical conductivityAt least one of the carriers (e.g., these dissociating agents and others as well as the carriers of the present invention (e.g., carbon and carbides, borides, and carbonitrides)). An exemplary oxidation reaction of M or MH is

4MH+Fe₂O₃→+H₂O+H(1/p)+M₂O+MOH+2Fe+M (195)

Wherein H₂At least one of O and M may act as a catalyst to form H (1/p). The reaction mixture may further comprise a hydrino absorbent, e.g. a compound, e.g. a salt, e.g. a halide salt, e.g. an alkali metal halide salt, e.g. KCl or KI. The product may be MHX (M ═ metal, such as an alkali metal; X is a counterion, e.g., a halide; H is a fractional hydrogen species). Other hydrino catalysts may be substituted for M, such as the catalysts of the invention, e.g. the catalysts of table 1.

In one embodiment, the oxygen source is a compound having a heat of formation similar to water such that oxygen exchange between the reduction product of the oxygen source compound and hydrogen occurs at the lowest energy release. Suitable exemplary oxygen source compounds are CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO₂、SeO₂And TeO₂. Other analogues (e.g. metal oxides) may also be anhydrides of acids or bases which can undergo dehydration, as H₂The source of the O catalyst is MnO_x、AlO_xAnd SiO_x. In one embodiment, the oxide layer oxygen source may overlay a hydrogen source, such as a metal hydride, such as palladium hydride. Form H₂The reaction of the O catalyst and atomic H (which further react to form hydrinos) can be initiated by heating the oxide-coated hydrogen source (e.g., metal oxide-coated palladium hydride). Palladium hydride may be applied to the opposite side of the oxygen source through a hydrogen impermeable layer (e.g., a gold film layer) to allow the released hydrogen to selectively migrate to the oxygen source, such as an oxide layer, e.g., a metal oxide. In one embodiment, the reaction and regeneration reactions that form the hydrino catalyst comprise oxygen exchange between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen and between water and the reduced oxygen source compound, respectively. Suitable sources of reduced oxygen are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se and Te. In one embodiment, the oxygen exchange reactionReactions for thermally forming hydrogen may be included. Exemplary thermal processes are iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc-zinc oxide cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles, and mixed sulfur cycles, and others known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction (e.g., oxygen exchange reaction) occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions (e.g., temperature and pressure) may be controlled to achieve simultaneous reactions. Alternatively, the product may be removed and regenerated in at least one other separate vessel, which regeneration may occur under conditions different from the kinetic forming reaction as set forth in the present invention and in the Mills prior application.

In one embodiment, an amide (e.g., LiNH)₂) NH of (2)₂The group acts as a catalyst with a potential in equation (5) corresponding to m-3 of about 81.6 eV. Reversible H analogous to acid or base formation of anhydrides and anhydride formation of acids or bases₂Elimination or addition of O, reversible reaction between amides and imides or nitrides to form NH₂Catalyst, NH₂The catalyst also reacts with atomic H to form hydrinos. The reversible reaction between the amide and at least one of the imide and the nitride may also serve as a source of hydrogen, such as atomic H.

In one embodiment, H is reacted with OH and H₂Reaction of at least one of the O catalysts synthesizes a fractional hydrogen species (e.g., molecular hydrinos or hydrino anions). The hydrino species may be produced from at least two of the group: metals (e.g., alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb and Te), metal hydrides (e.g., LaNi₅H₆And other analogs of the invention), aqueous hydroxides (e.g., alkaline hydroxides, such as KOH at concentrations of 0.1M to saturation), supports (e.g., carbon, Pt/C, steam carbon, carbon black, carbides, borides, or nitriles), and oxygen. Suitable exemplary reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species (e.g., molecular hydrinos) are (1) Co PtC KOH (saturated), with or without O₂(ii) a (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi₅H₆+ KOH (saturated); (3) co, B,Sn, Sb or Zn + O₂+ CB + KOH (saturated); (4) al CBKOH (saturated); (5) sn Ni coated graphite KOH (saturated), with or without O₂(ii) a (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (saturated) + O₂(ii) a (7) ZnPt/C KOH (saturated) O₂(ii) a (8) Zn R-Ni KOH (saturated) O₂；(9)Sn LaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂；(10)SbLaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂(ii) a (11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb or Sb + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K₂CO₃+ CB-SA and (12) LiNH₂LiBr and LiH or Li and H₂Or a source thereof and optionally a hydrogen dissociating agent (e.g., Ni or R-Ni). Other reaction mixtures include molten hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, a source of oxygen, and a hydrogen dissociating agent. A suitable exemplary reaction mixture for forming hydrino species (e.g., molecular hydrino) is (1) Ni (H)₂) LiOH-LiBr air or O₂；(2)Ni(H₂) NaOH-NaBr air or O₂And (3) Ni (H)₂) KOH-NaBr air or O₂。

In one embodiment, the product of at least one of the chemical, SF-CIHT, and CIHT cell reactions forming hydrinos is a compound containing hydrinos or lower energy hydrogen species (e.g., H) complexed with an inorganic compound₂(1/p)). The compound may comprise an oxyanion compound, for example an alkali or alkaline earth metal carbonate or hydroxide or other such compounds of the present invention. In one embodiment, the product comprises M₂CO₃·H₂(1/4) and MOH. H₂(1/4) (M ═ alkali metal or other cations of the present invention) complex. The products can be identified by ToF-SIMS as respectively comprisingAndwherein n is an integer and the integer p is an integer>1 may replace 4. In one embodiment, a compound comprising silicon and oxygen (e.g., SiO)₂Or quartz) can serve as H₂(1/4) getter. H₂(1/4) the getter may comprise a transition metal,Alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, combinations of metals, alloys (e.g., Mo alloys such as MoCu), and hydrogen storage materials such as those of the present invention.

The lower energy hydrogen compounds synthesized by the process of the present invention may have the formula MH, MH₂Or M₂H₂Wherein M is an alkali metal cation and H is a hydrogen anion having an increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation and H is a hydrogen anion having an increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkali metal cation, X is one of a neutral atom (e.g., a halogen atom), a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion (e.g., a halogen anion), and H is a hydrogen anion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is an anion with two negative charges, and H is a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂HX, wherein M is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is an integer, M is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂H_nWherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂XH_nWherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂X₂Hn, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂X₃H, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂XH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is an anion having two negative charges, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M₂XX 'H, where M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MM' H_nWherein n is an integer of 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MM' XH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MM 'XH, where M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is an anion with two negative charges, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MM 'XX' H, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are anions having a single negative charge, and H is a hydrogen anion having an increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MXX' H_nWherein n is an integer of 1 to 5, M is an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cation, X is an anion having a single or two negative charges, X' is a metal or metalloid, transition element, internal transition element or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is an integer, M is a cation, e.g. a transition element, an internal transition element or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one binding energyIncreased hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MXH_nWherein n is an integer, M is a cation, such as an alkali metal cation, an alkaline earth metal cation, X is another cation, such as a transition element, internal transition element or rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula [ KH_mKCO₃]_nWherein m and n are each an integer, and a hydrogen content H of the compound_mComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formulaWherein m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_mComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula [ KHKNO₃]_nWherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula [ KHKOH ]]_nWherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound comprising an anion or cation may have the formula [ MH_mM′X]_nWhere M and n are each integers, M and M' are each an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_mComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The compound comprising an anion or cation may have the formulaWherein M and n are each an integer, M and M 'are each an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cation, X and X' are anions having a single or two negative charges, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_mComprising at least one hydrogen species having an increased binding energy. The anion may comprise one of the anions of the present invention. Suitable exemplary anions having a single negative charge are halide, hydroxide, bicarbonate or nitrate. Suitable exemplary anions having two negative charges are carbonate, oxide or sulfate.

In one embodiment, the hydrogen compound or mixture of increased binding energies comprises at least one lower energy hydrogen species, such as hydrino atoms, hydrino anions, and dichotomous hydrogen molecules, embedded in a crystal lattice (e.g., a crystalline lattice), such as a metal or ion lattice. In one embodiment, the crystal lattice is not reactive with lower energy hydrogen species. The matrix may be aprotic, for example in the case of embedded hydridoanions. The compound or mixture may comprise H (1/p), H embedded in a salt lattice (e.g. an alkali or alkaline earth metal salt, e.g. a halide)₂(1/p) and H^-At least one of (1/p). Exemplary alkali metal halides are KCl and KI. Other suitable salt lattices include those of the present invention. Lower energy hydrogen species may be formed by catalyzing hydrogen with an aprotic catalyst (e.g., the catalyst in table 1).

The compounds of the invention are preferably more than 0.1 atomic% pure. More preferably, the compound is greater than 1 atomic% pure. Even more preferably, the compound is more than 10 atomic% pure. Most preferably, the compound is greater than 50 atomic% pure. In another embodiment, the compound is greater than 90 atomic% pure. In another embodiment, the compound is greater than 95 atomic% pure.

In another embodiment of the chemical reactor for forming hydrinos, the battery for forming hydrinos and releasing power (e.g., thermal energy) comprises a combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, rocket engine, or gas turbine. The reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen to produce a catalyst and hydrino. The catalyst source may be at least one of a hydrogen-containing species and an oxygen-containing species. The species or other reaction product may be at least one of a species comprising at least one of O and H, such as H₂、H、H⁺、O₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O₂ ^-、Andthe catalyst may comprise oxygen or hydrogen species, e.g. H₂And O. In another embodiment, the catalyst comprises nH, nO (n ═ integer), O₂OH and H₂At least one of O catalysts. The hydrogen source (e.g., a source of hydrogen atoms) may comprise a hydrogen-containing fuel, such as H₂A gas or a hydrocarbon. The hydrogen atoms may be generated by hydrocarbon pyrolysis during combustion of the hydrocarbon. The reaction mixture may further comprise a hydrogen dissociating agent, such as the hydrogen dissociating agent of the present invention. The H atom may also be formed by dissociation of hydrogen. The source of O may further comprise O from air₂. The reactant may further comprise H which may serve as a source of at least one of H and O₂And O. In one embodiment, water serves as an additional source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen, which may pass through H in the cell₂Pyrolysis of O. Water can be thermally or catalytically dissociated into hydrogen atoms on a surface (e.g., a cylinder or piston head). The surface may comprise a material that dissociates water into hydrogen and oxygen. The water-dissociating material may comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of: transition elements or internal transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated carbon (carbon) or Cs intercalated carbon (graphite). H and O can react to form a catalyst and H to form hydrinos. The hydrogen and oxygen sources may be introduced via respective interfaces or inlets (e.g., inlet valves or manifolds). The product can be discharged via a discharge or outlet. The flow rate may be controlled by controlling the inlet and outlet rates via the respective interfaces.

In one embodiment, the hydrino is formed by heating a catalyst source and a hydrogen source (e.g., the solid fuel of the present invention). The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and impingement heating. According to the experiment, Raman lightThe spectra demonstrate the formation of hydrinos by ball milling a solid fuel, such as a mixture of hydroxide and halide, for example a mixture including an alkali metal (e.g., Li). For example, from ball-milled LiOH + LiI and LiOH + LiF at 2308cm^-1A peak of inverse raman effect was observed. Thus, suitable exemplary mixtures are LiOH + LiI or LiF. In one embodiment, at least one of thermal heating and impingement heating is achieved by an explosion. In this case, other high energy reactions are provided by the formation of hydrinos.

In one embodiment, H₂(1/p) can be used as a paramagnetic contrast agent for MRI because the quantum number 1 is non-zero.

non-zero quantum number 1 permission H of rotation selection rule with tolerance value Δ J equal to 0 and +1₂(1/p) molecular laser.

In one embodiment, the factor H₂(1/p) is paramagnetic, so it has a higher H₂The liquefaction temperature of (a). The bulk phase fraction hydrogen gas can be collected by cryogenic separation processes.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a rocket propellant. High current induced ignition produces a rapidly expanding plasma, which can provide thrust. Another aspect of the invention is a propeller comprising a closed cell in addition to a nozzle for directing expanding plasma to provide thrust. In another embodiment, the thruster comprises a magnetic bottle or other similar plasma confinement and guiding magnetic field system known to those skilled in the art that causes the plasma to flow in a guided manner from an electrode that provides the ignition high current. In another embodiment, the highly ionized plasma may be used to provide thrust with ion motors and ion thrusters known to those skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, a high energy plasma from an ignited solid fuel is used to process the material (e.g., at least one of plasma etching), stabilize the silicon surface by doping or coating with a stable hydrogen layer (e.g., a hydrogen layer containing hydrino species), and convert graphitic carbon to at least one of diamond-like carbon and diamond. The method and system for hydrino species doping or coating a surface (e.g. silicon) to cause stabilisation and conversion of carbon to diamond material according to the present invention is given in my prior publication: R.L.Mills, J.Sankar, A.Voigt, J.He, P.ray, B.Dhangapani, "Role of Atomic Hydrogen delivery and Energy in Low Power CVDSynthesis of Diamond Films", Thin Solid Films,478, (2005) 77-90; R.L.Mills, J.Sankar, A.Voigt, J.He, B.Dhandapani, "Spectroscopic Characterization of the atomic hydrogenes Energies and Densities and Carbon specificities During Helium-hydrogene-Methane Plasma CVD Synthesis of Diamond Films", Chemistry materials, Vol.15, (2003), pp.1313-1321; R.L.Mills, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "high hlystable organic Silicon Hydride from a Helium Plasma Reaction", materials chemistry and Physics,94/2-3, (2005), 298-307; R.L.Mills, B.Dhandapani, J.He, "high hly Stable organism Silicon Hydride", Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, Vol.80, (2003), pages 1-20; and r.l.mills, j.he, p.ray, b.dhandpani, x.chen, "synthesis and catalysis of organic Silicon Hydride as the product of a Catalytic Hydrogen Plasma Reaction", int.j.hydroenergy, vol.28, No. 12, (2003), pages 1401-1424, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

In one embodiment, a high energy plasma from the ignited solid fuel is used to form the inverse particle count. In one embodiment, the solid fuel plasma component of the system shown in fig. 3 and 4A and 4B is at least one of a pump source of laser light and a lasing medium of the laser light. Methods and systems for forming inverted populations to achieve lasing are given in my prior publications: R.L.Mills, P.ray, R.M.Mayo, "The functional for a hydrogenic Water-Plasma Laser", Applied Physics Letters, Vol.82, No. 11, (2003), pages 1679-1681 and R.L.Mills, P.ray, R.M.Mayo, "CW HI Laser Based on a State examination, into a polishing solution for a polishing Formed from incorporated synthesized polishing Hydrogen gases with a CertainGroup I Catalysts", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol.31, No. 2, (2003), pages 236-247; R.L.Mills, P.ray, R.M.Mayo, "CW HI Laser Based on a Stationaryimported Lyman Power Formed from incorporated hydrogenated Hydrogen gases with Certain Group I Catalysts", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol.31, No. 2, (2003), pp.236-247, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is reacted by heating. The reaction mixture may comprise a conductor and react on a highly conductive surface (e.g., a surface that does not oxidize during the reaction to become less conductive). Suitable surfaces, for example reactor surfaces, are noble metals, such as Au and Pt.

Solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell and energy converter

In one embodiment, a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy comprises: at least one container, reactants (comprising (a) at least one reactant comprising nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of a conductor and an electrically conductive substrate), and at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactants, a power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy, a heavy duty system, at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products, and at least one direct plasma-to-electricity converter and at least one thermal-to-electric energy converter. In another embodiment, the container is capable of withstanding at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressures. In one embodiment, the regeneration system may comprise at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter may comprise at least one of the group of: a plasma power energy converter, a direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter, a magnetomirror magnetohydrodynamic energy converter, a charge drift converter, a Post or Venetian Blind energy converter, a magnetic coil, a photon bunching microwave energy converter and a photoelectric converter. At another placeIn an embodiment, the at least one thermal-to-electrical converter may comprise at least one of the group of: heat engines, steam turbines and generators, gas turbines and generators, rankine cycle engines, brayton cycle engines, stirling engines, thermionic energy converters, and thermoelectric energy converters.

In one embodiment, H is ignited₂O forms hydrinos with high release energy in the form of at least one of thermal energy, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) energy. (in the present invention "ignition" means a very high reaction rate of H to hydrino, which may be manifested as a burst, pulse or other form of high energy release). H₂O may comprise a fuel that is ignitable upon application of a high current, such as a high current in the range of about 2000A to 100,000A. This can be achieved by first forming a highly conductive plasma (e.g., an arc) by applying a high voltage, e.g., 5,000 to 100,000V. Alternatively, a high current may be passed through the cell containing H₂O, wherein the conductivity of the resulting fuel (e.g., solid fuel) is high. (in the present invention, solid fuel or energetic material is used to refer to a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst such as HOH and H (which further reacts to form hydrinos.) however, the reaction mixture may contain other physical states besides solids. In one embodiment, the solid fuel having a very low electrical resistance comprises a fuel containing H₂O, a reaction mixture. The low resistance is attributable to the conductive component of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel is at least one of the following ranges: about 10^-9Omega to 100 omega, 10^-8Omega to 10 omega, 10^-3Omega to 1 omega, 10^-4Omega to 10^-1Omega and 10^-4Omega to 10^-2Omega. In another embodiment, the fuel having high electrical resistance comprises H containing trace or minor mole percent of an additive compound or material₂And O. In the latter case, a high current may be passed through the fuel to form by causing a breakdownA highly conductive state (e.g., an arc or arc plasma) to achieve ignition.

In one embodiment, the reactant may comprise H for forming at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix. In another embodiment, H is contained₂The O-derived reactant may comprise at least one of: bulk phase H₂O, removing phase H₂In a state other than O, reacted to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of O. In addition, bound H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interacting compounds, in which H₂H with O in absorption₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and water of hydration. In embodiments, the reactants may comprise a conductor and one or more carrier phases H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂A compound or material of at least one of O and release of hydrated water, and which has H₂O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, nascent H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may comprise at least one of: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one hydrogen source.

In other embodiments, the reactants used to form at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen comprise at least one of: h₂O and H₂A source of O; o is₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; and a conductive matrix. In certain embodiments, the oxyhydroxide compound can comprise a compound from the group consisting of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, and,At least one of the group of CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH and SmOOH: the oxide may comprise Cu from CuO₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO and Ni₂O₃At least one of the group of (a); the hydroxide may comprise a hydroxide derived from Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂At least one of the group of (a); the oxygen-containing compound may comprise a compound selected from the group consisting of sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, perchlorates, perbromates and periodates, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metal, e.g. alkali metal, e.g. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、CO₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth metal oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃Oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, feoooh, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the electrically conductive matrix comprises at least one from the group of metal powders, carbon, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides such as TiCN, or nitriles.

In embodiments, the reactants may comprise a metal, metal oxide thereof, and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored. In other embodiments, the reactants may comprise a metal, a metal halide, and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored. In other embodiments, the reactants may comprise a transition metal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored. In other embodiments, the reactants may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O. In one embodiment, the conductor may comprise metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored. In embodiments, the hygroscopic material may comprise lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, e.g. KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), etc., ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, and at least one of the group of concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizers, salts, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts. In some embodiments, the power system may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂O mixture of (metal/conductor), (hygroscopic material), (H)₂O) in a relative molar amount range of at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). In some embodiments, with H₂The metal in which O has a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction may be at least one of the following groups: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb,Bi. Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In other embodiments, the reactant may be prepared by the addition of H₂And O is regenerated.

In other embodiments, the reactants may comprise a metal, metal oxide thereof, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal oxides are capable of H at temperatures below 1000 ℃₂And (4) reducing. In other embodiments, the reactants may comprise a mixture of: at H₂And oxides that are not readily reduced under mild heat; having the ability to be heated at temperatures below 1000 ℃ by H₂A metal reduced to an oxide of the metal; and H₂And O. In an embodiment, the catalyst has a temperature range of less than 1000 ℃ from H₂The metal reduced to the oxide of the metal may be at least one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In an embodiment, at H₂And the metal oxide which is not easily reduced under the slight heat contains at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth metal oxide and a rare earth metal oxide.

In embodiments, the solid fuel may comprise carbon or activated carbon and H₂O, wherein the mixture is prepared by adding H₂O is rehydrated and regenerated. In other embodiments, the reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a complex, and a compound. In embodiments, the current of the power source used to deliver the short pulse high current power is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactants to react at an extremely high rate to form hydrino. In an embodiment, a power source for delivering short-pulse high-current power includes at least one of: a voltage selected to cause high AC, DC or AC-DC mixing with a current in at least one of the ranges 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA; at 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²At least one ofDC or peak AC current density in the range of n; the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, wherein the voltage is derived from the current required multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample; the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV, and the AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kH. In an embodiment, the electrical resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001M Ω to 100M Ω, 0.1 Ω to 1M Ω, and 10 Ω to 1k Ω, and the conductivity of a suitable load per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from: about 10^-10Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^- ¹cm^-2、10^-5Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-4Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁵Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-3Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁴Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-2Ω^-1cm^-2To 10³Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-1Ω^-1cm^-2To 10²Ω^-1cm^-2And 1 Ω^-1cm^-2To 10 omega^-1cm^-2。

In one embodiment, the solid fuel is electrically conductive. In an embodiment, the electrical resistance of a portion, pellet, or aliquot of the solid fuel is at least one of within the following ranges: about 10^-9Omega to 100 omega, 10^-8Omega to 10 omega, 10^-3Omega to 1 omega, 10^-3Omega to 10^-1Omega and 10^-3Omega to 10^-2Omega. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. The hydrino catalytic reaction, such as a high energy hydrino catalytic reaction, may be initiated by passing a low pressure high current through the conductive fuel. The energy release may be high and a shock wave may be formed. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a current (e.g., at 10) to cause ignitionHigh current in the range of at least one of 0A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA). The current density may be in the range of at least one of: 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²The fuel may comprise pellets, such as pressed pellets. The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1 to 100kV, 0.1 to 1kV, 0.1 to 100V, and 0.1 to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^-6s to 10s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s and 10^-3s to 0.01 s. In another embodiment, at least one of a high magnetic field or flux Φ or a high rate of magnetic field change detonates the hydrino reaction. The magnetic flux may range from about 10G to 10T, 100G to 5T, or 1kG to 1T.May be a flux corresponding to 10G to 10T, 100G to 5T, or 1kG to 1T varying at a frequency in the range 1Hz to 100kHz, 10Hz to 10kHz, 10Hz to 1000Hz, or 10Hz to 100 Hz.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may comprise H₂Source of O or H₂O。H₂The O mole% content may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture with a current in at least one of the ranges 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of: 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm². In one embodiment, the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material. The electrical resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001M Ω to 100M Ω, 0.1 Ω to 1M Ω, and 10 Ω to 1k Ω. The conductivity of a suitable load per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 10^-10Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-5Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-4Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁵Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-3Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁴Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-2Ω^-1cm^-2To 10³Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-1Ω^-1cm^-2To 10²Ω^-1cm^-2And 1 Ω^-1cm^-2To 10 omega^-1cm^-2. In one embodiment, the voltage is derived from the current required times the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample. In the exemplary case, the resistance is about 1m Ω and the voltage is low, e.g.<10V. Substantially pure H in which the resistance is substantially infinite₂In the exemplary case of O, the applied voltage to achieve a high current for ignition is high, e.g., higher than H₂The breakdown voltage of O is, for example, about 5kV or more. In embodiments, the DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1 to 500kV, 0.1 to 100kV, and 1 to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. In one embodiment, the DC voltage discharge produces H containing ions₂O plasma, where the current is underdamped and oscillates as it decays.

In one embodiment, the high current pulses are achieved using a discharge of capacitors (e.g., supercapacitors) that can be connected in at least one of series and parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current, where the current can be DC or regulated using circuit elements known to those skilled in the art, such as transformers (e.g., low voltage transformers). The capacitor may be charged by a power source (e.g., a power grid, a generator, a fuel cell, or a battery pack). In one embodiment, the battery supplies current. In one embodiment, suitable frequency, voltage and current waveforms may be achieved by dynamically adjusting the output of a capacitor or battery pack. In one embodiment, one exemplary circuit for achieving 500A Current pulses at 900V is described in v.v. nesterov, a.r. donaldson, "High Current High Accuracy IGBT Pulse Generator", 1996 IEEE, pages 1251-1253, https: web, heart, ch, AccelConf/p95/art circuits/WAA 11 pdf, and one circuit that achieves 25kA is given in p.pribyl, w.gekelman, "24 kA solid state switch for plasma discharge experiments", Review of Scientific Instruments, volume 75, No. 3, month 2004, pages 669-673, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, where the voltage divider increases current and decreases voltage.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a conductor or an electrically conductive matrix or support, such as a metal, carbon or carbide, and H₂O or H₂Sources of O, e.g. reactive to form H₂O and releasably bound H₂One or more compounds of O, such as those of the present invention. The solid fuel may comprise H₂O, and H₂O-interacting compounds or materials and conductors. H₂O may be in bulk phase H₂States other than O, e.g. absorbed or bound H₂O (e.g. physisorbed H)₂O or water of hydration). Or, H₂O may be in bulk phase H₂The O form is present in a mixture which is or becomes highly conductive by application of a suitable voltage. The solid fuel may comprise H₂O and materials or compounds that provide high conductivity (e.g., metal powders or carbon) and materials or compounds (e.g., oxides, such as metal oxides) that promote the formation of H and possibly HOH catalysts. An exemplary solid fuel may comprise R-Ni alone, and R-Ni and additives such as transition metals and AlAdditives, in which R-Ni is formed by hydrating Al₂O₃And Al (OH)₃Decomposed to release H and HOH. One suitable exemplary solid fuel comprises at least one oxyhydroxide, such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and an electrically conductive matrix, such as at least one of a metal powder and carbon powder, and optionally H₂And O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one hydroxide, such as a transition metal hydroxide (e.g., Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₂And Ni (OH)₂At least one of), aluminum hydroxide (e.g., Al (OH)₃) A conductor (e.g., at least one of carbon powder and metal powder), and optionally H₂And O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one oxide, such as at least one of the transition metal oxides (e.g., CuO, Cu)₂O、NiO、Ni₂O₃FeO and Fe₂O₃At least one of), a conductor (e.g., at least one of carbon powder and metal powder), and H₂And O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one halide, such as a metal halide (e.g. an alkaline earth metal halide, such as MgCl)₂) A conductor (e.g. at least one of carbon powder and metal powder (e.g. Co or Fe)), and H₂And O. The solid fuel may comprise a mixture of solid fuels, for example comprising at least two of a hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide, an oxide, and a halide (e.g., a metal halide) and at least one conductor or electrically conductive matrix and H₂O, solid fuel. The conductor may comprise at least one of: a metal screen coated with one or more other components of the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel, R-Ni, metal powders (e.g., transition metal powders), Ni or Co porous bodies, carbon or carbides, or other conductive or conductive supports or conductive matrices known to those skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises carbon, such as activated carbon and H₂And O. In the case where the ignition for forming the plasma takes place under vacuum or inert atmosphere, the carbon condensed from the plasma can be rehydrated after the plasma-electricity generationTo reform solids in the regeneration cycle. The solid fuel may comprise at least one of the following mixtures: acidic, basic or neutral H₂O and at least one of activated carbon, charcoal, cork charcoal, steam and hydrogen treated carbon, and metal powder. In one embodiment, the metal of the carbon-metal mixture is at least partially reacted with H₂O does not react. For and H₂Suitable metals for which the reaction of O is at least partially stable are at least one of the following groups: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. The mixture may be prepared by including H₂And re-hydration of the O addition.

In one embodiment, the essential required reactants are a source of H, a source of O, and a good conductor matrix to allow high current to penetrate the material during ignition. The solid fuel or energetic material may be contained in a sealed container (e.g., a sealed metal container, such as a sealed aluminum container). The solid fuel or energetic material may be reacted by a low voltage high current pulse, such as that produced by a spot welder, for example by a pulse of short pulse of low voltage high current electrical energy confined between two copper electrodes of a ND-24-75 spot welder of the taylor-winfeld type. The 60Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20V RMS and the current may be about 10,000 to 40,000A/cm²。

Exemplary high energy materials and conditions are at least one of: TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, Ni₂O₃·H₂O、La₂O₃·H₂O and Na₂SO₄·H₂O, coated as a slurry onto a Ni mesh screen and dried, then subjected to electrical pulses of about 60Hz, 8V RMS, and to 40,000A/cm 2.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise cations capable of multiple stable oxidation states as oxygen-containing compounds, for example compounds comprising at least one of Mo, Ni, Co and Fe, wherein the cations are capable of multiple stable oxidation statesFor example in the case of Ni, Co and Fe 2⁺And 3⁺Oxidation state, and 2 in the case of Mo⁺、3⁺、4⁺、5⁺And 6⁺Oxidation state. These states may exist as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, oxides, and halides. The change in oxidation state can facilitate the propagation of the hydrino reaction by ionizing the HOH catalyst during the reaction in which the cation undergoes reduction, eliminating self-limiting charge accumulation.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H₂O and for the formation of nascent H₂O and H, dispersing and dissociating agents. Suitable exemplary dispersing and dissociating agents are halides, e.g., metal halides, e.g., transition metal halides, e.g., bromides, e.g., FeBr₂(ii) a Hydrate-forming compounds, e.g. CuBr₂(ii) a And compounds such as oxides and halides of metals capable of multiple oxidation states. Other containing oxides, oxyhydroxides or hydroxides, e.g. of transition elements, e.g. CoO, Co₂O₃、CO₃O₄、CoOOH、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃、NiOOH、Ni(OH)₂、FeO、Fe₂O₃、FeOOH、Fe(OH)₃、CuO、Cu₂O, CuOOH and Cu (OH)₂. In other embodiments, the transition metal is replaced by another metal such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, as well as group 13 and 14 metals. A suitable example is La₂O₃、CeO₂And LaX₃(X ═ halide). In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H in the form of a hydrate of an inorganic compound (e.g., an oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or halide)₂And O. Other suitable hydrates are metal compounds of the invention, for example at least one of the following groups: sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, hypochlorites, chlorites, perchlorates, hypobromites, bromitesBromates, perchlorates, hypoiodites, iodites, iodates, periodates, hydrogen sulfates, hydrogen phosphates or dihydrogen phosphates, other metal compounds having oxyanions, and metal halides. The molar ratio of dispersant, e.g., metal oxide or halide, and dissociating agent is any desired molar ratio that causes an ignition event. Suitably the molar ratio of at least one compound H₂O moles in at least one of the range of about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, wherein the ratio is defined as (moles of compound/H)₂Mole number of O). The solid fuel or energetic material may further comprise a conductor or conductive matrix, such as at least one of the following: metal powders (e.g., transition metal powders), Ni or Co porous bodies, carbon powders or carbides, or other conductors or conductive supports or conductive matrices known to those skilled in the art. Comprising at least one compound and H₂Suitable ratios of moles of hydrated compound of O to moles of conductor are in at least one range of about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is defined as (moles of hydrated compound/moles of conductor).

In one embodiment, the reactants are reacted by the addition of H₂O is regenerated from the product. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H₂O and a low voltage high current suitable for the present invention flows through the hydrated material to cause ignition of the conductive matrix. The electrically conductive matrix may be at least one of: metal surfaces, metal powders, carbon powder, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides (e.g., TiCN), nitriles, the present invention, or other electrically conductive substrates known to those skilled in the art. Addition of H₂O forming or regenerating solid fuel or energetic material from the product may be continuous or intermittent.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise an electrically conductive matrix, an oxide (e.g. a mixture of a metal and a corresponding metal oxide, such as a transition metal and at least one oxide thereof, e.g. one selected from Fe, Cu, Ni or Co) and H₂A mixture of O. H₂O may be in the form of a hydrated oxide. In other embodiments, the metal/metal oxide reactant comprises a compound with H₂O is low in reactivity and corresponds to a metal whose oxide can be easily reduced to a metal, or a metal which is not oxidized during the hydrino reaction. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals for O-reactivity are one selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. The metal may be converted to an oxide during this reaction. The oxide products corresponding to the metal reactants can be regenerated to the original metal by hydrogen reduction using systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. The hydrogen reduction may be carried out at elevated temperatures. Hydrogen can pass through H₂And (4) supplying O through electrolysis. In another embodiment, the metal is regenerated from the oxide by carbon reduction, reduction with a reducing agent (e.g., a more oxygen-active metal), or by electrolysis (e.g., electrolysis in a molten salt). Formation of the metal from the oxide can be accomplished by systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. Metal to metal oxide ratio H₂The molar amount of O is any desired molar amount that causes ignition when subjected to a low voltage high current electrical pulse as given in the present invention. (Metal), (Metal oxide), (H)₂Suitable ranges for the relative molar amounts of O) are at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise an electrically conductive matrix, a halide (e.g., a mixture of a first metal and a corresponding first metal halide or second metal halide), and H₂A mixture of O. H₂O may be in the form of a hydrated halide. The second metal halide mayMore stable than the first metal halide. In one embodiment, the first metal is mixed with H₂O is low in reactivity, corresponding to the oxide being readily capable of reduction to the metal, or the metal not being oxidized during the hydrino reaction. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals of O reactivity are one selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. Metal to metal halide ratio H₂The molar amount of O is any desired molar amount that causes ignition when subjected to the low voltage, high current electrical pulses given in the present invention. (metal), (metal halide), (H)₂Suitable ranges for the relative molar amounts of O) are at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a conductor (e.g., a conductor of the present invention, such as a metal or carbon), a hygroscopic material, and H₂And O. Suitable exemplary hygroscopic materials are lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, e.g. KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), etc., ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, as well as concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulosic fibers (e.g., cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizers, salts (including common salt), and a variety of other substances known to those skilled in the art, as well as desiccants, such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (typically zeolites) or deliquescent materials, such as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art.(metal), (moisture-absorbing material), (H)₂Suitable ranges for the relative molar amounts of O) are at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In one exemplary high energy material, 0.05ml (50mg) of H is added₂O addition to 20mg CO₃O₄Or CuO, sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30 μ l, D: 6.7x3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6,7, stamped, unsealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) and ignited with a current between 15,000 and 25,000A at about 8V RMS using a taylor-winfeld ND-24-75 type spot welder. Large energy pulses were observed which vaporized the sample, each in the form of a high energy, highly ionized, expanding plasma. Another exemplary solid fuel that ignites in the same manner and yields similar results comprises Cu (42.6mg) + CuO (14.2mg) + H₂O (16.3mg), sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (71.1mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μ l, D: 6.7x3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6,7, stamped, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB 37409)).

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises nascent H₂A source of O catalyst and a source of H. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is electrically conductive or comprises an electrically conductive matrix material to regenerate H₂The mixture of the source of O catalyst and the source of H is electrically conductive. Newborn H₂The source of at least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of H is a compound or mixture of compounds and materials comprising at least O and H. The compound or material comprising O may be at least one of: oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides, e.g. of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals and group 13 and 14 metal oxidesOxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides. The oxygen-containing compound or material may be a sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate and periodate, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metal, e.g. alkali metal, e.g. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃Rare earth metal oxides (e.g., CeO)₂Or La₂O₃) Oxyhydroxides (e.g., TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH). An exemplary source of H is H₂O, H with binding or absorption₂A compound of O (e.g., a hydrate, a hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide or hydrogen sulfate, a hydrogen phosphate or a dihydrogen phosphate) and a hydrocarbon. The electrically conductive matrix material may be at least one of: metal powder, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitride (e.g., TiCN) or nitrile. The conductor of the present invention may be in different physical forms in different embodiments, such as blocks, particles, powders, nanopowders and other forms known to those skilled in the art to render conductive a solid fuel or energetic material comprising a mixture with a conductor.

Exemplary solid fuels or energetic materials include H₂In O and conductive matrixAt least one of them. In one exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂O and a metal conductor, such as a transition metal, e.g., Fe, in the form of, e.g., Fe metal powder conductor and Fe compound (e.g., iron hydroxide, iron oxide, iron oxy (hydroxide) oxide, and iron halide), the latter of which can replace H₂O as acting as H₂A hydrate derived from O. Other metals may be substituted for Fe in any of its physical forms, such as metals and compounds and states such as blocks, flakes, sieves, meshes, wires, particles, powders, nanopowders and solids, liquids and gases. The conductor may comprise carbon in one or more physical forms, such as at least one of: bulk carbon, granular carbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, graphene, KOH activated carbon or nanotubes, carbide derived carbon, carbon cloth, and fullerenes. An exemplary suitable solid fuel or energetic material is CuBr₂+H₂An O + conductive matrix; cu (OH)₂+FeBr₂+ an electrically conductive matrix material, such as carbon or metal powder; FeOOH + conductive matrix materials, such as carbon or metal powders; cu (OH) Br + conductive matrix materials, such as carbon or metal powders; AlOOH or Al (OH)₃+ Al powder to which H is added₂Supplied to the reaction to pass Al and Al from AlOOH or Al (OH)₃Decomposition of H formed₂Reaction of O to form hydrinos; h₂O neutralization of H in vapor activatable conductive nanoparticles (e.g., carbon nanotubes and fullerenes)₂O in metallated zeolites, where dispersants may be used to wet hydrophobic materials (e.g., carbon); NH (NH)₄NO₃+H₂O + NiAl alloy powder; LiNH₂+LiNO₃+ Ti powder; LiNH₂+LiNO₃+Pt/Ti；LiNH₂+NH₄NO₃+ Ti powder; BH₃NH₃+NH₄NO₃；BH₃NH₃+CO₂、SO₂、NO₂And nitrates, carbonates, sulfates; LiH + NH₄NO₃+ a transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH (NH)₄NO₃+ a transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH (NH)₄NO₃+R-Ni；P₂O₅With the hydroxide, LiNO of the invention₃、LiClO₄And S₂O₈Each + conductive matrix; and H sources, such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, hydrogen storage materials (e.g., one or more of the hydrogen storage materials of the present invention), diesel, and oxygen sources, which may also be electron acceptors, such as P₂O₅And other anhydrides, e.g. CO₂、SO₂Or NO₂。

The hydrino-forming solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one highly reactive or energetic material, such as NH₄NO₃Trinitronell, RDX, PETN, and other highly reactive or energetic materials of the present invention. The solid fuel or energetic material may further comprise at least one of: conductors, electrically conductive substrates or electrically conductive materials, e.g. metal powders, carbon powders, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides (e.g. TiCN) or nitriles, hydrocarbons (e.g. diesel), oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, oxides and H₂And O. In one exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a highly reactive or energetic material, such as NH₄NO₃Tricot, RDX and PETN, and a conductive substrate, such as at least one of a metal powder (e.g., Al or transition metal powder) and a carbon powder. Solid fuels or energetic materials can react with high currents as given in the present invention. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material further comprises a sensitizer, such as glass microspheres.

The energetic material may be a source of hydric gas collection.

In one embodiment, the ignition of the solid fuel produces at least one of an expanding gas, an at least partially ionizable expanding suspension, and an expanding plasma. It may be expanded to a vacuum. In one embodiment, the gas, suspension or plasma, which may be expanded to a vacuum, for example, produces nanoparticles upon cooling of at least one of the gas, suspension or plasma. Nanoparticles, a new material, have unique applications in fields such as electronics, medicine and surface coatings.

A. Plasma energy converter (PDC)

The mass of the positively charged ions of the plasma is at least 1800 times that of the electrons; thus, the convoluted track is 1800 times larger. This result allows electrons to be magnetically trapped on the magnetic field lines, while ions can drift. Charge separation may occur to provide a voltage to the plasma energy converter.

B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter

Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions in a transverse magnetic field is well known in the art as Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) energy conversion. The positive and negative ions are lorentz oriented in opposite directions and received on respective MHD electrodes to affect a voltage therebetween. A typical MHD method of forming an ion mass stream is to expand a high pressure gas seeded with ions via a nozzle to produce a high velocity fluid through a crossed magnetic field, where a set of MHD electrodes are crossed relative to a deflection field to receive deflected ions. In the present invention, the pressure is typically, but not necessarily, in excess of atmospheric pressure, and directed mass flow can be achieved by reaction of the solid fuel to form a highly ionized radially expanding plasma.

C. An electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converter, direct converter

Guided central drift of charged particles in magnetic and crossed fields can be used to separate and collect particles that are spatially separatedThe charge on the electrodes. Plasma expansion may not be necessary because the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to the guiding field. IdealizedThe efficiency of the converter depends on the difference in inertia between the ions and the electrons, which is the charge separation and the relative cross-fieldRelative direction of directionThe electrodes generate the root cause of the voltage.Drift collection may also be used independently or withCollecting and combining for use.

D. Charge drift converter

Direct energy converters described by timofev and gladolev [ a.v. timofev, "a scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy internal electrical energy", sov.j. plasma phys, vol.4, No. 4, No. 7 months-august, (1978), p.464-468; glagoev, and a.v.timofeev, "Direct Conversion of thermal internal electrical energy adrakon system", Plasma phys. rep., vol 19, phase 12, month 12 (1993), pages 745-749 ] relies on charge injection to drift separated positive ions, thereby extracting power from the Plasma. The charge drift converter includes a magnetic field gradient in a direction transverse to the direction of the source of magnetic flux B and the source of magnetic flux B having a curvature of the field lines. In both cases, the drifting negatively charged and positively charged ions move in opposite directions perpendicular to the plane formed by B and the magnetic field gradient direction, or B has a plane of curvature. In each case, the separated ions generate a voltage across opposing capacitors parallel to the plane, with a reduction in the thermal energy of the ions. Electrons are received on one charge drift converter electrode and positive ions are received on the other. Because ion mobility is much smaller than electrons, electron injection can be done directly or by evaporating it from the heated charge drift converter electrode. The power loss is small, and the power balance has no excessive cost.

E. Magnetic confinement

The explosion or ignition event is believed to be when the H-catalyzed formation of hydrinos accelerates to a very high rate. At one endIn one embodiment, the plasma generated by the explosion or ignition event is an expanding plasma. In this case, magnetic field hydrodynamics (MHD) is a suitable switching system and method. Alternatively, in one embodiment, the plasma is confined. In this case, the conversion may be by a plasma energy converter, a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter, an electromagnetic direct (crossed field or drift) converter, a,At least one of a direct converter and a charge drift converter. In this case, the power generation system further comprises a plasma confinement system in addition to the SF-CIHT cell and the rest of the plant comprising ignition, overloading, regeneration, fuel treatment and plasma-electric energy conversion systems. Confinement may be achieved with a magnetic field, such as a solenoid magnetic field. The magnets may comprise at least one of permanent magnets and electromagnets, such as at least one of uncooled magnets, water cooled magnets, and superconducting magnets with corresponding cryogenic management systems comprising at least one of: liquid helium dewar, liquid nitrogen dewar, radiant barrier which may contain copper, high vacuum insulation, radiant hood, and cryogenic pump and compressor which may be powered by the power output of a hydrino-based power generator. The magnet may be an open coil, such as a helmholtz coil. The plasma may be further confined in the magnet bottle and by other systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

Two or more magnetic mirrors may form a magnetic bottle to confine the plasma formed by H-catalyzed formation of hydrinos. The theory of constraints is set forth in my prior applications, such as Microwave Power cell, Chemical Reactor, And Add Power Converter, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, PCT/US02/06955 (short edition) in the 3/7/02 application, PCT/US02/06945 (long edition) in the 3/7/02 application, And U.S. Pat. No. 10/469,913 in the 9/5/03 application. Ions generated in the central region in the vial will orbit along the axis, but will be reflected by the magnetic mirrors at each end. The more energetic ions with a high velocity component parallel to the desired axis will escape at the end of the vial. Thus, in one embodiment, the bottle can generate a substantially linear ion flow from the end of the magnetic bottle to the magnetofluidic energy converter. Because electrons may be preferentially confined due to their lower mass relative to positive ions, a voltage is formed in the plasma-dynamic embodiment of the present invention. The motive force flows between an anode in contact with the confined electrons and a cathode (e.g., the containment vessel wall) that collects the positive ions. Power may be dissipated in the external load.

F. Solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell

The chemical reactants of the present invention may be referred to as solid fuels or energetic materials or both. When conditions are established and maintained that cause very high reaction kinetics to form hydrinos, the solid fuel may behave and thus comprise an energetic material. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In one embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the hydrino-forming reactants are subjected to a low pressure, high current, high pulse, resulting in a very fast reaction rate and energy release. The velocity may be sufficient to generate a shock wave. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60Hz voltage is less than 15V peak and the current is at 10,000A/cm²And 50,000A/cm²Peak value and power of 150,000W/cm²And 750,000W/cm²In the meantime. Other frequencies, voltages, currents and powers in the range of about 1/100 to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC or AC-DC mixture with a current in at least one of the following ranges: 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of: 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm². The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1 to 1000V, 0.1 to 100V, 0.1 to 15V and 1 to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting ofInternal: about 10^-6s to 10s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s and 10^-3s to 0.01 s.

The plasma power formed from the hydrinos can be converted directly into electricity. During the H catalytic component, hydrogen, electrons are ionized from the HOH catalyst by the energy transferred from the H catalytically forming the HOH. These electrons can be conducted in an external high circuit current to prevent the catalytic reaction from self-limiting due to charge accumulation. The explosion results from rapid kinetics, which in turn causes large-scale electron ionization. The high velocity expansion of an explosive solid fuel containing substantially 100% ionized plasma radially outward in a high ambient magnetic field caused by an applied current causes magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion. The voltage magnitude increases in the direction of the applied polarity, since this is the lorentz deflection direction caused by the current direction and the corresponding magnetic field vector and radial flow direction. In one embodiment using magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion, the applied high current is DC, such that the corresponding magnetic field is DC. The space charge electric field in the expanding plasma and the high magnetic field from the applied current may also containA direct converter that induces a generated DC voltage and current, wherein the applied high current is DC in one embodiment. In addition, the high magnetic field produced by the high current traps orders of magnitude lighter electrons on the magnetic field lines, while the heavy positive ions drift so that if there is an electrode bias in this effect, a plasma-dynamic voltage can be generated between the electrodes. In other embodiments, at least one dedicated plasma-to-electric converter is used, such as MHD, PDC andat least one of the direct converters converts plasma power from the ignition of the solid fuel into electrical power. Details of these and other Plasma-to-electric energy converters are given in my prior publications, such as r.m.mayo, r.l.mills, m.nanstead, "Direct Plasma Conversion of Plasma Thermal power electric", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, month 10,(2002) volume 30, stage 5, pages 2066-2073; R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "On the positional of Direct and MHD Conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source to electric for micro distributed Power Applications", IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science, month 8, (2002), Vol.30, No. 4, pages 1568-1578; M.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, "Direct Plasma adynamicConversion of Plasma Thermal Power to electric for micro distributed Power applications", 40th annular Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, NJ,6 months 10-13, (2002), pages 1-4 ("Mills first Plasma energy conversion publication") (which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), And my prior applications, such as, for example, Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Add Power converter, PCT/US02/06955 (short version) in the 3/7/02 application, PCT/US02/06945 (long version) in the 3/7/02 application, And US 10/469,913 in the 9/5/03 application; plasmid Reactor And Process For producing Low-Energy Hydrogen specifices, PCT/US04/010608 in 4/8/04, US/10/552,585 in 10/12/15; and Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for sizing, and Powerconversion, PCT/US02/35872 of the 11/8/02 application, US/10/494,571 of the 5/6/04 application ("Mills Plasma energy conversion publications") (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

The plasma energy converted into electricity can be dissipated in an external circuit. As demonstrated by calculations and experiments in the Mills prior plasma energy conversion publication, over 50% conversion of plasma energy to electricity can be achieved. Heat as well as plasma was generated by each SF-CIHT cell. The heat may be used directly or converted into mechanical or electrical power using converters known to those skilled in the art, such as heat engines, e.g. steam or gas turbines and generators, rankine or brayton cycle engines or stirling engines. For power conversion, each SF CIHT cell may be interfaced with any of the thermal or plasma-mechanical or electrical power converters described in the Mills prior publications, as well as converters known to those skilled in the art (heat, steam or gas turbine systems, stirling engines or thermionic or thermoelectric converters). Other plasmaThe daughter converter comprises at least one of the following converters disclosed in the Mills prior publications: a plasma power energy converter,Direct converters, magnetohydrodynamic energy converters, magnetomirror magnetohydrodynamic energy converters, charge drift converters, Post or vennetian Blind energy converters, magnetic coils, photon bunching microwave energy converters and photoelectric converters. In one embodiment, the battery comprises at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine as set forth in Mills prior thermal energy conversion publications, Mills prior plasma energy conversion publications, and Mills prior applications.

The solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell generator shown in fig. 3 comprises at least one SF-CIHT cell 1 having a structural support frame 1a, each SF-CIHT cell having at least two electrodes 2 bounding a sample, pellet, portion or aliquot of solid fuel 3 and a power source 4 for delivering short pulses of low voltage high current electrical energy through the fuel 3. The current ignites the fuel to release energy by forming hydrinos. The power is in the form of thermal energy and a highly ionized plasma of the fuel 3 that can be directly converted into electricity. (herein "ignition or explosion formation" refers to the establishment of high hydrino reaction kinetics due to the high current applied to the fuel). Exemplary power sources are Taylor-Winfield type ND-24-75 spot welders and EM test type CSS 500N10 surge current generators 8/20US of up to 10 KA. In one embodiment, the power source 4 is DC and the plasma-to-electric energy converter is adapted to a DC magnetic field. Suitable converters for operation in a DC magnetic field are magnetohydrodynamic, plasma-dynamic andan energy converter. In one embodiment, the magnetic field may be provided by the current of power source 4 of fig. 3 and 4A and 4B, which may flow through additional electromagnets and solid fuel pellets 3 (fig. 3 and 4A and 4B). In one embodiment of the PDC plasma-to-electric converter, the radial magnetic field induced by the current of the electrode 2 can magnetize at least one PDC electrode,the PDC electrode shape follows the contour of the magnetic field lines. At least one PDC electrode perpendicular to the radial magnetic field lines comprises an unmagnetized PDC electrode. A voltage is generated between the at least one magnetized PDC electrode and one unmagnetized PDC electrode of the PDC converter.

In one embodiment, the power source 4 is capable of supplying or receiving a high current, such as the high currents given in the present invention, wherein by receiving the current, self-limiting charge accumulation from the hydrino reaction may be improved. The current source and sink may be transformer circuits, LC circuits, RLC circuits, capacitors, supercapacitors, inductors, battery packs and other low impedance or low resistance circuits or circuit elements and power storage elements or devices known to those skilled in the art as to how to generate and accept a large current, which may be in the form of at least one surge or pulse. In another embodiment shown in fig. 4B, the ignition power supply 4, which may also serve as a starting power supply, comprises at least one capacitor, e.g. a set of low voltage high capacitance capacitors supplying the low voltage high current required to achieve ignition. The capacitor circuit can be designed to avoid ringing or ringing during discharge, thereby extending capacitor life. The lifetime may be longer, for example in the range of about 1 to 20 years.

In one embodiment, the geometric area of the electrode is the same as or larger than the solid fuel area to provide a high current density to the entire sample to be ignited. In one embodiment, the electrode is carbon to avoid loss of conductivity due to oxidation on the surface. In another embodiment, ignition of the solid fuel occurs in a vacuum so that the electrodes do not oxidize. The electrode may be at least one electrode that is continuously or intermittently regenerated with metal from the constituents of the solid fuel 3. The solid fuel may contain metal in the form of electrode 2 material (e.g., metal) that melts during ignition such that some adheres, fuses, welds, or alloys to the surface to replace corrosion or wear during operation. The SF-CIHT battery generator may further comprise means for restoring the shape of the electrodes, for example the teeth of the gear wheel 2 a. The member may comprise at least one of a casting mold, a grinder, and a mill.

The power system further includes a transport heavy-duty mechanical system 5 to remove spent fuel products and a heavy-duty electrode 2 to restrain another solid fuel pellet for ignition. In one embodiment, the fuel 3 comprises a continuous strip that ignites only when current is flowing. Next, in the present invention, solid fuel pellets 3 generally means a part of a solid fuel strip. The electrode 2 can be opened and closed during heavy loads. The mechanical action may be achieved by systems known to those skilled in the art, such as pneumatic, solenoid or motor action systems. The transport heavy duty system may comprise a linear conveyor belt that moves the product out and the fuel into a position constrained by the electrodes 2. Alternatively, the transport heavy duty system may include a carousel 5 that rotates between each ignition to remove product and position fuel 3 to be constrained by electrode 2 for another ignition. The carousel 5 may comprise a molten or corrosive resistant metal such as a refractory alloy, a high temperature oxidation resistant alloy (e.g., TiAlN), or a high temperature stainless steel such as those known in the art. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell generator shown in fig. 3 produces intermittent bursts of hydrino-generating power from one SF-CIHT cell 1. Alternatively, the generator comprises a plurality of SF-CIHT cells 1 outputting an overlap of the hydrino-generating power of the individual cells during the timed explosion event of solid fuel pellets 3. In one embodiment, the timing of these events in multiple batteries may provide for a more continuous output power. In other embodiments, the fuel is continuously fed into the high current between the electrodes 2 to generate continuous power. In one embodiment, the two electrodes 2 of the solid fuel are constrained to extend such that contact may be made at opposing points along the length of the extended electrode set 2 to induce a series of high current flows and rapid hydrino reaction kinetics along the electrode set 2. The opposite contact on the opposite electrode 2 can be achieved by mechanically moving the respective connection into position or by electronic switching. The connections may be made in a synchronous manner to achieve a more stable power output from the battery or batteries. The fuel and ignition parameters are given in the present invention.

To buffer any pauses, some of the power may be stored in a capacitor and optionally a high current transformer, battery pack or other energy storage device. In another embodiment, a short burst of low voltage, high current electrical energy can be delivered from the electrical output of one cell to ignite the fuel of another cell. The output power can further be regulated by an output power regulator 7 connected by a power connection 8. The output power regulator 7 may include elements such as a power storage (e.g., a battery pack or a super capacitor), a DC-to-AC (DC/AC) converter or inverter, and a transformer. The DC power may be converted to another form of DC power, such as DC power having a higher voltage; the power may be converted to AC or a mixture of DC and AC. The output power may be power regulated to a desired waveform, such as 60hz ac power, and supplied to a load via output terminals 9. In one embodiment, the output power regulator 7 converts power from a plasma-to-electric converter or a thermal-to-electric converter to a desired frequency and waveform, such as an AC frequency other than 60 or 50HZ, which is the U.S. and european standards, respectively. Different frequencies may be applied to match loads designed for different frequencies, such as electric motors, e.g. motors for locomotive, aviation, marine, instrument, tool and machine, electric heating and air conditioning, telecommunications and electronic applications. A portion of the output power of the power output terminal 9 may be used to power the power source 4, for example, about 5-10V, 10,000-40,000A DC power. The MHD and PDC energy converters can output low voltage, high current DC power well suited to re-energise the electrodes 2 to ignite a subsequently supplied fuel. The output of the low voltage high current may be supplied to a DC load. The DC may be regulated via a DC/DC converter. Exemplary DC loads include DC motors, such as electrically commutated motors, e.g., motors used in locomotives, aviation, marine, instruments, tools and machinery, DC electrical heating and air conditioning, DC telecommunications, and DC electronics applications.

Because power is distributed, no power transmission is required, and a high voltage DC transmission with minimal losses is one choice of transmission desired, for example, in a local area power grid. The power application may then be powered via high current DC, and DC power may have advantages over AC. In fact, there are many, if not most, power loads (e.g., motors, instruments, lighting, and electronics) that operate on DC power converted from transmitted AC grid power. Another application that may benefit from the direct high current DC power output of SF-CIHT batteries is the use of DC brushed or brushless, electrically commutated DC motor electromotive force. The DC/AC converter (AC/DC converter in most cases) and corresponding conversion is eliminated by using the direct high current DC power output of the SF-CIHT battery. This results in a reduction in capital equipment cost and power required to eliminate losses during conversion between DC and AC.

In one embodiment, a super capacitor or battery pack 16 (fig. 3 and 4A) is used to start the SF-CIHT cell by supplying power to initiate ignition, whereby power for subsequent ignition is provided through the output power regulator 7, and the output power regulator 7 is in turn powered by the plasma-to-electric energy converter 6. In one embodiment, the output of the power regulator 7 flows to an energy storage device, such as 16, to restart the generator. The storage may also store power or supply power to regulate abrupt changes in load and thereby provide load regulation. The generator can control the rate of fuel consumption by controlling the variable or interruptible speed of the carousel 5a, controlling the rate at which fuel is delivered to the electrodes 2, providing a variable power output. Alternatively, the rate of combustion of the electrode 2 may be variable and controlled.

Ignition produces an output plasma and thermal energy. The plasma power can be directly converted into electricity by the plasma-electric energy converter 6. The battery may operate open to the atmosphere. In one embodiment, the cell 1 is capable of maintaining a vacuum or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. The vacuum or the pressure less than the atmospheric pressure may be maintained by the vacuum pump 13a so that ions of the expanding plasma for the ignition of the solid fuel 3 do not collide with the atmospheric gas. In one embodiment, a vacuum or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure is maintained in the system comprising the plasma generating cell 1 and the connected plasma-to-electric converter 6. The vacuum or pressure less than atmospheric pressure eliminates gases that collide with the plasma-electricity conversion. In one embodiment, the cell 1 may be filled with an inert gas such that the solid fuel or ignition products do not react with oxygen. The oxygen-free cell 1, which is evacuated or filled with inert gas, facilitates fuel regeneration, especially when the fuel contains H and H₂O reacts unfavorably to give oxygenA conductive material (e.g., carbon or metal). These metals are at least one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. The cell under vacuum facilitates plasma-to-electricity conversion because plasma electron-gas collisions and plasma ion kinetic energy thermalization are avoided.

The thermal energy may be extracted by at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 having the electrode coolant inlet line 11 and the electrode coolant outlet line 12 through which the coolant flows and the MHD heat exchanger 18 having the MHD coolant inlet line 19 and the MHD coolant outlet line 20 through which the coolant flows. Other heat exchangers may be used to receive the thermal energy from the hydrino reaction, for example a water wall type design, which may be further applied on at least one wall of the container 1, at least one other wall of the MHD converter and behind the electrodes 17 of the MHD converter. These and other heat exchanger designs for efficiently and cost-effectively removing heat from the reaction are known to those skilled in the art. Heat may be transferred to the heat load. Thus, the power system may include a heater that draws heat supplied by at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 to a thermal load or a heat exchanger that transfers heat to a thermal load. The cooled coolant may be returned through at least one of the coolant inlet lines 11 and 19. The heat supplied by at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 may flow to a heat engine, a steam turbine, a gas turbine, a rankine cycle engine, a brayton cycle engine, and a stirling engine for conversion to mechanical power, such as mechanical power to rotate at least one of a shaft, a wheel, an engine, an aviation turbofan or turboprop, a marine propeller, an impeller, and a rotary shaft machine. Alternatively, thermal energy may flow from at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 to a thermo-electric energy converter, such as the energy converter of the present invention. Suitable exemplary thermal-to-electrical converters comprise at least one of the following group: heat engines, steam turbines and generators, gas turbines and generators, rankine cycle engines, brayton cycle engines, stirling engines, thermionic energy converters, and thermoelectric energy converters. The output power from the thermal-to-electric converter may be used to power a load, and a portion may power components of an SF-CIHT battery generator (e.g., power supply 4).

The reactants that ignite a given pellet produce power and a product, where the power may be in the form of a plasma of the product. The plasma-electric converter 6 generates electricity from the plasma. After passing through it, the plasma-electric converter 6 may further comprise a condenser of the plasma products and a conveyor leading to the heavy-duty system 5. The product is then transported by a heavy-duty system, such as carousel 5, to a product remover-fuel loader 13, which transfers the product from the heavy-duty system 5 to a regeneration system 14. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell generator further comprises a vacuum pump 13a, which vacuum pump 13a may remove any product oxygen and molecular fraction hydrogen gas. In one embodiment, at least one of oxygen and molecular hydrinos is collected in a tank as a commercial product. The pump may further comprise a selective membrane, valve, screen, cryogenic filter, or other means known to those skilled in the art for separating oxygen from the fractional hydrogen gas, and may additionally collect H₂O is vaporized, and H may be vaporized₂O is supplied to the regeneration system 14 for recirculation in the regenerated solid fuel. Herein, spent fuel is regenerated into the original reactant or fuel, e.g., any H or H consumed in the formation of hydrinos₂O is derived from H₂H derived from O14 a₂And (4) supplementing by using oxygen. The water source may comprise a tank, basin or vessel 14a, which may contain a bulk phase or gas H₂O or containing H₂O or one or more materials or compounds forming H₂Reactant of O (e.g. H)₂+O₂) At least one of (1). Alternatively, the source may comprise atmospheric water vapour, or draw H from the atmosphere₂Means for O, e.g. hygroscopic materials, e.g. lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, e.g. KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), etc., ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulosic fibers (e.g., cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, and licenseFertilizers, salts (including common salt) and a variety of other substances known to those skilled in the art, as well as desiccants such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride and molecular sieves (usually zeolites) or deliquescent materials such as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art.

In another embodiment, a heavy-duty system, such as carousel 5, includes a hopper that is loaded with regenerated solid fuel from regeneration system 14 by product remover-fuel loader 13. The fuel flows out from the bottom between the electrodes 2. The electrodes 2 can be opened and closed to ignite the portions of fuel that flow between the electrodes 2 for ignition or so placed by the spreader. In one embodiment, the fuel 3 comprises a fine powder that may be formed by ball milling a reclaimed or reprocessed solid fuel, wherein the reclamation system 14 may further comprise a ball mill, a grinder, or other means of forming smaller particles from larger particles, such as those grinding or milling means known in the art. An exemplary solid fuel mixture comprises a conductor, such as a conductive metal powder, e.g., a powder of a transition metal, silver, or aluminum, an oxide thereof, and H₂And O. In another embodiment, fuel 3 may comprise solid fuel pellets that may be pressed into regeneration system 14. The solid fuel pellet may further comprise an encapsulated metal oxide and H₂A thin foil of powdered metal of O or another metal and optionally metal powder. In this case, the regeneration system 14 regenerates the metal foil by means of at least one of the following, for example: heating in a vacuum, heating under a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, and electrolysis from an electrolyte such as a molten salt electrolyte. The regeneration system 14 further comprises a metal processing system, such as a rolling or milling machine, to form a foil from the regenerated foil metal stock. The sheath may be formed by a punch or press in which the encapsulated solid fuel may be internally punched or pressed.

In one embodiment, an exemplary solid fuel mixture includes a transition metal powder, an oxide thereof, and H₂And O. The fine powder can be pneumatically sprayed to the gaps formed between the electrodes 2 when the electrodes 2 are opened. At another placeIn an embodiment, the fuel comprises at least one of a powder and a slurry. Fuel may be injected into the desired area to be confined between the electrodes 2 for ignition via a high current. To better confine the powder, the electrode 2 may have a convex-concave half-part forming a cavity to contain the fuel. In one embodiment, the fuel and electrodes 2 may be electrostatically charged oppositely so that fuel flows into the inter-electrode area and electrostatically adheres to the desired area of each electrode 2 where the fuel is ignited.

In one embodiment of the generator shown in fig. 4A and 4B, the electrode surface 2 may be parallel to the gravitational axis and the solid fuel powder 3 may be gravity flowed from the top hopper 5 as an intermittent stream, wherein the timing of the intermittent stream matches the size of the electrode 2 when the electrode 2 is opened to receive the flowing powdered fuel 3 and closed to ignite the fuel stream. In another embodiment, the electrode 2 further comprises rollers 2a on its ends, these rollers 2a being separated by a small gap filled with the fuel flow. The conductive fuel 3 forms an electrical circuit between the electrodes 2 and a high current flows through the fuel causing it to ignite. The fuel stream 3 may be intermittent to prevent the expanding plasma from disrupting the flow of the fuel stream.

In another embodiment, the electrode 2 comprises a set of gears 2a supported by a structural element 2 b. The set of gears may be rotated by a drive gear 2c which drives a gear motor 2d to power. The drive gear 2c may further act as a heat sink for each gear 2a, wherein heat may be removed by an electrode heat exchanger, e.g. 10, receiving heat from the drive gear 2 c. The gears 2a (e.g., herringbone gears) each include an integer number n of teeth, wherein fuel flows to the nth inter-tooth gap or tooth bottom when the fuel in the nth-1 inter-tooth gap is compressed by the tooth n-1 of the mating gear. Other geometries for the gears or gear functions are within the scope of the invention, such as interdigitated polygonal or triangular gears, helical gears and augers as known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the fuel and the desired area of the gear teeth of the electrode 2a (e.g., the tooth bottom) may be electrostatically charged oppositely such that the fuel flows into and electrostatically adheres to the desired area of one or both electrodes 2a, wherein the fuel ignites when the teeth mesh. In one embodiment, the fuel 3 (e.g., fine powder) is pneumatically sprayed into a desired area of the gear 2 a. In another embodiment, the fuel 3 injection will be confined to a desired area between the electrodes 2a, for example the interdigitated area of the teeth of the gear 2a to be ignited by a high current. In one embodiment, the rollers or gears 2a are maintained in tension towards each other by means of, for example, a loading spring or by pneumatic or hydraulic actuation. The meshing and compression of the teeth causes electrical contact between the mating teeth via the electrically conductive fuel. In one embodiment, the gears are electrically conductive in the interdigitated regions that contact the fuel during meshing, and are insulated in other regions so that current selectively flows through the fuel. In one embodiment, the gear 2a comprises a ceramic gear that is metal coated to be electrically conductive in the interdigitated regions or electrically insulated without a ground path. Meanwhile, the drive gear 2c is non-conductive or electrically insulated in the non-ground path. Electrical contact and supply of the electrode 2 to the interdigitated portion of the tooth may be provided by a brush 2e as shown in figure 4A. An exemplary brush comprises a carbon rod or bar that is urged into contact with the gear by, for example, a spring.

In another embodiment shown in fig. 4B, the electrical contact and supply of the electrodes 2 to the interdigitated portions of the teeth may be provided directly via the respective gear hub and bearings. The structural element 2b of fig. 4A may comprise an electrode 2. As shown in fig. 4B, each electrode 2 of the pair of electrodes may be centered on and connected to a respective gear to act as a structural element 2B of fig. 4A with the electrode 2, with the gear bearing connecting the respective gear 2a to its shaft or hub acting as an electrical contact, and the only path to ground being between the contacting teeth of the opposing gear. In one embodiment, the outer portion of each gear rotates about its central hub to have more electrical contact via additional bearings at larger radii. The hub may also act as a large heat sink. The electrode heat exchanger 10 may also be attached to the hub to remove heat from the gear. The heat exchanger 10 may be electrically insulated from the hub by a thin layer of insulator (e.g., an electrical insulator with high thermal conductivity, such as diamond or diamond-like carbon film). The charging of the gears may be timed using a computer and switching transistors (e.g., transistors for brushless DC motors). In one embodiment, the gears are intermittently energized such that a high current flows through the fuel when the gears are engaged. The flow of fuel may be timed to match the delivery of fuel to the gear when the gear is engaged and to flow current through the fuel. The high current flow then causes the fuel to ignite. The fuel may flow continuously through the gear or drum 2a, the rotation of which pushes the fuel through the gap. The fuel may be continuously ignited while rotating to fill the space between the electrodes 2 containing the meshing area of a set of gears or the opposite sides of a set of rollers. In this case, the output power can be stabilized. In one embodiment, the resulting plasma expands out the gear sides and flows to the plasma-to-electric converter 6. The plasma expansion flow may be along an axis parallel to the axis of each gear and transverse to the direction of flow of the fuel stream 3. The axial flow may pass through the MHD converter. Other directed flows may be achieved by confining magnets (e.g., Helmholtz coils or magnets of a magnetic bottle).

The generator further includes components and methods for variable power output. In one embodiment, the power output of the generator is controlled by controlling a variable or interruptible flow rate of fuel 3 to the electrodes 2 or the drum or gear 2a and a variable or interruptible fuel ignition rate of the power source 4. The rotational rate of the drum or gear may also be controlled to control the fuel ignition rate. In one embodiment, the output power regulator 7 includes a power controller 7 to control the output (which may be DC). The power controller can control the fuel flow rate, and control the gear rotation speed by controlling the gear drive motor 2d that rotates the drive gear 2c and rotates the gear 2 a. The reaction time of the mechanical or power control based on at least one of the fuel consumption rate or the combustion rate may be very fast, for example in the range of 10ms to 1 μ s. The dynamics may also be controlled by controlling the connectivity of the converter electrodes of the plasma-electric converter. For example, connecting the MHD electrodes 17 or PDC electrodes in series increases the voltage, and connecting the converter electrodes in parallel increases the current. Changing the angle of the MHD electrodes 17 or selectively connecting to groups of MHD electrodes 17 at different angles relative to at least one of the plasma propagation direction and the magnetic field direction changes the collected power by changing at least one of the voltage and the current.

The power controller 7 further comprises sensors for input and output parameters such as voltage, current and power. The signals from the sensors may be fed to a processor that controls the generator. At least one of rise time, fall time, voltage, current, power, waveform, and frequency may be controlled. The generator may include a resistance, such as a shunt resistance, through which power in excess of that required or desired by the power load may be dissipated. The shunt resistance may be connected to the output power regulator or power controller 7. The generator may contain embedded processors and systems to provide remote monitoring that may further have the ability to disable the generator.

Hopper 5 may be recharged with regeneration fuel from regeneration system 14 via product remover-fuel loader 13. E.g. any H or H consumed in the formation of hydrino₂O can be derived from H₂H derived from O14 a₂And (4) supplementing by using oxygen. In one embodiment, the fuel or fuel pellets 3 are partially to substantially gasified into a gaseous physical state, such as a plasma, during the hydrino reaction explosion event. The plasma passes through a plasma-to-electric energy converter 6, and the recombined plasma forms gas atoms and compounds. These are condensed by condenser 15 and collected by product remover-fuel loader 13 and transferred to regeneration system 14, which product remover-fuel loader 13 comprises a conveyor connection to regeneration system 14 and further comprises a conveyor connection to hopper 5. The condenser 15 and the product remover-fuel loader 13 may comprise at least one system such as: an electrostatic collection system and at least one screw conveyor, conveyor or pneumatic system, such as a vacuum or suction system, to collect and move the material. Suitable systems are known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the plasma-to-electric converter 6, e.g., a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter, contains a chute or channel 6a for delivering the product into the product remover-fuel loader 13. At least one of the MHD converter 6 bottom, the chute 6a and the MHD electrodes 17 may be tilted so that the product flow may be at least partially caused by gravity flow. At least one of the bottom of the MHD converter 6, the chute 6a, and the MHD electrode 17 may be mechanically agitated or oscillated to assist the flow. Can flow throughThe shock wave formed by over-igniting the solid fuel assists. In one embodiment, at least one of the MHD converter 6 bottom, chute 6a, and MHD electrode 17 comprises a mechanical scraper or conveyor to convey the product from the respective surface to the product remover-fuel loader 13.

In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell generator further comprises a vacuum pump 13a, which vacuum pump 13a can remove any product oxygen and molecular fraction hydrogen gas. The pump may further comprise a selective membrane, valve, screen, cryogenic filter, or other means known to those skilled in the art for separating oxygen from the fractional hydrogen gas, and may additionally collect H₂O is vaporized, and H may be vaporized₂O is supplied to the regeneration system 14 for recirculation in the regenerated solid fuel. In one embodiment, the fuel 3 comprises a fine powder that may be formed by ball milling a reclaimed or reprocessed solid fuel, wherein the reclamation system 14 may further comprise a ball mill, a grinder, or other means of forming smaller particles from larger particles, such as those grinding or milling means known in the art. In one embodiment, a portion of the power output of terminal 9 is supplied to at least one of: a power source 4, a gear (drum) drive motor 2d, a carousel 5a with drive motors (fig. 3), a product remover-fuel loader 13, a pump 13a, and a regeneration system 14 to provide power and energy to propagate the chemical reaction for regenerating the original solid fuel from the reaction products. In one embodiment, a portion of the heat from at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 and the MHD heat exchanger 18 is input to the solid fuel regeneration system through at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 where a coolant return cycle is utilized with at least one of the coolant inlet lines 11 and 19 to provide thermal energy and energy to propagate the chemical reaction for regenerating the original solid fuel from the reaction products. A portion of the output power from the heat-to-electricity converter 6 may also be used to power the regeneration system and other systems of the SF-CIHT battery generator.

In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel is produced by means such as those given in the present invention, e.g. addition of H₂Adding H₂O, heat regeneration and electricityAnd (4) at least one of de-regenerating to regenerate. Since the fractional hydrogen reaction energy gain is very large relative to the input energy to initiate the reaction, e.g., 100 times in the case of NiOOH (3.22 kJ output vs. 46J input as given in the exemplary SF-CIHT cell test results section), e.g., Ni₂O₃And NiO, etc. can be converted to hydroxides and then to oxyhydroxides by electrochemical reactions as well as chemical reactions as set forth in the present disclosure and by chemical reactions known to those skilled in the art. In other embodiments, other metals such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Sm, and the corresponding oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides (e.g., those of the present invention) may be substituted for Ni. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal oxide and H₂O and the corresponding metal as the conductive matrix. The product may be a metal oxide. The solid fuel can be regenerated by hydrogen reduction of a portion of the metal oxide to metal, followed by mixing with the rehydrated oxide. Suitable metals having oxides that can be readily reduced to metals at moderate temperatures (e.g., less than 1000 ℃) and hydrogen are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises (1) a material that does not readily consist of H₂And a slightly thermally reduced oxide, such as at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth metal oxide, and a rare earth metal oxide; (2) having the ability to remove hydrogen from H at moderate temperatures (e.g. less than 1000 ℃ C.)₂A metal reduced to an oxide of the metal; and (3) H₂And O. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂And O. Then, H₂The product mixture of reducible and nonreducible oxides may be H₂Treated and heated under mild conditions such that only the reducible metal oxide is converted to the metal. This mixture can be hydrated to include a regenerated solid fuel. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂O; wherein the product MgO + CuO is subjected to H₂Reduction treatment to produce MgO + Cu, which hydrates to form a solid fuel.

In another embodiment, the oxidation products, such as CuO or AgO, are regenerated by heating under at least one of vacuum and a flow of inert gas. The temperature may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 100 ℃ to 3000 ℃, 300 ℃ to 2000 ℃, 500 ℃ to 1200 ℃, and 500 ℃ to 1000 ℃. In one embodiment, the regeneration system 14 may further comprise a mill, such as at least one of a ball mill and a chip/mill, to mill at least one of the bulk oxide and the metal into a powder, such as a fine powder having a particle size in the range of at least one of: about 10nm to 1cm, 100nm to 10mm, 0.1 μm to 1mm, and 1 μm to 100 μm (μ ═ μm).

In another embodiment, the regeneration system may comprise an electrolytic cell, such as a molten salt electrolytic cell comprising metal ions, wherein the metal of the metal oxide product may be plated onto the electrolytic cell cathode by electrodeposition using systems and methods well known in the art. The system may further comprise a mill or grinder to form metal particles of a desired size from the electroplated metal. Metals can be added to, for example, H₂O, etc. to form a regenerated solid fuel.

In one embodiment, the cell 1 of fig. 3 and 4A and 4B is capable of maintaining a vacuum or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. The vacuum or sub-atmospheric pressure in the cell 1 is maintained by the pump 13a and may also be maintained in the connected plasma-to-electric converter 6 which receives energetic plasma ions from the plasma source cell 1. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H and p₂The O reaction becomes a metal that is substantially thermodynamically stable to the oxidized metal. In this case, the metal of the solid fuel is not oxidized during the reaction to form the product. An exemplary solid fuel includes metal, oxidized metal, and H₂A mixture of O. Next, products such as a mixture of the initial metal and metal oxide may be removed by product remover-fuel loader 13 and by adding H₂And (4) regenerating the O. And H₂Suitable metals for which O undergoes a substantially thermodynamically unfavorable reaction may be selected from the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, HgMo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In other embodiments, the solid fuel comprises H₂A metal that is non-reactive to O and at least one of: h₂O, metal oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides that may comprise the same or at least one different metal.

In one embodiment, H is carried out₂A method of reduction, reduction under vacuum and rehydration to regenerate solid fuels quickly, efficiently and as cost-effectively as possible.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a fuel comprising H₂A mixture of hygroscopic material of O and a conductor. One exemplary fuel is a hydrated alkaline earth metal halide, such as MgX₂(X ═ F, Cl, Br, I), and conductors, such as transition metals, e.g., Co, Ni, Fe, or Cu.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H encapsulated in an electrically conductive sheath₂And (4) a source of O. H₂The source of O may comprise the materials and reaction mixtures of the present invention. The conductive jacket can comprise at least one of a metal, carbon, carbide, and other conductive matrix of the present invention. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal oxide and H₂O and encapsulated metal oxides in the form of thin foils, e.g. of the corresponding metals, and H₂O, and the like. Other materials, such as hygroscopic materials, can be substituted for the metal oxide and act to bind or absorb H₂A substrate of O. Conductor-encapsulated H₂The source of O may comprise pellets. An exemplary solid fuel pellet comprises an encapsulation of H₂O from or containing H₂A thin foil metal sheath of a material of O (e.g., the material of the present invention and the reaction mixture), such as a metal sheath comprising a transition metal, silver, or aluminum. After the energy is released, the conductor, e.g., foil metal, may be recovered by means such as vortex separation, sedimentation, sieving, and other means known in the art. The foil may be formed from a recycled metal stock by a metal working system (e.g., a rolling or milling machine). The sheath may be formed by a punch or press in which the encapsulating material may be internally punched or pressed. In the case of oxidation of a conductor such as a metal, the metal can be regenerated by reducing the oxide. The foil metal may be regenerated, for example, by at least one of: heating in a vacuum, heating under a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, and electrolysis from an electrolyte such as a molten salt electrolyte.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel may be used once and not regenerated. Carbon containing H and O (e.g. steam carbon or activated carbon and H)₂O-wetted carbon) is a suitable exemplary reactant or solid fuel that can be consumed and not regenerated.

Plasma power can be converted into electricity using a plasma power energy converter 6 based on magnetic space charge separation. Because of its lower mass relative to positive ions, electrons are preferentially confined to the magnetic flux lines of a magnetized PDC electrode (e.g., a cylindrical PDC electrode or a PDC electrode in a magnetic field). Thus, the mobility of the electrons is bound; while the positive ions are relatively free to collide with the PDC electrode, which is intrinsically or extrinsically magnetized. Both electrons and positive ions fully collide with the non-magnetized PDC electrode. Plasma power conversion draws power directly from the thermal and potential energy of the plasma and is independent of the plasma flow. Instead, power extraction by PDC utilizes the potential difference between magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes immersed in the plasma to drive current in an applied load, and thereby extract power directly from the stored plasma thermal energy. Thermal plasma energy to electrical plasma power conversion (PDC) is achieved by inserting at least two floating conductors directly into a high temperature plasma body. One of these conductors is magnetized by an external electromagnetic field or a permanent magnet, or it is inherently magnetic. The other is not magnetized. The potential difference results from the large difference in charge mobility of the heavy positive ions versus the light electrons. This voltage is applied to the electrical load.

In embodiments, the power system comprises additional internal or external electromagnets or permanent magnets, or comprises a plurality of intrinsically magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes, such as cylindrical PDC electrodes, such as needle PDC electrodes. The source of the uniform magnetic field B parallel to each PDC electrode can be provided by an electromagnet, for example, by a helmholtz coil. The electromagnet may be at least one of: permanent magnets, such as halbach array magnets, and uncooled, water cooled and superconducting electromagnets. Exemplary superconducting magnets may comprise NbTi, NbSn, or high temperature superconducting materials. Magnet current may also be supplied to the solid fuel pellets to initiate ignition. In one embodiment, the magnetic field generated by the high current of power source 4 is increased by flowing through a plurality of turns of an electromagnet prior to flowing through the solid fuel pellets. The strength of the magnetic field B is adjusted to produce the best cations versus the radius of the gyrating electrons, thereby maximizing the kinetic force on the PDC electrode. In one embodiment, at least one magnetized PDC electrode is parallel to the externally applied magnetic field B; while at least one corresponding pair of PDC electrodes is perpendicular to the magnetic field B such that it is unmagnetized due to its orientation with respect to the B direction. Power may be delivered to the load via a wire connected to at least one of the pair of PDC electrodes. In one embodiment, the cell wall may act as a PDC electrode. In one embodiment, the PDC electrodes comprise a refractory metal that is stable in high temperature atmospheric environments, such as high temperature stainless steel and other materials known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the plasma energy converter further comprises a plasma confinement structure, such as a magnetic bottle or a solenoid magnetic field source, to confine the plasma and draw more kinetic energy from the energetic ions as electricity. The plasma power output power is dissipated in the applied load.

The plasma-to-electric energy converter 6 of fig. 3 and 4A and 4B may further comprise a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter comprising a magnetic flux source 101 transverse to the z-axis (direction of ion flux 102, as shown in fig. 5). Thus, the ions have a preferential velocity along the z-axis due to the confinement field 103 provided by the helmholtz coil 104. Thus, the ions propagate to the transverse magnetic flux region. The lorentz force on the propagating electrons and ions is given by:

F＝ev×B (196)

the force is transverse to the ion velocity and magnetic field and in opposite directions for positive and negative ions. Thus, a lateral current is formed. The source of the transverse magnetic field may include components that provide different strengths of the transverse magnetic field as a function of position along the z-axis to optimize cross-deflection (equation (196)) of flowing ions with parallel velocity dispersion.

The magnetohydrodynamic energy converter shown in fig. 5 further comprises at least two MHD electrodes 105 which are transected with respect to the magnetic field (B) to receive transverse lorentz deflected ions that generate a voltage across the MHD electrodes 105. MHD power may be dissipated in the electrical load 106. A schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter is shown in fig. 6, in which an MHD set of helmholtz coils or set of magnets 110 provides a lorentz deflection field for the flowing plasma in a magnetic expansion section 120 to produce a voltage across the MHD electrodes 105 that is applied to the load 106. With respect to fig. 4A and 4B, the MHD electrode is shown at 17. The electrode 2 of fig. 3 and 4A and 4B can also function as an MHD electrode, with appropriate application of magnetic fields in the direction transverse to the axis connecting the electrodes 2 and in the direction of plasma expansion. The lorentz deflection is provided by a radial magnetic field generated by a current from the power source 4 along the electrode 2. Mhd power generation is described by Walsh [ e.m. Walsh, Energy Conversion electrical, Direct, Nuclear, RonaldPress Company, NY, (1967), pages 221-248 ] (the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference).

The electromagnets 110 (fig. 6) and 6f (fig. 4A and 4B) may be at least one of the following: permanent magnets, such as halbach array magnets, and superconducting electromagnets that are uncooled, water cooled, and have corresponding cryogenic management. The superconducting magnet system 6f shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B comprises (i) a superconducting coil 6B, which may comprise a superconducting wire of NbTi or NbSn, or a High Temperature Superconductor (HTS), such as YBa₂Cu₃O₇Generally referred to as YBCO-123 or simply YBCO; (ii) a liquid helium dewar providing liquid helium 6c on both sides of the coil 6 b; (iii) a liquid nitrogen dewar having liquid nitrogen 6d on the inner and outer radii of the solenoidal magnet, wherein both the liquid helium and the liquid nitrogen dewar may contain a radiation shield and a radiation shield which may comprise copper and contain a high vacuum insulation layer 6e on the walls; and (iv) an inlet 6g of each magnet 6f to which a cryogenic pump and compressor may be connected which may be powered by the SF-CIHT battery generator via the power output of the output power terminal 9.

The MHD electrode 105 of fig. 6 or the protective barrier of the MHD electrode 105 may include a refractory material, a material that is a component of the solid fuel, and an outer layer of carbon such that the MHD electrode or barrier corrosion products cannot become a significant harmful contaminant of the solid fuel or energetic material. The plasma-to-electrical converter, such as an MHD converter, may further include an MHD heat exchanger 135 that receives coolant via the MHD coolant inlet 130 and removes power in the form of heat (e.g., power contained in the expanding plasma that is not 100% converted to electricity) via the MHD coolant outlet 140. The heat exchanger 135 may be of the coil type shown in fig. 6, a water wall type, or another type as known to those skilled in the art. With respect to fig. 4A and 4B, the MHD heat exchanger 18 receives coolant via the MHD coolant inlet 19 and removes power in the form of heat via the MHD coolant outlet 20. This thermal energy may be combined with the thermal energy from the electrode heat exchanger 10 flowing out of the electrode coolant outlet line 12. Heat may be applied to at least one of: supplying a heat load, regenerating the solid fuel by the regeneration system 14 of fig. 3 and 4A and 4B, and converting to mechanical power or motive force by the systems and methods of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic energy converter is a segmented faraday generator. In another embodiment, a transverse current formed by the lorentz deflection of the ion flow is subjected to a further lorentz deflection in a direction parallel to the ion input flow (z-axis) to generate a hall voltage between at least a first MHD electrode and a second MHD electrode relatively displaced along the z-axis. Such devices are known in the art as hall generator embodiments of magnetohydrodynamic energy converters. A similar arrangement of MHD electrodes angled in the xy plane relative to the z axis comprises another embodiment of the invention and is referred to as a diagonal generator with a "window frame" configuration. In each case, the voltage may drive current via an electrical load. Embodiments of segmented faraday generators, hall generators and diagonal line generators are given in Petrick [ j.f. louis, v.i. kovbasyk, Open-cyclic electromechanical Power Generation, M Petrick and b.ya shummatsky, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois (1978), pages 157-163 ] (the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference).

In another embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic energy converter, the flow of ions along the z-axis (where v is_∥>>v_⊥) Can then enter the compression section, which contains an increasing axial magnetic field gradient in which the electron motion component v, which is parallel to the z-axis direction_∥Constant due to thermal insulationConstant and at least partially translated into vertical motion v_⊥. By v_⊥The induced azimuthal current is formed around the z-axis. The current is deflected radially in the plane of motion by the axial magnetic field, thereby generating a hall voltage between the inner and outer MHD electrodes of the disk generator magnetohydrodynamic energy converter. The voltage may drive current via the electrical load. Plasma power can also be usedThe direct converter 10 or other plasma-electric device of the present invention converts into electricity.

In one embodiment where a time varying current, such as Alternating Current (AC), is supplied to the electrode 2 by the power supply 4 and the power system further comprises a plasma-to-electric energy converter comprising a DC magnetic field, such as magnetohydrodynamic or plasma-dynamic, the time varying magnetic field caused by the time varying current from the source 4 may be shielded from the DC magnetic field of the plasma-to-electric energy converter by a magnetic shield, such as a μ -metal shield. The plasma can expand from a time-varying magnetic field region, penetrating the magnetic shield, to a DC magnetic field region where power conversion can occur. Suitable magnetic shields are known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment with a substantially DC source of current from source 4, a substantially DC magnetic field may be used to achieve at least one of the following: plasma confinement for converters (e.g., PDC converters), converting plasma into electricity via PDC conversion using appropriately aligned PDC electrodes, and controlling directionality of plasma flow. For example, the magnetic field may cause the plasma to flow substantially linearly. The straight flow may pass through the MHD plasma-to-electric converter. Alternatively, the DC magnetic field may be shielded from regions having another desired magnetic field by a magnetic shield. The plasma can penetrate the magnetic shield and flow to an area having another magnetic field.

Each battery also outputs thermal energy which can be drawn from the electrode heat exchanger 10 through inlet and outlet coolant lines 11 and 12 respectively and from the MHD heat exchanger 18 through inlet and outlet coolant lines 19 and 20 respectively. The thermal energy can be used directly as heat or converted into electricity. In an embodiment, the power system further comprises a thermoelectric converter. The conversion may be effected using a conventional rankine or brayton power plant, such as a steam plant comprising a boiler, a steam turbine and a generator, or a steam plant comprising a gas turbine (e.g., an externally heated gas turbine) and a generator. Suitable reactants, regeneration reactions and systems, and power plants may include those of: in the invention; in my prior U.S. patent applications, such as the Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT in PCT/US08/61455 of the 4/24/2008 application; heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT application PCT/US09/052072 of 7/29/2009; heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT 3/18/2010 PCT/US 10/27828; electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT in PCT/US11/28889 of 3/17/2011; h₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 of 3/30/2012; and the CIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 in the 5/21/13 application ("Mills earlier application"); and my prior publications, such as r.l.mills, m.nansteel, w.good, g.zhao, "Design for a black light Power Multi-Cell thermal Coupled reactor base on Hydrogen Catalyst Systems", int.j.energy Research, volume 36, (2012), 778-788; doi: 10.1002/er.l 834; r.l.mills, g.zhao, w.good, "Continuous Thermal power system", Applied Energy, volume 88, (2011)789-798, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.08.024, and R.L.Mills, G.ZHao, K.Akhtar, Z.Chang, J.He, X.Hu, G.Wu, J.Lotoski, G.Chu, "thermal recovery moisture System as a New Power Source", int.J.Green Energy, volume 8, (2011),429-473 ("Mills prior thermal Energy conversion publications"), is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In other embodiments, the power system comprises one of the other thermo-electric energy converters known to those skilled in the art, such as direct energy converters, e.g. thermionic and thermoelectric energy converters, and other thermal engines, e.g. stirling engines.

In one exemplary embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell generator outputs 10MW continuous power with a desired waveform (e.g., DC or 120V 60hz ac) and thermal energy. The solid fuel may comprise a metal, for example one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, which may or may not be present during ignition and plasma expansion In vacuum₂And oxidizing O. In another embodiment, the solid fuel may comprise a metal such as Ag, the oxide of which, AgO, can be reduced by heating in a vacuum. Alternatively, the solid fuel may contain a metal such as Cu, and its oxide CuO can be reduced by heating in a hydrogen atmosphere. Consider a solid fuel comprising Cu + CuO + H₂And O. In one embodiment, the plasma is formed under vacuum so that the Cu metal does not oxidize. Then, the post-ignition fuel regeneration requires only the addition of H₂O to replenish H lost by the formation of hydrinos₂O, wherein H₂O to form H₂(1/4) and 1/2O₂Has an energy of 50 MJ/mole H₂And O. Thus, the reaction product was treated with 0.2 mol of H₂O/s rehydration. If Cu is oxidized, an exemplary mass flow rate of CuO is about 50g CuO/s, corresponding to 200kJ/g, to produce 10MJ/s or 10 kJ/ms. CuO can be passed through H using an electrolytic cell₂0.625 mol H from O electrolysis₂And (5) reducing in s. This requires about 178kW of power, which is returned as heat during the cycle. In another embodiment, Cu₂O replaces CuO so that Cu does not react with CuO to form Cu₂And O. If Ag is used as the solid fuel metal, the reduction of AgO to metallic Ag does not require H₂Only the heat returned during each cycle is required.

The solid fuel ignition to form hydrinos at a very high rate is initiated by a 20kA power supply at a 0.2kHz repetition rate. The power source may be a commercial welder source, such as Miyachi ISA-500CR/IT-1320-3 or ISA-1000 CR/IT-1400-3. The transformer volume of the Miyachi ISA-500CR/IT-1320-3 unit is 34 liters and IT can be further miniaturized by, for example, running ITs transformer at high frequency. The power controller volume must also be considered, but it is expected that the electronic control equipment can be miniaturized such that the transformer working volume is limited. This power source may also at least partially serve as an output power regulator. Furthermore, once the system is triggered, the electrical output of a small fraction (e.g., 1%) of the SF-CIHT cell generator (e.g., the electrical output of the MHD or PDC converter) may be sufficient to maintain fuel ignition. Thus, the high current power source that induces the fuel can be substantially a battery SF-CIHT cell and energy converter sized for an individual volume SF-CIHT cell generator. A charged supercapacitor with a volume of about 1 litre can be used to start the unit. In another embodiment, the ignition power supply and the starting power supply comprise at least one capacitor, for example a set of low voltage high capacitance capacitors supplying the low voltage high current required to achieve ignition. The corresponding volume of the capacitor may be low, e.g. 1.5 liters. The generator power output may be low voltage DC, so that little power regulation is required. The former can be implemented using a DC/DC converter.

Consider the exemplary case of interdigitated 60-tooth gears (e.g., ceramic gears) that are metallized on the surface that contacts the fuel during ignition. When operating at 200RPM, the corresponding ignition rate is 0.2kHz or 5ms per ignition. An SF-CIHT cell with this ignition system will have a working volume of about 2 litres. Assume that the MHD volume transition density of RLN2 is 700MW/m³[ Yoshihiro Okuno, "Research activities on MHD power generation and Tokyo Institute of Technology", Tokyo Institute of Technology, 12 and 19 days 2013, http: // visps. es. titech. ac. jp/pdf/090325-meeting/Okuno. pdf]And assuming that the hydrino-driven plasma has an order of magnitude higher ion density and ultrasonic particle velocity, the transition density should be at least 10GW/m per liter of MHD working volume³Or 10⁷W is added. Power for an exemplary SF-CIHT battery generatorIs 10⁷W; therefore, the estimated MHD converter volume is 1 liter. The superconducting magnet and dewar/cryo-management system working volume may be another 6 liters. Finally, it is contemplated that a minimum of about 2 liters may be replaced by a product recovery and regeneration system, but that H be required if regeneration is desired₂Reducing, the working volume can be higher, about 20 liters.

Consider a system comprising: (1) a 20kA to electrode capacitor-based power supply at a repetition rate of 0.2kHz, which also acts as a starting power supply and has a working volume of about 1.5 liters; (2) the electrical output of a small portion of the SF-CIHT cell generator (e.g., the electrical output of the MHD or PDC converter) is sufficient to maintain fuel ignition; (3) a SF-CIHT cell having a working volume of about 2 liters and having an ignition system comprising an interdigitated 60 tooth gear operating at 200 RPM; (4) an MHD converter with two parts with a conservative working volume of 2 litres, where the superconducting magnet and cryo-management system working volume is 3 times this volume and the other 6 litres; (5) a product recovery and regeneration system having a working volume of about 2 liters, wherein the product is rehydrated to a reactant; and (6) a direct DC output from the MHD converter. The total volume of the 10MW system in this exemplary embodiment is 13.5 liters (about 24cm x 24cm or about 9.4 inches x 9.4 inches) for 1.5+2+2+6+ 2.

In one embodiment, an SF-CIHT battery generator may serve as a modular unit for a plurality of SF-CIHT battery generators. These modular units may be connected in parallel, in series, or both to increase voltage, current, and power to a desired output. In one embodiment, a plurality of modular units may provide power in place of a central grid power system. For example, multiple units with 1MW to 10MW of power may be generated at a substation or central substation instead of power. SF-CIHT battery generators may be interconnected to each other and to other power conditioning and storage systems and power infrastructure (e.g., those employing a power grid) using systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

G. Applications of

The SF-CIHT battery can be used for replacing the conventional power supply and has the advantages thatThe power grid and fossil fuel infrastructure are autonomous. Typical exemplary general applications are heating (space and process heating), power (e.g., residential, commercial, and industrial), locomotives (e.g., electric cars, trucks, and trains), marine (e.g., electric boats and submarines), aviation (e.g., electric airplanes and helicopters), and aerospace (e.g., electric satellites). Specific exemplary applications are home and commercial electrification, lighting, electric vehicles, via H₂Electrolysis of O to produce H₂Truck freezes, telecommunications repeaters, desalination of salt water, remote mining and melting, electrical heating (e.g., domestic and commercial heating), powering household appliances (e.g., alarm systems, refrigerators, dishwashers, ovens, washers/dryers, pruners, mechanical shears, snow throwers, and consumer electronics, such as personal computers, TVs, stereos, and video players). An appropriately sized SF-CIHT cell may be a dedicated power source for certain instruments, such as heaters, washing/drying machines or air conditioners.

Many power applications may be implemented by SF-CIHT batteries outputting at least one of AC and DC power to respective loads. A schematic 200 of system integration for electrical SF-CIHT cell applications is shown in fig. 7. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT battery 202 is controlled by SF-CIHT battery controller 201. SF-CIHT battery receives H from source 204₂O, addition of H₂O to regenerate fuel and convert H to hydrino, where power is greatly released, converted to electricity. Any byproduct heat may be transferred to the heat load or removed as waste heat by the heat cooling system 203. The output power may be stored in a power storage means 205, such as a battery or an ultracapacitor, and then may flow to a power distribution center 206. Alternatively, the output electricity may flow directly to the power distribution center 206. In one embodiment where DC is output from a plasma-to-electricity converter (e.g., an MHD or PDC converter), power is then regulated from DC to AC by a DC/AC converter 207 or it is converted to another form of DC power by a DC/DC converter 221. Thereafter, the regulated AC or DC power flows into the AC 208 or DC 222 power controllers and the AC 209 or DC 223 power loads, respectively. Exemplary mechanical loads supplied by AC or DC motor 215 are instruments 216, wheels 217 (e.g., locomotives)Power applications such as motorcycles, scooters, golf carts, cars, trucks, trains, tractors and bulldozers, and other excavation machinery, aero-electric propellers or fans 218 (e.g., in aircraft), marine propellers 219 (e.g., in boats and submarines), and rotating shaft machines 220. Alternative exemplary AC loads include AC telecommunications 210, AC equipment 211, AC electronics 212, AC lighting 213, and AC space and process conditioning 214, such as heating and air conditioning. Correspondingly suitable exemplary DC loads include DC telecommunications 224 (e.g., a data center), DC instrumentation 225, DC electronics 226, DC lighting 227, and DC space and process conditioning 228, such as heating and air conditioning.

Many power applications may be achieved with SF-CIHT cells that are used from a source (e.g., from H)₂O) is converted to hydrino to at least one of power and heat energy and outputs mechanical power in the form of a rotating shaft. A schematic diagram 300 of system integration for thermal and hybrid electro-thermal SF-CIHT battery applications is shown in fig. 8. In one embodiment, SF-CIHT battery 302 is controlled by SF-CIHT battery controller 301. SF-CIHT battery 302 receives H from source 303₂O, addition of H₂O to regenerate fuel and convert H to hydrinos, greatly releasing plasma power, which can be directly converted to electricity using a plasma-to-electricity converter, indirectly converted to electricity using a thermal-to-electricity converter, or can directly output thermal energy. Electricity may flow to the electric heater 304 and the electric heater 304 may heat the external heat exchanger 305. Alternatively, heat may flow directly from SF-CIHT cell 302 to external heat exchanger 305. Working gas (e.g., air) flows into the unburned turbine 306 and is heated by the hot external heat exchanger 305; thus, it receives thermal energy from SF-CIHT cell 302. The heated working gas does pressure-volume work on the unburnt blades of the turbine 306 and causes the shaft thereof to rotate. The rotating shaft may drive multiple types of mechanical loads. Suitable exemplary mechanical loads include wheels 307 (e.g., in locomotive power applications), generators 308 (e.g., in power generation), aero-electric propellers or fans 309 (e.g., in aircraft), marine propellers 310 (e.g., in ships and submarines), and rotating shaft machines 311.Power from generator 308 may be used for other applications, such as electric power and steady power. These and other applications may be implemented using the integrated system or a portion of the integrated system shown in fig. 7.

In one embodiment, power from the SF-CIHT battery is used to power the antenna in a desired frequency band that may be received by the antenna capable of receiving the transmitted power. The power may be used to operate an electronic device such as a mobile phone or a personal computer or an entertainment system (e.g., an MP3 player or a video player). In another embodiment, the receiving antenna may collect the transmitted power and charge a battery to operate the electronic device.

The present invention also relates to a battery or fuel cell system which generates an electromotive force (EMF) from a catalyzed reaction of hydrogen to a lower energy (hydrino) state, thereby directly converting the energy released by the hydrino reaction into electricity, the system comprising:

utilizing separated electron flow and ion mass transport of reactants comprising the hydrino reactant during cell operation;

a cathode compartment comprising a cathode;

an anode compartment comprising an anode; and

a source of hydrogen.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to a battery or fuel cell system that produces an electromotive force (EMF) from a catalyzed reaction of hydrogen to a lower energy (hydrino) state, thereby directly converting the energy released by the hydrino reaction to electricity, the system comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst or catalyst source; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; reactants for forming a catalyst or a catalyst source and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support that makes catalysis feasible, wherein the stack or fuel cell system that forms the fractional hydrogen may further comprise a cathode compartment comprising a cathode, an anode compartment comprising an anode, optional salt bridges, reactants that constitute the fractional hydrogen reactant during cell operation using separated electron flow and ion mass transport, and a source of hydrogen.

In one embodiment of the invention, the reaction mixture and reaction that initiates the hydrino reaction (e.g., the exchange reaction of the invention) are the basis of a fuel cell that generates electricity through the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos. Due to the half-reaction of the redox cell, the hydrino-producing reaction mixture is formed into a circuit using electron transport through an external circuit and ion mass transport through a separate pathway. The overall reaction that produces hydrinos resulting from the summation of the half-cell reactions and the corresponding reaction mixture may contain the thermal energy and hydrino-chemical generation reaction types of the present invention.

In one embodiment of the invention, different reactants or the same reactant in different states or conditions (such as at least one of different temperatures, pressures and concentrations) are provided in different cell compartments connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to complete an electrical circuit between the compartments. Due to the dependence of the hydrino reaction on the mass flow from one compartment to another, a potential between the electrodes of the individual compartments and a power gain or thermal gain of the system are produced. The mass flow provides at least one of conditions that form a reaction mixture that reacts to produce hydrino and that allow the hydrino reaction to occur at a substantial rate. Ideally, the hydrino reaction does not occur or does not occur at an appreciable rate without electronic flow and ion mass transport.

In another embodiment, the battery produces at least one of electrical and thermal energy gain as compared to electrolytic power applied via the electrodes.

In one embodiment, the reactants for forming hydrinos are at least one of thermally regenerative or electrolytically regenerative.

One embodiment of the present invention relates to an electrochemical power system for generating electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprising a cathode, an anode, and reactants comprising a hydrino reactant transported by separate electron flow and ionic species during battery operationThe system comprises at least two components selected from: a) catalyst source or catalyst comprising nH, OH^-、H₂O、H₂S or MNH₂At least one of the group of (a), wherein n is an integer and M is an alkali metal; b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) reactants for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a carrier. At least one of the following conditions may occur in the electrochemical power system: a) forming atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst by reaction of the reaction mixture; b) a reactant by means of which the reaction takes place to make the catalysis effective; and c) a reaction that causes a catalytic reaction comprising a reaction selected from the group consisting of: (i) carrying out an exothermic reaction; (ii) coupling reaction; (iii) carrying out free radical reaction; (iv) oxidation-reduction reaction; (v) carrying out exchange reaction; and (vi) getter, support or matrix assisted catalytic reactions. In one embodiment, at least one of a) different reactants or b) the same reactant is provided in different cell compartments connected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to complete an electrical circuit between the compartments in different states or conditions. At least one of the internal mass flow and the external electron flow may cause at least one of the following conditions to occur: a) forming a reaction mixture that reacts to produce hydrinos; and b) forming conditions that allow the hydrino reaction to occur at a substantial rate. In one embodiment, the reactants for forming hydrinos are at least one of thermally regenerative or electrolytically regenerative. At least one of the electrical and thermal energy output may exceed that required to regenerate the reactants from the products.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to an electrochemical power system for generating an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprising a cathode, an anode, and reactants that constitute a hydrino reactant during operation of the battery utilizing separate electron flow and ion mass transport, the system comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a) a catalyst source or catalyst comprising at least one oxygen species selected from the group consisting of: o is₂、O₃、O₃ ⁺、O₃ ^-、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、O₂ ^-And O₂ ^2-Which undergoes an oxidation reaction with H species to form OH and H₂O, wherein the H species comprises at least one of: h₂、H、H⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-HOOH and OOH^-(ii) a b) A source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; c) forming reactants of at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a carrier. The source of O species may comprise at least one compound or mixture of compounds comprising O, O₂Air, oxide, NiO, CoO, alkali metal oxide, Li₂O、Na₂O、K₂O, alkaline earth metal oxides, MgO, CaO, SrO and BaO, oxides from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn and W, peroxides, alkali metal peroxides, superoxides, alkali metal or alkaline earth metal superoxides, hydroxides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, hydroxides of internal transition metals and elements of groups III, IV or V, oxyhydroxides, AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (α -MnO (OH) manganite and γ -MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). The source of H species may comprise at least one compound or mixture of compounds comprising H, a metal hydride, LaNi₅H₆Hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, H₂、H₂Source, H₂And hydrogen permeable membrane, Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂)、Fe(H₂) And Stainless Steel (SS) (such as 430SS (H)₂))。

In another embodimentAn electrochemical power system comprising: a hydrogen anode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide; and O₂And H₂At least one of O cathodes. The hydrogen anode may include at least one of: hydrogen-permeable electrodes, e.g. Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Nb(H₂)、Pd(H₂)、PdAg(H₂)、Fe(H₂) And 430SS (H)₂) At least one of; can spray H₂The porous electrode of (4); and hydrides, e.g. selected from R-Ni, LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2A hydride of (a); and other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂(VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type (wherein "AB_xThe symbol denotes the ratio of the type A element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the type B element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm-misch metal: 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd), AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloy, magnesium-based alloy, Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀、La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1、LaNi_5-xM_x(M ═ Mn, Al), (M ═ Al, Si, Cu), (M ═ Sn), (M ═ Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂AB compound, TiFe, TiCo, TiNi and AB_nCompound (n ═ 5, 2 or 1), AB_3-4Compound AB_x(A＝La、Ce、Mn、Mg；B＝Ni、Mn、Co、Al)、ZrFe₂、Zr_0.5Cs_0.5Fe₂、Zr_0.8Sc_0.2Fe₂、YNi₅、LaNi₅、LaNi_4.5Co_0.5、(Ce、La、Nd、Pr)Ni₅Misch metal-nickel alloy, Ti_0.98Zr_0.02V_0.43Fe_0.09Cr_0.05Mn_1.5、La₂Co₁Ni₉FeNi and TiMn₂. The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide with at least one other salt, such as a salt selected from one or more other hydroxides, halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates and phosphates. The molten salt may comprise at least one salt mixture selected from: CsNO₃-CsOH、CsOH-KOH、CsOH-LiOH、CsOH-NaOH、CsOH-RbOH、K₂CO₃-KOH、KBr-KOH、KCl-KOH、KF-KOH、KI-KOH、KNO₃-KOH、KOH-K₂SO₄、KOH-LiOH、KOH-NaOH、KOH-RbOH、Li₂CO₃-LiOH、LiBr-LiOH、LiCl-LiOH、LiF-LiOH、LiI-LiOH、LiNO₃-LiOH、LiOH-NaOH、LiOH-RbOH、Na₂CO₃-NaOH、NaBr-NaOH、NaCl-NaOH、NaF-NaOH、NaI-NaOH、NaNO₃-NaOH、NaOH-Na₂SO₄、NaOH-RbOH、RbCl-RbOH、RbNO₃-RbOH、LiOH-LiX、NaOH-NaX、KOH-KX、RbOH-RbX、CsOH-CsX、Mg(OH)₂-MgX₂、Ca(OH)₂-CaX₂、Sr(OH)₂-SrX₂Or Ba (OH)₂-BaX₂(wherein X ═ F, Cl, Br or I) and LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg (OH)₂、Ca(OH)₂、Sr(OH)₂Or Ba (OH)₂And one or more of the following: AlX₃、VX₂、ZrX₂、TiX₃、MnX₂、ZnX₂、CrX₂、SnX₂、InX₃、CuX₂、NiX₂、PbX₂、SbX₃、BiX₃、CoX₂、CdX₂、GeX₃、AuX₃、IrX₃、FeX₃、HgX₂、MoX₄、OsX₄、PdX₂、ReX₃、RhX₃、RuX₃、SeX₂、AgX₂、TcX₄、TeX₄TlX and WX₄(wherein X ═ F, Cl, Br, or I). The molten salt may comprise a cation common to the anions of the salt mixture electrolyte; or an anion common to the cations and the hydroxide is stable to the other salts in the mixture.

In another embodiment of the invention, an electrochemical power system comprises [ M "(H)₂) [ MOH-M 'halide/M']And [ M "(H)₂)/M(OH)₂-M 'halide/M']Wherein M is an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal, and M' is a metal characterized by: the hydroxide and oxide thereof are at least one of less stable than those of alkali metals or alkaline earth metals or having low reactivity with water, M 'is a hydrogen permeable metal, and M' is a conductor. In one embodiment, M' is a metal such as one selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, In and Pb. Alternatively, M and M' may be metals, such as metals independently selected from the group consisting of: li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W. Other exemplary systems include [ M' (H)₂)/MOH M”X/M”']Wherein M, M ', M' and M 'are metal cations or metals, X is an anion, such as an anion selected from the group consisting of hydroxide, halide, nitrate, sulfate, carbonate and phosphate, and M' is H₂Permeability. In one embodiment, the hydrogen anode comprises a metal, such as at least one metal selected from the group consisting of: v, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W, which can react with the electrolyte during discharge. In another embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises: a source of hydrogen; can form OH and OH^-And H₂A hydrogen anode over at least one of O catalyst and providing H; o is₂And H₂A source of at least one of O; capable of reducing H₂O or O₂A cathode of at least one of; an alkaline electrolyte; capable of collecting and recycling H₂O vapor, N₂And O₂And a system for collecting and recycling H₂The system of (1).

The invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising an anode comprising at least one of: a metal, such as a metal selected from: v, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W, and metal hydrides such as those selected from the group consisting of: R-Ni, LaNi₅H₆、La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆、ZrCr₂H_3.8、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.4Al_0.3Co_0.75、ZrMn_0.5Cr_0.2V_0.1Ni_1.2And other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, such as other alloys selected from the group consisting of: AB₅(LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂(VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type (wherein "AB_xThe symbol denotes the ratio of the type A element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to the type B element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅Type (2): MmNi_3.2Co_1.0Mn_0.6Al_0.11Mo_0.09(Mm-misch metal: 25 wt.% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt.% Pr, 18 wt.% Nd), AB₂Type (2): ti_0.51Zr_0.49V_0.70Ni_1.18Cr_0.12Alloy, magnesium-based alloy, Mg_1.9Al_0.1Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1Alloy, Mg_0.72Sc_0.28(Pd_0.012+Rh_0.012) And Mg₈₀Ti₂₀、Mg₈₀V₂₀、La_0.8Nd_0.2Ni_2.4Co_2.5Si_0.1、LaNi_5-xM_x(M ═ Mn, Al), (M ═ Al, Si, Cu), (M ═ Sn), (M ═ Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi₄Co、MmNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、LaNi_3.55Mn_0.44Al_0.3Co_0.75、MgCu₂、MgZn₂、MgNi₂AB compound, TiFe, TiCo, TiNi and AB_nCompound (n ═ 5, 2 or 1), AB_3-4Compound AB_x(A＝La、Ce、Mn、Mg；B＝Ni、Mn、Co、Al)、ZrFe₂、Zr_0.5Cs_0.5Fe₂、Zr_0.8Sc_0.2Fe₂、YNi₅、LaNi₅、LaNi_4.5Co_0.5、(Ce、La、Nd、Pr)Ni₅Misch metal-nickel alloy, Ti_0.98Zr_0.02V_0.43Fe_0.09Cr_0.05Mn_1.5、La₂Co₁Ni₉FeNi and TiMn₂(ii) a A partition plate; an aqueous alkaline electrolyte solution; o is₂And H₂At least one of O-reduced cathodes; and air and O₂At least one of (1). The electrochemical system may further comprise an electrolysis system that intermittently charges and discharges the battery such that there is a gain in net energy balance. Alternatively, the electrochemical power system may comprise or further comprise a hydrogenation system that regenerates the power system by rehydrogenating the hydride anode.

Another embodiment comprises an electrochemical power system for generating an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprising a molten alkali metal anode, β -alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and a molten salt cathode comprising a hydroxide, the molten salt cathode can comprise a eutectic mixture (such as one of Table 4) and a source of hydrogen (such as a hydrogen permeable membrane and H)₂Gas). The catalyst or catalyst source may be selected from OH, OH^-、H₂O、NaH、Li、K、Rb⁺And Cs. The molten salt cathode may comprise an alkali metal hydroxide. The system may further comprise a hydrogen reaction vessel and a metal-hydroxide separator, wherein the alkali metal cathode and the alkali metal hydroxide cathode are regenerated by hydrogenating the product hydroxide and separating the resulting alkali metal and metal hydroxide.

Another embodiment of an electrochemical power system comprisesAn anode comprising a hydrogen source, such as a hydrogen source selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂suitable cathodes include a molten element cathode comprising one of In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, S, I, Se, Bi, and As₃、AsX₃、AuX、AuX₃、BaX₂、BeX₂、BiX₃、CaX₂、CdX₃、CeX₃、CoX₂、CrX₂、CsX、CuX、CuX₂、EuX₃、FeX₂、FeX₃、GaX₃、GdX₃、GeX₄、HfX₄、HgX、HgX₂、InX、InX₂、InX₃、IrX、IrX₂、KX、KAgX₂、KAlX₄、K₃AlX₆、LaX₃、LiX、MgX₂、MnX₂、MoX₄、MoX₅、MoX₆、NaAlX₄、Na₃AlX₆、NbX₅、NdX₃、NiX₂、OsX₃、OsX₄、PbX₂、PdX₂、PrX₃、PtX₂、PtX₄、PuX₃、RbX、ReX₃、RhX、RhX₃、RuX₃、SbX₃、SbX₅、ScX₃、SiX₄、SnX₂、SnX₄、SrX₂、ThX₄、TiX₂、TiX₃、TlX、UX₃、UX₄、VX₄、WX₆、YX₃、ZnX₂And ZrX₄。

Another embodiment of an electrochemical power system that generates an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprises: an anode comprising Li; an electrolyte comprising an organic solvent, and an inorganic Li electrolyte and LiPF₆At least one of; olefinsa separator, and a cathode comprising at least one of oxyhydroxide, AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (α -MnO (OH) manganese sphene and γ -MnO (OH) manganite), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O(OH)。

In another embodiment, an electrochemical power system comprises an anode comprising at least one of: li, lithium alloy, Li₃Species of the Mg and Li-N-H systems; a molten salt electrolyte, and a hydrogen cathode comprising H₂Gas and porous cathode, H₂And a hydrogen permeable membrane, and one of a metal hydride, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, and a rare earth metal hydride.

The invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising at least one of the batteries a) to h), comprising:

a) (i) an anode comprising a hydrogen permeable metal and hydrogen, such as selected from Ni (H)₂)、V(H₂)、Ti(H₂)、Fe(H₂)、Nb(H₂) One of (1); or metal hydrides, such as from LaNi₅H₆、TiMn₂H_xAnd La₂Ni₉CoH₆(x is an integer); (ii) a molten electrolyte, such as a molten electrolyte selected from the group consisting of: MOH or M (OH)₂Or MOH or M (OH)₂With M 'X or M' X₂(ii) wherein M and M' are metals such as one independently selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba, and X is an anion such as an anion selected from hydroxide, halide, sulfate and carbonate, and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal which may be the same as the anode, and further comprising air or O₂；

b) (i) an anode comprising at least one metal such as one selected from the group consisting of R-Ni, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Ti, Cu, Ti, Mo, Cu, Ti,one of In and Pb; (ii) an electrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution having a concentration ranging from about 10M to saturated; (iii) (iii) an olefin separator, and (iv) a carbon cathode, and further comprising air or O₂；

c) (ii) an electrolyte comprising β alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and (iii) a cathode comprising a molten eutectic salt, such as NaCl-MgCl₂、NaCl-CaCl₂Or MX-M' X₂' (M is an alkali metal, M ' is an alkaline earth metal, and X ' are halide ions);

d) (ii) an electrolyte comprising β alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and (iii) a cathode comprising molten NaOH;

e) (i) an anode comprising a hydride, such as LaNi₅H₆(ii) a (ii) An electrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution having a concentration ranging from about 10M to saturated; (iii) (iii) an olefin separator, and (iv) a carbon cathode, and further comprising air or O₂；

f) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) an olefin separator; (ii) organic electrolytes, such as those containing LP30 and LiPF₆(iii) an organic electrolyte of (iii), and (iv) a cathode comprising an oxyhydroxide, such as CoO (OH);

g) (i) an anode comprising a lithium alloy, such as Li₃Mg; (ii) (ii) a molten salt electrolyte, such as LiCl-KCl or MX-M 'X' (M and M 'are alkali metals and X' are halide ions), and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride, such as selected from CeH₂、LaH₂、ZrH₂And TiH₂And further comprises carbon black, and

h) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) (ii) a molten salt electrolyte, such as LiCl-KCl or MX-M 'X' (M and M 'are alkali metals and X' are halide ions), and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride, such as selected from CeH₂,LaH₂、ZrH₂And TiH₂And further comprises carbon black.

The invention also relates toAnd an electrochemical power system comprising at least one of the following cells: [ Ni (H)₂)/LiOH-LiBr/Ni]Wherein is designated as Ni (H)₂) The hydrogen electrode comprises at least one of an osmotic, sparged, and intermittent electrolysis source of hydrogen; [ PtTi/H ]₂SO₄(about 5M in water) or H₃PO₄(about 14.5M aqueous solution)/PtTi]Intermittent electrolysis; and [ NaOH Ni (H) ]₂)/BASE/NaCl MgCl₂]Wherein is designated as Ni (H)₂) The hydrogen electrode of (a) comprises a permeation source of hydrogen. In a suitable embodiment, the hydrogen electrode comprises a metal (such as nickel) prepared with a protective oxide coating (such as NiO). The oxide coating may be formed by anodic oxidation or oxidation in an oxidizing atmosphere, such as an atmosphere containing oxygen.

The invention also relates to an electrochemical power system comprising at least one of the batteries a) to d), comprising:

a) (i) an anode comprising Ni (H) as specified₂) And a hydrogen electrode comprising at least one of a permeate, a jet, and an intermittent electrolysis source of hydrogen; (ii) molten electrolytes, such as from MOH or M (OH)₂Or MOH or M (OH)₂With M 'X or M' X₂Wherein M and M' are metals, such as metals independently selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba, and X is an anion, such as an anion selected from hydroxide, halide, sulfate and carbonate; and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal which may be the same as the anode, and further comprising air or O₂；

b) (i) an anode comprising Ni (H) as specified₂) And a hydrogen electrode comprising at least one of a permeate, a jet, and an intermittent electrolysis source of hydrogen; (ii) a molten electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr, NaOH-NaBr or NaOH-NaI; and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal which may be the same as the anode, and further comprising air or O₂；

c) (i) an anode comprising a noble metal, such as Pt/Ti; (ii) aqueous acid electrolytes, such as H₂SO₄Or H₃PO₄Concentrations in the range of 1 to 10M and 5 to 15M, respectively; and (iii) a cathode, comprising a metal oxide and an anodeThe same metal, and further comprising air or O₂And are and

d) (i) an anode comprising molten NaOH and designated Ni (H)₂) and a permeation source of hydrogen comprising hydrogen, (ii) an electrolyte comprising a Beta Alumina Solid Electrolyte (BASE), and (iii) a cathode comprising a molten eutectic salt, such as NaCl-MgCl₂、NaCl-CaCl₂Or MX-M' X₂' (M is an alkali metal, M ' is an alkaline earth metal, and X ' are halide ions).

Other embodiments of the invention relate to catalyst systems, such as catalyst systems for electrochemical cells, that include a hydrogen catalyst capable of forming atomic H in its n ═ 1 state into a lower energy state, a source of atomic hydrogen, and other species capable of initiating and propagating reactions to form lower energy hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to a reaction mixture comprising at least one source of atomic hydrogen and at least one catalyst or catalyst source to support the catalytic formation of hydrinos by hydrogen. The reactants and reactions disclosed herein for solid and liquid fuels are also reactants and reactions for heterogeneous fuels comprising a multiphase mixture. The reaction mixture comprises at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a hydrogen catalyst or source of hydrogen catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, wherein at least one of atomic hydrogen and hydrogen catalyst is formed by reaction of a reaction mixture. In other embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a support, which in certain embodiments may be electrically conductive, a reducing agent, and an oxidizing agent, wherein at least one of the reactants is catalytically effective by reacting therewith. The reactants can be regenerated by heating any non-hydrino products.

The invention also relates to a power supply comprising:

a reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen;

a reaction vessel;

a vacuum pump;

an atomic hydrogen source in communication with the reaction vessel;

a source of hydrogen catalyst in communication with the reaction vessel, comprising bulk material,

at least one of a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of hydrogen catalyst comprising a reaction mixture comprising at least one reactant comprising an element that forms at least one of atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst, and at least one other element, whereby at least one of atomic hydrogen and a hydrogen catalyst is formed from the source,

at least one other reactant for causing catalysis; and

a heater for the container is arranged on the container,

whereby the catalysis of atomic hydrogen releases an amount of energy greater than about 300 kj/mole of hydrogen.

The hydrino-forming reaction can be activated or initiated and propagated by one or more chemical reactions. Such reactions may be selected from, for example, (i) hydride exchange reactions; (ii) halogen-hydrogen exchange reaction; (iii) an exothermic reaction, which in certain embodiments provides activation energy for the hydrino reaction; (iv) a coupling reaction, which in certain embodiments provides at least one of a catalyst or a source of atomic hydrogen to support the hydrino reaction; (v) a free radical reaction, which in certain embodiments acts as an acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction; (vi) a redox reaction, which in certain embodiments, acts as an acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the hydrino reaction; (vi) other exchange reactions, such as anion exchanges, including halide, sulfide, hydride, arsenide, oxide, phosphide, and nitride exchanges, which, in one embodiment, contribute to the effect of the catalyst becoming ionized when it accepts energy from atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos; and (vii) a getter, support or matrix to assist the hydrino reaction, which may provide at least one of: (a) the chemical environment of the hydrino reaction, (b) the effect of transferring electrons to promote the function of the H catalyst, (c) undergoing reversible phase or other physical changes or changes in their electronic state, and (d) incorporating lower energy hydrogen products to increase at least one of the extent or rate of the hydrino reaction. In certain embodiments, the conductive support allows the activation reaction to proceed.

In another embodiment, the hydrino-forming reaction comprises at least one of a hydride exchange and a halide exchange between at least two species (such as two metals). The at least one metal may be a catalyst or source of catalyst for forming hydrinos, such as an alkali metal or alkali metal hydride. Hydride exchange can occur between at least two hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one hydride, between at least two metal hydrides, between at least one metal and at least one metal hydride, and other such combinations having an exchange between or involving more than two species. In one embodiment, the hydride exchange forms a mixed metal hydride, such as (M)₁)_x(M₂)_yH_zWherein x, y and z are integers and M₁And M₂Is a metal.

Other embodiments of the invention relate to reactants wherein the catalyst in the activation reaction and/or propagation reaction comprises a catalyst or a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen to react with a material or compound to form an intercalated compound, wherein the reactants are regenerated by removal of the intercalated species. In one embodiment, carbon may act as an oxidant and the carbon may be regenerated from the alkali metal intercalated carbon, for example, by heating, using a substitution agent, electrolysis, or by using a solvent.

In other embodiments, the present invention relates to a power system comprising:

(i) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst or catalyst source; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; reactants for forming a catalyst or a catalyst source and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support that makes catalysis feasible,

(ii) at least one thermal system comprising a plurality of reaction vessels for a reverse exchange reaction to thermally regenerate fuel from reaction products,

wherein a regeneration reaction comprising a reaction to form an initial chemical fuel mixture from a mixture reaction product is conducted in at least one of a plurality of reaction vessels associated with at least one other reaction vessel in which a kinetic reaction is conducted,

the heat from the at least one power generation vessel flows to the at least one vessel undergoing regeneration to provide heat regeneration energy,

the vessel is embedded in a heat transfer medium to effect heat flow,

the at least one vessel further comprises a vacuum pump and a hydrogen source, and may further comprise two chambers that maintain a temperature difference between the hotter and colder chambers such that material preferentially accumulates in the colder chambers,

wherein hydride reaction is carried out in the cooler chamber to form at least one initial reactant, which is returned to the hotter chamber,

(iii) a heat sink for receiving heat from the power generating reaction vessel through the thermal barrier,

and

(iv) a power conversion system, which may include a thermal engine, such as a rankine or brayton cycle engine, a steam engine, a stirling engine, wherein the power conversion system may include a thermoelectric or thermionic converter. In some embodiments, the heat sink may transfer power to the power conversion system to generate electricity.

In certain embodiments, the power conversion system receives heat flow from a heat sink, and in certain embodiments, the heat sink contains a steam generator and the steam flows to a heat engine, such as a turbine, to generate electricity.

(ii) a thermal system for reverse exchange reactions to thermally regenerate fuel from reaction products, comprising at least one reaction vessel, wherein a regeneration reaction comprising a reaction forming an initial chemical fuel mixture from the mixture reaction products is conducted in the at least one reaction vessel along with a kinetic reaction, heat from the kinetic-producing reaction flowing to the regeneration reaction providing energy for thermal regeneration, the at least one vessel being insulated on one section and in contact with a heat transfer medium on another section to achieve a thermal gradient between hotter and colder sections of the vessel, respectively, such that species preferentially accumulate in the colder section, the at least one vessel further comprising a vacuum pump and a source of hydrogen, wherein a hydride reaction is conducted in the colder section to form at least one initial reactant which is returned to the hotter section,

(iii) a heat sink that receives heat from the power-generating reaction transferred through the heat transfer medium and optionally through the at least one thermal barrier, and

(iv) a power conversion system, which may include a thermal engine, such as a rankine or brayton cycle engine, a steam engine, a stirling engine, wherein the power conversion system may include a thermoelectric or thermionic converter, wherein the conversion system receives a heat flow from a heat sink,

in one embodiment, the heat sink comprises a steam generator and the steam flows to a heat engine, such as a turbine, to generate electricity.

H. Electrochemical SF-CIHT cell

In one electrochemical embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the excess of at least one of the externally or internally generated overvoltage, current, and electrical power is generated by forming at least one of a HOH catalyst and H under a high current flow, wherein the HOH catalyzes a reaction of H to form hydrinos, the rate being substantially increased by the catalyst reaction in the presence of the high current flow. In another electrochemical embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, voltage and electrical functionsThe rate is produced by utilizing at least one electrochemical reaction to form at least one of a HOH catalyst, H, and a conductor capable of carrying high current, wherein the HOH catalyzes a reaction of H to form hydrinos, the rate being substantially increased by the catalyst reaction in the presence of a high current flow. The electrochemical reaction may include electron transfer to at least one electrode of the cell. In one embodiment, such as the embodiment shown in fig. 1, the battery comprises a container 400, the container 400 can contain battery components comprising a cathode 405 and an anode 410, reactants comprising a source of HOH catalyst and a source of H, and an electrolyte comprising a source of a highly conductive medium capable of carrying at least one of ionic and electronic current. The cathode may comprise nickel oxide, lithiated nickel oxide, nickel, and other cathodes of the invention. The anode may comprise Ni, Mo or Mo alloys, such as MoCu, MoNi or MoCo. The source of HOH may be a source of H. The source of at least one of the HOH catalyst and H can be a source of at least one of oxygen and hydrogen, such as a hydrated compound or material, such as a hydrated hygroscopic material of the invention, e.g., a hydrated oxide or halide, such as hydrated CuO, CoO, and MX₂(M ═ Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X ═ F, Cl, Br, I), oxides, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, O₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxygen ion, superoxide ion, hydride and H₂. H of hydrated compound₂The O mole% content may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% o to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In one embodiment, the electrochemical reaction forms HOH, which reacts with H present in the cell. The cell may further include a bipolar plate 500, such as the bipolar plate shown in fig. 2. The bipolar plates may be stacked and connected in series or side-by-side or combinations to achieve at least one of greater voltage, current, and power.

In an embodiment of the invention, an electrochemical power system may comprise a vessel comprising at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one electrolyte(ii) a At least two reactants selected from the group consisting of: (a) at least one of the compounds containing nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of a source of conductor, a source of electrically conductive matrix, a conductor, and an electrically conductive matrix; and at least one current source for generating an electrical current comprising at least one of a high ionic and electronic current selected from an internal current source and an external current source; wherein the electrochemical power system generates at least one of electricity and thermal energy. In certain embodiments, the combination of cathodes, anodes, reactants, and an external source of electrical current allows catalytic atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos for propagation, thereby maintaining a contribution to the electrical current between each cathode and the respective anode. In other embodiments, the reaction of the catalyst with atomic H may cause the cell voltage to decrease as the cell current increases.

In one embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise a source of oxygen, a source of hydrogen, H₂O, HOH a source of catalyst and a source of H. The electrolyte may comprise a molten electrolyte, such as the molten electrolyte of the present invention, for example a mixture of a molten hydroxide and a molten halide, such as a mixture of an alkali metal hydroxide and an alkali metal halide, for example LiOH — LiBr. The electrolyte may further comprise a matrix material, such as one of the matrix materials of the present invention, for example an oxide, such as an alkaline earth metal oxide, such as MgO. The electrolyte may further comprise an additive, such as an additive of the present invention. Alternatively, the electrolyte may comprise an aqueous electrolyte solution, e.g., comprising a base (e.g., a hydroxide, e.g., an alkali metal hydroxide, e.g., KOH) or an acid (e.g., HCl, H)₃PO₄Or H₂SO₄) The aqueous electrolyte solution of (1). In addition, the electrolyte may comprise at least one electrolyte selected from the group consisting of: at least one aqueous alkali metal hydroxide solution; a saturated aqueous solution of KOH; at least one molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and at least one other compound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a halide salt; alkali metal hydroxides and halidesAt least one mixture of compounds; melting at least one of the group consisting of LiOH-LiBr, LiOH-NaOH, LiOH-LiBr-NaOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaBr, NaOH-NaI, NaOH-NaX, and KOH-KX (wherein X represents a halide ion); at least one acid, and HCl, H₃PO₄And H₂SO₄At least one of (1).

In one embodiment, nascent H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may comprise: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one hydrogen source. In other embodiments, the electrochemical power system may further comprise one or more solid fuels for forming at least one of a conductor, a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen. In other embodiments, the reactants may react in the presence of a separate electron flow in the external circuit and ion mass transport within the reactants during operation of the cell. In an embodiment, exceeding at least one of an externally or internally generated overvoltage, current, and electrical power may be generated by forming at least one of a HOH catalyst and H under high current flow. In other embodiments, the voltage and electrical power may be generated by utilizing at least one electrochemical reaction to form at least one of a HOH catalyst, H, and a conductor capable of carrying high current, and in other embodiments, the high current increases the rate of reaction of the catalyst with atomic H. In an embodiment, the electrochemical reaction may include electron transfer of at least one electrode of the cell.

In one embodiment, at least one of a high current and a high current density is applied such that the hydrino reaction occurs at a high rate. The source of at least one of the high current and the high current density may be at least one of an external and an internal source. At least one of the internal and external current sources includes a voltage selected to cause a DC, AC, or AC-DC mixture of currents within at least one of the following ranges: 1A to 50kA, 10A to 10kA, and 10A to 1kA, and a DC or peak AC current density in at least one of the following ranges: 1A/cm²To 50kA/cm²、10A/cm²To 10kA/cm²And 10A/cm²To 1kA/cm². The voltage may be determined by the conductivity of the electrolyte, where the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the electrolyte, which may comprise a conductor. The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1V to 100V, 0.1V to 10V, and 1V to 5V, and the AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. In one embodiment, the electrodes may be closely spaced such that a discharge arc may be formed therebetween. In one embodiment, the electrolyte has a resistance in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001m Ω to 10 Ω and 0.01 Ω to 1 Ω, and an electrolyte resistance per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos is in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001 m.OMEGA/cm²To 10 omega/cm²And 0.01. omega./cm²To 1 omega/cm²。

In one embodiment, an electrical current comprising at least one of ionic and electronic current is carried through the electrolyte. The current may be carried by an electrochemical reaction between at least one of the electrolyte, the reactant, and the electrode. In certain embodiments, at least one species of the electrolyte may optionally comprise at least one reactant. Current may flow through the conductors of the electrolyte. The conductor may be formed by a reduction reaction at an electrode, such as a cathode. The electrolyte may contain metal ions that are reduced to form a conductive metal. In embodiments, the metal ions may be reduced during the flow of current to form a conductive metal. In other embodiments, the current carrying reduction electrochemical reaction is at least one of: metal ions to metals; h₂O+O₂To OH^-(ii) a Metal oxide + H₂O to at least one of metal oxyhydroxide and metal hydroxide and OH^-And metal oxyhydroxide + H₂O to OH^-Wherein the ion current carrier is OH^-. In embodiments, the anode may comprise H, H₂O may be formed from OH at the anode^-Oxidation and reaction with H to form, and/or the source of H at the anode comprises at least one of: metal hydride, LaNi₅H_xH formed by electrolysis on the anode₂To move with gasSupplied in the form of H₂And H supplied via a hydrogen-permeable membrane₂。

In one embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and the reactant comprises a reactant comprising a hydrino reactant of the present invention, comprising at least one reactant comprising nascent H₂A source of catalyst or catalyst for O, at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least one of a conductor and an electrically conductive matrix. In one embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and the reactant comprises a source of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention and at least one of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention. In one embodiment, an exemplary solid fuel comprises H for forming at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix. H₂The source of O may comprise at least one of: bulk phase H₂O, bulk phase H₂In a state other than O, reacted to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of O. Bound H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interacting compounds, in which H₂O is H in absorption₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and water of hydration. The reactants may comprise a conductor and one or more carrier phases H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂A compound or material of at least one of O and release of hydrated water, and which has H₂O as a reaction product. Other exemplary solid fuels are hydrated hygroscopic materials and conductors; a hydrated carbon; hydrated carbon and metal; metal oxides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O; and metal halides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O. The metals and metal oxides may comprise transition metals such as Co, Fe, Ni and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg or Ca, and a halide, such as F, Cl, Br or I. Metal and H₂O can undergo thermodynamically unfavorable reactions, such as at least one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge,Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, wherein the reactants can be reacted by adding H₂And (4) regenerating the O. The reactants comprising the hydrino reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In other embodiments of the invention, the reactants used to form at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen may comprise at least one of: h₂O and H₂A source of O; o is₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; and a conductive matrix. As exemplary embodiments, the oxyhydroxide compound may comprise at least one from the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; the oxide may comprise at least one from the group consisting of CuO, Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO and Ni₂O₃(ii) a The hydroxide may comprise at least one Cu (OH) from the group₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂(ii) a The oxygen-containing compound may comprise at least one sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate and periodate from the group, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metal, e.g. alkali metal, e.g. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、CO₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth metal oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃Oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, feoooh, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the electrically conductive matrix may comprise at least one from the group of metal powders, carbon, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides such as TiCN, or nitriles.

In embodiments, the reactants comprise hydrino reactants comprising a metal, a metal halide, and H₂A mixture of O. In other embodiments, the reactants comprise hydrino reactants comprising a transition metal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂A mixture of O. In other embodiments, the reactants comprise hydrino reactants comprising a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O. Non-limiting examples of the conductor include metal powder or carbon powder, and non-limiting examples of the moisture absorbent material include at least one of the following group: lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, e.g. KMgCl3 & 6 (H)₂O), ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizers, salts, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular weightSieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and deliquescent salts. In some embodiments of the present invention, an electrochemical power system may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein (metal), (hygroscopic material), (H)₂O) in a relative molar amount range of at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000 metal), (0.000001 to 100000 hygroscopic material), (0.000001 to 100000H)₂O); about (0.00001 to 10000 metal), (0.00001 to 10000 hygroscopic material), (0.00001 to 10000H)₂O); about (0.0001 to 1000 metal), (0.0001 to 1000 hygroscopic material), (0.0001 to 1000H)₂O); about (0.001 to 100 metal), (0.001 to 100 hygroscopic material), (0.001 to 100H₂O); about (0.01 to 100 metal), (0.01 to 100 hygroscopic material), (0.01 to 100H)₂O); about (0.1 to 10 metals), (0.1 to 10 hygroscopic materials), (0.1 to 10H)₂O); and about (0.5 to 1 metal), (0.5 to 1 hygroscopic material), (0.5 to 1H)₂O)。

Exemplary cathode materials that can undergo a reduction reaction to produce an ionic current are metal oxyhydroxides, metal oxides, metal ions, oxygen and oxygen with H₂A mixture of O. At least one of the metal oxide, metal oxyhydroxide, and metal hydroxide may include a transition metal. Metal oxides, metal oxyhydroxides, and metal hydroxides may comprise those of the present invention. An exemplary current carrying reduction electrochemical reaction is at least one of: metal ions to metals; h₂O+O₂To OH^-(ii) a Metal oxide + H₂O to at least one of metal oxyhydroxide and metal hydroxide and OH^-And metal oxyhydroxide + H₂O to OH^-. The ionic current carrier may be OH^-And the anode may comprise H to oxidize OH^-Form H₂And O. The source of H at the anode comprises at least one of: metal hydrides (e.g. LaNi)₅H_x) H formed by electrolysis on the anode₂H supplied in gaseous form₂And H supplied via a hydrogen-permeable membrane₂. In other embodiments, the ionic currentIs carried by at least one of: oxygen-containing ions, oxygen-and hydrogen-containing ions, OH^-、OOH^-、O^2-And O₂ ^2-Wherein the ion-carrying reactions may be those given in equations (61-72).

In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system of the invention may comprise at least one of: (a) a porous electrode; (b) a gas diffusion electrode; (c) hydrogen permeable anode of oxygen and H₂At least one of O is supplied to the cathode and H₂To the anode; (d) a cathode comprising at least one of an oxyhydroxide, an oxide, nickel oxide, lithiated nickel oxide, nickel; and (e) an anode comprising Ni, Mo or Mo alloy, such as MoCu, MoNi or MoCo, and hydride. In other embodiments, wherein the hydride may be LaNi₅H_xAnd the cathode may be at least one of: TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, and MnO₂. In other embodiments, the electrochemical power system of the invention can comprise at least one gas supply system comprising a manifold, a gas line, and at least one gas channel connected to an electrode.

In one embodiment, the current produced by the cell exceeds the applied current due to the power released by the formation of hydrinos. In one embodiment, the energy released from the formation of hydrinos from H causes ionization of at least one species, such as at least one of a reactant, an electrolyte, and an electrode. Ionization can produce an overcurrent that exceeds the applied current. Since the mobility of electrons is higher than that of ions, ionized species influence the current in the direction of the applied current. In one embodiment, the applied current is attributable to at least one of an applied voltage and a current source or an internal electrochemically generated current. In a cell containing 2cm OD [ Ni, Ni powder + LaNi₅H_xKOH (saturated aqueous solution)/Ni powder + NiOOH, Ni](50 wt.% Ni powder was mixed with cathode and anode materials, and the electrode current collector was Ni.) in one exemplary embodiment, the cell was run with a voltage limited high current DC power supply (Kepco ATE6-100M, 0-6V, 0-100A).The voltage limit is set at 4V. The battery current was initially 20A at 3.8V, but increased to 100A when the voltage dropped to 2.25V. The cell exhibited an irregular negative resistance, a voltage drop at higher currents, which characterizes and identifies the effect of hydrino formation on electrical power. The cell temperature also increases above the desired temperature due to the thermal energy released by the hydrino reaction.

In one embodiment, at least one magnet is applied to the cell to cause a lorentz deflection of electrons generated by the energy released by the H catalytic component hydrogen. In one embodiment, the electrons are preferentially deflected or biased toward the negative electrode and the positive ions are preferentially deflected or biased toward the positive electrode. In one embodiment, the preferential deflection is due to a greater release of energy deflected in the direction of the current.

In one embodiment, the electrochemical SF-CIHT cell further comprises an electrolysis system. Electrolysis may be applied intermittently to regenerate at least one of the electrolyte, the reactant, and the electrode. The system can supply reactants that are consumed during the formation of the hydrino and power. The reactant supplied may replace at least one of the HOH and the H source. A suitable exemplary supply reactant is H₂O、H₂And O₂One or more of the group (b). In one embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and the solid fuel may be regenerated in situ or may be intermittently or continuously supplied to the cell, wherein the cell reaction products may be regenerated into the initial reactants. Regeneration can be by heating, H₂Reduction, rehydration or any of the methods disclosed in my prior applications which are the present invention or incorporated by reference herein. The electrodes may be electrolytically regenerated by anode materials (e.g., metals such as Ni, Mo, or Mo alloys) that may be involved in regeneration reaction schemes, such as those reactions of the present invention, for example those of equations (53-60).

In one embodiment, the ionic carriers may comprise H^-And the electrolyte may be capable of conducting hydride ions, such as a molten halide salt mixture, such as a molten alkali metal halide salt mixture, such as LiCl-KCl. The catalyst may contain at least one H atom according to the reactions of equations (6-9) and (24-31). The battery may include a supplyA hydrogen permeable membrane cathode for hydrogen gas and an anode containing a reactant capable of forming a hydride (e.g., a metal, such as an alkali metal, such as Li). The metal may be inside the hydrogen permeable anode. Exemplary hydrogen permeable metals are Ni, V, Ti, Nb, and Ta. Hydride ion transport cells and methods for generating power by forming hydrinos are disclosed herein and in previous applications to Mills, such as the Hydrogen catalyst reactor, PCT/US08/61455 of PCT application No. 4/24/2008; heterogeneous Hydrogen catalyst reactor, PCT application PCT/US09/052072 of 7/29/2009; heterogeneous Hydrogen catalyst Power System, PCT 3/18/2010 PCT/US 10/27828; electrochemical hydrogenomic catalyst Power System, PCT 3/17/2011 in PCT/US 11/28889; h₂The O-based electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 of the 3/30/2012 application, and the CIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 of the 5/21/13 application, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In one embodiment, power from an external or internal source is applied to the cell to discharge it and excess power is formed by the formation of hydrinos. The current may be higher, such as those of the present invention. In one embodiment, the battery is run in reverse intermittently to recharge it. In one embodiment, the metal is regenerated in the anode and hydrogen is regenerated in the cathode.

Heat as well as electricity is generated by electrochemical embodiments of SF-CIHT cells. Electrochemical embodiments of SF CIHT cells further include a heat exchanger that may be on the external cell surface to remove heat generated by the cell and deliver it to a load. In another embodiment, the SF CIHT cell comprises a boiler. The heat exchanger or boiler includes a coolant input for receiving cold coolant from the load and a coolant outlet for supplying or returning hot coolant to the load. The heat may be directly used or converted into mechanical or power using converters known to those skilled in the art, such as heat engines, e.g. steam or gas turbines and generators, rankine or brayton cycle engines or stirling engines. For power conversion, the heat output from each electrochemical embodiment of the SF CIHT cell may be from the coolant outlet pipeThe wire is tapped off to any converter of thermal-mechanical or power described in previous publications of Mills and to converters known to those skilled in the art (for example heat engines, steam or gas turbine systems, stirling engines or thermionic or thermoelectric converters). In one embodiment, an electrochemical SF-CIHT cell, such as an electrolytic cell, operates. Hydrogen may be produced at the anode and oxygen may be produced at the cathode. Battery consumable H₂O。H₂O can be electrolyzed into H₂And O₂。H₂O may be from a source such as a tank or from H₂O vapor is supplied to the cell or from the atmosphere. The formation of hydrinos can generate heat, which can be used directly or converted into mechanical or power.

I. Internal SF-CIHT battery engine

In one mechanical embodiment of an SF-CIHT cell comprising an SF-CIHT cell motor, at least one of heat and gas pressure is generated by igniting a solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention. Ignition is achieved by the formation of at least one of the HOH catalyst and H under an external high current flow, wherein the HOH catalyzes the reaction of H to form hydrinos, the rate being greatly increased by the catalyst reaction in the presence of the high current flow. Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a mechanical power system, comprising: at least one piston cylinder of an internal combustion engine; a fuel comprising: (a) at least one of the compounds containing nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one fuel inlet having at least one valve; at least one exhaust outlet having at least one valve; at least one piston; at least one crankshaft; a source of high current, and at least two electrodes that confine and conduct the high current through the fuel.

The power system may comprise at least one piston cylinder capable of withstanding at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric and below atmospheric pressure during different phases of the reciprocating cycle, a high power source capable of providing high current and optionally high voltage, a solid fuel or energetic material source of the present invention, at least one fuel inlet having at least one valve and at least one exhaust outlet having at least one valve, at least one piston, at least one shaft (e.g., crankshaft) for conveying mechanical motion of the at least one piston to a mechanical load, and at least two electrodes that confine and conduct high current through the fuel to cause ignition thereof, wherein at least one of the piston or cylinder may serve as an opposing electrode to the other electrode. Additionally, the power system may further comprise at least one brush for providing electrical contact between the at least one piston and the high current source. In one embodiment, the internal SF-CIHT cell engine further comprises a generator powered by mechanical power of the engine to generate power to power a high current source which in turn provides high current flow through the solid fuel to ignite it. The generator may be rotated by a shaft (e.g., an engine crankshaft) or otherwise started with a gear or other machine mechanically coupled to the crankshaft. The engine may further comprise a fuel regenerator to convert or regenerate the products back to the original solid fuel.

The engine piston may reciprocate. The engine may comprise a two-stroke cycle comprising the steps of induction and compression, and ignition and exhaust, or a four-stroke cycle comprising individual steps of work, exhaust, intake, and compression. Other engines known to those skilled in the art, such as rotary engines, are within the scope of the invention. As the piston displaces, solid fuel flows into the piston cavity. During the power stroke of the reciprocating cycle, the compressed fuel is ignited at a high current corresponding to the high hydrino transition rate, heating the product and any additional gas or gas source added, and doing pressure-volume (PV) work on the piston, causing the piston to move in the cylinder and rotate a shaft, such as a crankshaft. When the piston is displaced, fuel flows into the cylinder, the fuel is compressed by the returning piston before ignition, and the products are expelled through the returning displaced piston after the work step. Alternatively, as fuel flows into the cylinder, exhaust gases are bled off and the piston compresses the fuel before another ignition. The discharged product may be flowed to a regeneration system to regenerate the primary fuel. Any additional gas or gas source that facilitates the conversion of heat from the ignition of the solid fuel to PV work may be recovered, regenerated, and recycled.

In one embodiment, the fuel comprises reactants comprising the hydrino reactants of the invention, including at least one reactant comprising nascent H₂A source of catalyst or catalyst for O, at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least one of a conductor and an electrically conductive matrix. In one embodiment, the fuel comprises a source of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention and at least one of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention. In one embodiment, an exemplary solid fuel comprises H for forming at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix. H₂The source of O may comprise at least one of: bulk phase H₂O, bulk phase H₂In a state other than O, reacted to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of O. Bound H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interacting compounds, in which H₂O is H in absorption₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and water of hydration. The reactants may comprise a conductor and one or more carrier phases H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂A compound or material of at least one of O and release of hydrated water, and which has H₂O as a reaction product. Other exemplary solid fuels are hydrated hygroscopic materials and conductors; a hydrated carbon; hydrated carbon and metal; metal oxides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O; and metal halides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O. The metals and metal oxides may comprise transition metals such as Co, Fe, Ni and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg or Ca, and a halide, such as F, Cl, Br or I. Metal and H₂O can undergo thermodynamically unfavorable reactions, such as at least one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Mo, and Mo,Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, wherein the reactants can be reacted by adding H₂And (4) regenerating the O. The reactants comprising the hydrino reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In certain embodiments, nascent H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may comprise at least one of: (a) at least one H₂A source of O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one hydrogen source. In other embodiments, the fuel may form at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen, including at least one of: (a) h₂O and H₂A source of O; (b) o is₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; and (c) a conductive matrix. Non-limiting examples of oxyhydroxides include at least one selected from the group consisting of: TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; non-limiting examples of the oxide include at least one selected from the following group: CuO, Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO and Ni₂O₃(ii) a Non-limiting examples of the hydroxide include at least one selected from the group consisting of: cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂(ii) a Non-limiting examples of the oxygen-containing compound include at least one selected from the following group: sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, perchlorates, perbromates and periodates, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metals, e.g. alkali metals, e.g. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesiumOxides, nickel-magnesium oxides, copper-magnesium oxides, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、CO₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth metal oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃Oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, feoooh, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the electrically conductive matrix may comprise at least one from the group of metal powders, carbon, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides such as TiCN, or nitriles.

In certain embodiments, the fuel may comprise (a) a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored; (b) metal, metal halide and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored; and (c) a transition metal, alkaline earth metal halide and H₂Mixtures of O, metals and H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored. In other embodiments, with H₂The thermodynamically unfavorable metal for the reaction of O is at least one selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In other embodiments, the fuelMay include a conductor, a hygroscopic material and H₂A mixture of O. In these embodiments, the conductor may comprise metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favourable and the hygroscopic material may comprise lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, e.g. KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), etc., ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, and at least one of the group of concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizers, salts, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts. In some embodiments, the fuel may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein (metal), (hygroscopic material), (H)₂O) in a relative molar amount range of at least one of: about (0.000001 to 100000 metal), (0.000001 to 100000 hygroscopic material), (0.000001 to 100000H)₂O); (0.00001 to 10000 metal), (0.00001 to 10000 hygroscopic material), (0.00001 to 10000H)₂O); (0.0001 to 1000 metal), (0.0001 to 1000 moisture-absorbing material), (0.0001 to 1000H)₂O); (0.001 to 100 metal), (0.001 to 100 hygroscopic material), (0.001 to 100H₂O); (0.01 to 100 metals), (0.01 to 100 hygroscopic materials), (0.01 to 100H)₂O); (0.1 to 10 metals), (0.1 to 10 moisture-absorbing materials), (0.1 to 10H)₂O); and (0.5 to 1 metal), (0.5 to 1 hygroscopic material), (0.5 to 1H)₂O)。

In other embodiments, the fuel may comprise a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal oxides are capable of reacting with H at a temperature of less than 1000 ℃₂And (4) reducing. In an embodiment, the catalyst has a temperature range of less than 1000 ℃ from H₂The metal reduced to the oxide of the metal may be selected from at least one of the following: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In。

In other embodiments, the fuel may comprise a mixture of: is not easy to be at H₂And oxides reduced under mild heat; having the ability to be heated at temperatures below 1000 ℃ by H₂A metal reduced to an oxide of the metal; and H₂And O. In embodiments, it is not easy to do so at H₂And the metal oxide reduced under the slight heat may include at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth metal oxide, and a rare earth metal oxide. In other embodiments, the fuel may comprise carbon or activated carbon and H₂O, wherein the mixture is prepared by adding H₂O is regenerated by rehydration.

In certain embodiments, H in the powertrain system₂The O mole% content may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%.

In one embodiment, a battery, such as the battery shown in fig. 3 and 4A and 4B, includes at least one cylinder of an internal combustion type engine as set forth in Mills prior thermal energy conversion publications, Mills prior plasma energy conversion publications, and Mills prior applications. The internal SF-CIHT cell engine shown in fig. 9 includes at least one cylinder 52, the cylinder 52 receiving fuel from a fuel source 63 via a fuel inlet 56 and an intake valve assembly 60, the intake valve assembly 60 opening into the cylinder cavity during the fuel intake phase of the reciprocating cycle. A recyclable gas, such as air or an inert gas (e.g., a noble gas such as argon) may also flow into the cylinder 52, for example, by way of the fuel inlet 56 and the intake valve assembly 60. In another embodiment, a fluid (e.g., H) is injected that can be vaporized, for example, during power generation₂O) gas source. E.g. H₂The fluid, such as O, may at least partially comprise fuel, such as a catalyst and a source of H.

Each cylinder 52 includes at least two electrodes 54 and is connected to a high current power supply by electrical connection 6558 (e.g., a high current power source that can provide about 1kA to 100kA to provide a high current to ignite the solid fuel to form hydrinos as set forth in the present disclosure at a very high rate). In one embodiment, a fuel flows between at least two electrodes and ignites to form hydrinos, wherein thermal energy is released causing at least one of hot gas release and heating and expansion of the gas and any fluid that may be vaporized in the cylinder. In another embodiment, the electrode is at H₂O or containing H₂O gas causes arc plasma to ignite H₂O forms hydrinos as given in the present invention. In one embodiment, one electrode includes a separate bypass and the other electrode includes at least one of a piston and a cylinder. An electrical connection 65 may be formed directly between the high current power supply 58 and the shunt 54 and cylindrical electrode 52. In one embodiment where piston 62 is the counter electrode, cylinder 52 is non-conductive. An exemplary non-conductive cylinder includes a ceramic material. Electrical contact of the high current power source 58 to the piston electrode 62 may be via a brush 64, for example, contacting a brush of the shaft 51 electrically connected to the piston electrode 62. The conductive fuel 61 and the bypass electrode 54 may be brought into contact with at least one of the piston 62 and the cylindrical electrode 52 when the fuel is compressed during the compression phase or the reciprocating cycle stroke. Compressed H₂After the O or solid fuel 53 is ignited to form hydrinos at a very high rate, the hot cylinder gases expand, performing pressure-volume work. The heated cylinder gas pressurizes the piston 62 head to move it corresponding to a positive displacement during the work phase. The action of piston 62 is transferred to crankshaft 51, crankshaft 51 rotates, and this action applies a mechanical load, such as one known in the art. In one embodiment, the engine further comprises an internal generator 66 connected to the shaft 51, wherein the output power is connected to the high power source 58 through a generator power joint 67. Thus, a portion of the mechanical energy is used to provide high power to sustain ignition, while the remainder of the mechanical energy is applied to other mechanical loads, such as rotating at least one of: shafts, wheels, external generators, aviation turbofan or turboprop, marine propellers, impellers, and rotating shaft machines.

The high current power source used to deliver the short pulse high current power is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactant to undergo the hydrino forming reaction at a very high rate. In one embodiment, the high current power supply is capable of providing a high voltage to achieve H₂O arc plasma. The arc plasma may have the features given in the DC, AC and hybrid arc and high current fractional hydrogen plasma cell section of the present invention. In one embodiment, a high current power supply for delivering short pulse high current power includes: a voltage selected to induce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture having a current in at least one of the following ranges: 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak AC current density in a range of at least one of: 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²(ii) a Wherein the voltage is determinable from the conductivity of the solid fuel, wherein the voltage is derived from the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel; the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.1 to 500kV, 0.1 to 100kV, and 1 to 50 kV; and the AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kH. In certain embodiments, the resistance of the fuel may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of: about 0.001M Ω to 100M Ω, 0.1 Ω to 1M Ω, and 10 Ω to 1k Ω, and the conductivity of a suitable load per unit electrode area effective to form hydrinos may be in at least one range selected from: about 10^-10Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-5Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-4Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁵Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-3Ω^-1cm^-2To 10⁴Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-2Ω^-1cm^-2To 10³Ω^-1cm^-2、10^-1Ω^-1cm^-2To 10²Ω^-1cm^-2And 1 Ω^-1cm^-2To 10 omega^-1cm^-2。

In one embodiment, the power stroke corresponding to expansion of the cylinder gases is followed by a compression exhaust stroke in which the pistons translate in opposite directions and negatively displace the compressed cylinder gases, which may be pressurized out of the cylinder 52 via an outlet or exhaust valve assembly 59. The heated cylinder gases may send products out of the cylinder 52 via at least one exhaust valve 59. At least one of the fuel product and the gas may be delivered from the exhaust valve assembly 59 to the fuel regenerator 55 via the exhaust outlet 57, where the product and optionally the gas or vaporized liquid present are regenerated into the initial fuel, which is then returned to the fuel source. In one embodiment, the system may be closed except for the addition of H that is consumed to form hydrinos and oxygen₂O, oxygen may be exhausted via exhaust outlet 57 and regenerator 55. In one embodiment, the engine further comprises a conveyor to move the regenerated fuel from regenerator 55 to fuel source 63. Suitable conveyors may be at least one of: conveyor belts, screw conveyors or augers, pneumatic conveyors or propellers, gravity assisted runners, and other conveyors known to those skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, the engine is of the reciprocating type with positive and negative displacements. At least two cylinders may work out of phase with each other to help each other cycle back and forth. The fuel may be at least substantially combustible, e.g. comprising H₂Carbon of O. The fuel may be a fine powder, which in one embodiment is pneumatically injected. The fuel may comprise a conductor and H₂O, where the conductor can form a gas product that can do pressure volume work and is easily exhausted from the cylinder. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT engine comprises a modified internal combustion engine having fossil fuel replaced with the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention and the spark plug and corresponding power source replaced by at least one of the electrodes 54 and 62 and 52 and a high current power source 58, which high current power source 58 may be a low voltage or arc plasma power source, such as one of the power sources of the present invention.

The remainder of the internal combustion engine arrangement and the power load system are well known to those skilled in the art. In other embodiments, the engine may comprise another type, such as a rotary engine, in which pressure-volume (PV) work is performed by gases formed and heated by energy released from a kinetically explosive hydrino reaction. The system and method resemble those of conventional piston engines. The fuel flows into the compression chamber, ignites, expands to perform PV work, and then the gas compresses as it is discharged to begin a new cycle. The exhaust gas can be regenerated and recycled.

Thermal as well as mechanical power is generated by mechanical embodiments of SF-CIHT cells. The SF-CIHT battery engine further includes a heat exchanger that can remove heat generated by the battery on the external cylinder surface and deliver it to the load. In another embodiment, the SF CIHT cell comprises a boiler. The heat exchanger or boiler includes a coolant input for receiving cold coolant from the load and a coolant outlet for supplying or returning hot coolant to the load. The heat may be directly used or converted into mechanical or power using converters known to those skilled in the art, such as heat engines, e.g. steam or gas turbines and generators, rankine or brayton cycle engines or stirling engines. For power conversion, the thermal output from the mechanical embodiment of the SF CIHT cell may flow from the coolant outlet line to any of the thermal to mechanical or power converters described in the Mills prior publications, as well as converters known to those skilled in the art (e.g., heat engines, steam or gas turbine systems, stirling engines, or thermionic or thermoelectric converters).

VIII fractional hydrogen plasma cell

In one embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises a plasma cell, wherein the plasma is intermittently formed by intermittently applying external input power, and draws or outputs power during an external input power off phase. The plasma gas comprises at least two of a source of hydrogen, a source of catalyst, and a catalyst, which forms a fraction of hydrogen by reaction of H with the catalyst to power an external load. Input plasma power generation fractional formation at least during external power off phaseA reactant of hydrogen. The plasma cell may comprise a plasma electrolysis reactor, a barrier electrode reactor, an RF plasma reactor, an rt-plasma reactor, a pressurized gas energy reactor, a gas discharge energy reactor, a microwave battery energy reactor, and a combination of a glow discharge cell and a microwave and or RF plasma reactor. The Catalyst and system may be the Catalyst and system of the present invention and the catalysts and systems disclosed in my prior U.S. patent applications, such as the Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, filed in PCT/US08/61455 at 4/24/2008; heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed in 7/29/2009; hetereneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, filed PCT 3/18/2010; electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, filed in 3/17/2011 PCT/US11/28889 of PCT; h₂The O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 and CIHT Power System, 3/30/2012, PCT/US13/041938 ("Mills earlier applications"), 5/21/13, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

The hydrino reaction rate is greatly increased by applying high current through reactants comprising H and a catalyst (e.g., HOH). H₂Ignition of O by applying a high current to the gas containing H₂O or H₂O-derived solid fuel or by forming and maintaining a solid fuel containing H₂O arc plasma. Arc plasmas can be implemented in microwave batteries, DC powered batteries, AC powered batteries, and DC and AC hybrid powered batteries. In another embodiment, the high current is achieved using a plasma current, wherein the plasma is confined with at least one of an electrostatic field and a magnetic field. Exemplary embodiments of the constraint include solenoidal magnetic fields (such as provided by helmholtz coils), magnetic bottles or mirrors as set forth in the Mills prior application, and configurations known to those skilled in the art for thermal fusion studies. Plasma flow can be enhanced by RF coupling, particle injection, and other methods and means known to those skilled in the plasma art.

In an embodiment of the invention, the water arc plasma movesThe force system may include: at least one closed reaction vessel; comprising H₂Source of O and H₂A reactant of at least one of O; at least one set of electrodes; for transferring H₂The initial high voltage breakdown of O and the provision of a subsequent high current power supply; and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light and thermal energy. In embodiments, an arc plasma may be generated and cause the reactants to undergo a reaction to form hydrinos at a very high rate. In certain embodiments, H₂O acts as a reactant, comprising: (a) comprising nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (c) a plasma medium. The water arc plasma power system may further comprise a gas generator comprising H₂A plasma medium of at least one of O and trace ions. In certain embodiments, H₂O may be a source of the HOH catalyst and H formed by arc plasma. H according to operating temperature and pressure in the range of about 1 ℃ to 2000 ℃ and 0.01atm to 200atm respectively₂O phase diagram, H under standard conditions for liquid and gas mixtures₂O may also be present in at least one of a liquid and a gas state. In other embodiments, the plasma medium may include an ion source including at least one of dissolved ions and salt compounds, which makes the medium more conductive to achieve arc breakdown at lower voltages.

In an embodiment, the high breakdown voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 50V to 100kV, 1kV to 50kV, and 1kV to 30kV, and the high current may have a limit in at least one of the following ranges: about 1kA to 100kA, 2kA to 50kA and 10kA to 30 kA. The high voltage and current may be at least one of DC, AC, and a mixture thereof. Further, the power supply may provide a high discharge current density in a range of at least one of: 0.1A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、10A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²And 1kA/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm². In an embodiment, the power supply for forming the arc plasma comprises a plurality of capacitors, the plurality of capacitorsThe capacitor comprises a capacitor bank capable of supplying a high voltage in the range of about 1kV to 50kV and a high current that increases with decreasing resistance and voltage. In other embodiments, the water arc plasma power system may include a second power source. Additionally, the water arc plasma power system may include at least one additional power circuit component and a second high current power source. In these embodiments, the power supply may comprise a plurality of capacitor banks that continuously supply power to the arc, wherein each discharging capacitor bank is recharged by the second power supply as a given charging capacitor bank discharges.

In other embodiments, the closed vessel further comprises a boiler comprising a steam outlet, a loop, and a recirculation pump, wherein at least one H comprising at least one of hot water, superheated water, steam, and superheated steam₂The O phase flows out of the steam outlet and supplies the thermal or mechanical load, at least one of outlet flow cooling and steam condensation takes place together with the heat-electricity delivery of the load, the cooled steam or water is pumped by a recirculation pump, and the cooled steam or water is returned to the battery via a loop. In other embodiments, the water arc plasma power system further comprises at least one thermal-to-electrical converter for receiving thermal energy from at least one of a boiler and a heat exchanger. The at least one thermo-electric converter may comprise at least one selected from the group of a heat engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a rankine cycle engine, a brayton cycle engine, a stirling engine, a thermionic energy converter and a thermoelectric energy converter.

A. Microwave fractional hydrogen plasma battery

In one embodiment, the plasma cell comprises a microwave plasma cell, such as the microwave plasma cell of the Mills prior application. The microwave cell comprises a container capable of maintaining at least one of a vacuum, atmospheric pressure and a pressure above atmospheric pressure, a plasma gas source, a gas inlet, a gas outlet, and a pump and pressure gauge for maintaining a flow of the plasma gas, and an antenna and a port in the microwave cavityAt least one, a microwave generator, and a coaxial cable connected from the microwave generator to at least one of the antenna and the microwave cavity. The plasma gas may comprise H₂And H₂At least one of O. The plasma cell may further comprise a ground conductor, such as a central axial metal strip, immersed in the plasma to provide a voltage ground short generated at the antenna or cavity. The short circuit causes a high current, thereby initiating the hydrino reaction. The short circuit may form an arc between the antenna and the ground conductor. The high current of the arc can cause a significant increase in the hydrino reaction.

In an embodiment of the microwave plasma cell, the plasma gas comprises at least nitrogen and hydrogen. The catalyst may be an amide ion. The pressure can be in the range of at least about 0.001 torr to 100atm, 0.01 torr to 760 torr, and 0.1 torr to 100 torr. The ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen can be any desired ratio. In one embodiment, the nitrogen percentage of the nitrogen-hydrogen plasma gas is in the range of about 1% to 99%.

B. Arc and high current hydrino plasma cell with DC, AC and hybrid

In one embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises a hydrino-forming plasma cell, referred to as a hydrino plasma cell. The high current may be DC, AC, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the cell comprises a high voltage dielectric barrier gas discharge cell comprising a conductive electrode and a conductive counter electrode covered by a dielectric barrier, such as a barrier comprising Garolite insulation. The conductive electrode may be cylindrical, surrounding the axial center barrier electrode. The plasma gas may comprise at least one of a source of H and a source of HOH catalyst, e.g., H₂And O. Another suitable plasma gas is H₂O, H origin, H₂Oxygen source, O₂And at least one of an inert gas (e.g., a noble gas). The gas pressure may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.001 torr to 100atm, 1 torr to 50atm, and 100 torr to 10 atm. The voltage may be high, for example in at least one of the following ranges: about 50V to 100kV, 1kV to 50kV, and 1kV to 30 kV. The current can be at least one ofIn each range: about 0.1mA to 100A, 1mA to 50A and 1mA to 10A. The plasma may comprise an arc having a much higher current, for example a current in the range of at least one of: about 1A to 100kA, 100A to 50kA and 1kA to 20 kA. In one embodiment, the high current accelerates the hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the voltage and current are AC. The drive frequency may be audio, for example in the range 3kHz to 15 kHz. In one embodiment, the frequency is in the range of at least one of: about 0.1Hz to 100GHz, 100Hz to 10GHz, 1kHz to 10GHz, 1MHz to 1GHz and 10MHz to 1 GHz. An exemplary barrier electrode plasma cell is described in the following: M.Nowak, "evaluation of the Strentium Catalysis in the Hydrino Reaction in an Audio-Frequency, Catalysis Coupled, Cylindricalsplasma Discharge", Master of Science Thesis, North Carolina State University, Nuclear Engineering delivery, (2009),http://repositorv.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/ bitstream/1840.16/31/1/etd.pdfwhich is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In another embodiment, the dielectric barrier is removed to better support the arc plasma. The conductor thus exposed to the plasma gas can provide electron thermionic and field emission to support the arc plasma.

In one embodiment, the cell comprises a high voltage power supply applied to achieve breakdown in a plasma gas comprising a source of H and a source of HOH catalyst. The plasma gas may comprise at least one of water vapor, hydrogen, an oxygen source, and an inert gas (e.g., a noble gas, such as argon). The high voltage power may include Direct Current (DC), Alternating Current (AC), and mixtures thereof. Breakdown in the plasma gas causes a significant increase in conductivity. The power supply is capable of supplying high currents. Application of a high current at a voltage below the breakdown voltage causes H to catalytically form hydrinos at high rates through the HOH catalyst. The high current may comprise Direct Current (DC), Alternating Current (AC), and mixtures thereof.

One embodiment of a high current plasma cell contains a plasma gas capable of forming a HOH catalyst and H. The plasma gas comprises a source of HOH and a source of H, e.g. H₂O and H₂A gas. The plasma gas may further comprise additional gases that allow, augment or maintain the HOH catalyst and H. Other suitable gases are noble gases. The battery includes at least one of: at least one set of electrodes, at least one antenna, at least one RF coil, and at least one microwave cavity that may include an antenna, and further includes at least one breakdown power source, such as a breakdown power source capable of generating a voltage or electronic or ionic energy sufficient to cause electrical breakdown of the plasma gas. The voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 10V to 100kV, 100V to 50kV, and 1kV to 20 kV. The plasma gas may be initially in a liquid state as well as in a gaseous state. The plasma may be in, for example, liquid H₂O or comprising liquid H₂O in the medium. The gas pressure may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.001 torr to 100atm, 0.01 torr to 760 torr, and 0.1 torr to 100 torr. The battery may comprise at least one second power source which provides a high current once breakdown is achieved. High currents can also be supplied by a breakdown power supply. Each power supply may be DC or AC. The frequency range of each may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.1Hz to 100GHz, 100Hz to 10GHz, 1kHz to 10GHz, 1MHz to 1GHz and 10MHz to 1 GHz. The high current may be in the range of at least one of: about 1A to 100kA, 10A to 100kA, 1000A to 100kA, 10kA to 50 kA. The high discharge current density may be in the range of at least one of: 0.1A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、10A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²And 1kA/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm². In one embodiment, at least one of the breakdown and the second high current power supply may be applied intermittently. The intermittent frequency may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.001Hz to 1GHz, 0.01Hz to 100MHz, 0.1Hz to 10MHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, and 10Hz to 100 kHz. The duty cycle may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.001% to 99.9%, 1% to 99%, and 10% to 90%. In one embodiment comprising both AC (e.g., RF power) and DC power, the DC power is isolated from the AC power by at least one capacitor. In one embodiment, H is used to form hydrinosSource (e.g. H)₂And H₂At least one of O) to maintain the fraction hydrogen component and output power to achieve a desired battery gain, e.g., a rate at which the fraction hydrogen power component exceeds the battery gain of the input power.

In one embodiment, the plasma gas is formed from liquid H₂O instead, liquid H₂O may be pure or comprise a brine solution, such as brine. The solution may be subjected to AC excitation, such as high frequency radiation, e.g. RF or microwave excitation. Comprising H₂An excitation medium of O (e.g., saline) may be placed between the RF transmitter and receiver. The RF transmitter or antenna receives RF power from an RF generator capable of generating a frequency and power capable of containing H₂O, RF signal absorbed by the medium. The battery and excitation parameters may be one of those of the present invention. In one embodiment, the RF frequency may be in the range of about 1MHz to 20 MHz. The RF excitation source may further include a tuning circuit or matching network to match the impedance of the load to the transmitter. The metal particles may be suspended in H₂O or salt solution. The incident power may be high, for example in the range of at least one of: about 0.1W/cm²To 100kW/cm²、0.5W/cm²To 10kW/cm²And 0.5W/cm²To 1kW/cm²To cause arcing in the plasma due to interaction of incident radiation with the metal particles. The size of the metal particles can be adjusted to optimize arc formation. Suitable particle sizes range from about 0.1 μm to 10 mm. The arc carries a high current that causes the hydrino reaction to occur with high kinetics. In another embodiment, the plasma gas comprises H₂O, e.g. H₂O vapor and the battery contains a metal object that also carries high frequency radiation, such as RF or microwaves. Concentration of field at sharp point on metal object in the region containing H₂An arc is induced in the plasma gas of O, in which the hydrino reaction rate is greatly increased.

In one embodiment, the high current plasma comprises an arc. Arc plasmas may have characteristics that are distinguished from glow discharge plasmas. In the former case, the electron and ion temperatures may be similar, andin the latter case, the electron thermal energy can be much larger than the ion thermal energy. In one embodiment, the arc plasma cell contains a pinch plasma. For example comprising H₂The plasma gas of O is maintained at a pressure sufficient to form an arc plasma. The pressure may be relatively high, for example in the range of about 100 torr to 100 atm. In one embodiment, the breakdown and high current power supply may be the same. The arc may include liquid H₂High pressure H of O₂O is formed by a power supply comprising a plurality of capacitors comprising a capacitor bank capable of supplying a high voltage (e.g., a voltage in the range of about 1kV to 50 kV) and a high current (e.g., a current that may increase as resistance and voltage drop, form a charge and sustain), wherein the current may be in the range of about 0.1mA to 100,000A. The voltage can be increased by connecting capacitors in series and the capacitance can be increased by connecting capacitors in parallel to achieve the desired high voltage and current. The capacitance may be sufficient to sustain the plasma for a long time, e.g., 0.1s to over 24 hours. The power circuit may have additional components to sustain the arc after it forms, such as a second high current power supply. In one embodiment, the power supply comprises a plurality of capacitor banks that continuously supply power to the arc, wherein each discharging capacitor bank is rechargeable by the charging power supply as a given charging capacitor bank discharges. Multiple sets may be sufficient to sustain a steady state arc plasma. In another embodiment, a power supply for providing at least one of plasma breakdown and high current to an arc plasma includes at least one transformer. In one embodiment, the arc is established at a high DC repetition rate, for example, in the range of about 0.01Hz to 1 MHz. In one embodiment, the roles of the cathode and anode may be reversed cyclically. The reversal rate may be low to sustain an arc plasma. The circulation rate of the alternating current may be at least one of: about 0Hz to 1000Hz, 0Hz to 500Hz, and 0Hz to 100 Hz. The power source may have a maximum current limit that maintains the desired rate of the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the high current is variable to control the power to produce the hydrinos to provide a variable power output. The high current limit controlled by the power supply may be as followsAt least one of the following ranges: about 1kA to 100kA, 2kA to 50kA and 10kA to 30 kA. The arc plasma may have a negative resistance that includes a characteristic of a voltage drop as the current increases. The plasma arc battery power circuit may include a positive impedance form, such as an electrodynamic ballast, to establish a desired level of regulated current. The electrodes may be in a desired geometry to provide an electric field between the two. Suitable geometries are at least one of the following: a central cylindrical electrode and an outer concentric electrode, parallel plate electrodes and opposing pins or cylinders. The electrode may provide at least one of electron thermionic emission and field emission at the cathode to support the arc plasma. High current densities can be formed, for example, up to about 106A/cm²The current density of (1). The electrode may be comprised of at least one of: materials with high melting points, such as materials from the group of refractory metals such as W or Mo and carbon; and materials with low reactivity with water, such as materials from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In one embodiment, the electrodes may be movable. The electrodes may be placed in close proximity or in direct contact with each other, and then mechanically separated to initiate and sustain an arc plasma. In this case, the breakdown voltage may be much smaller than if the electrodes were permanently separated by a fixed gap. The voltage applied under the movable or gap adjustable electrode to form the arc may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.1V to 20kV, 1V to 10kV, and 10V to 1 kV. The electrode spacing can be adjusted to maintain a stable arc of a desired current or current density.

In one embodiment, OH, HOH, O are included₂A catalyst of at least one of nO and nH (n is an integer) is generated in the water arc plasma. H₂A schematic of an O-arc plasma cell generator 700 is shown in fig. 10. Arc plasma cell 709 comprises two electrodes, e.g., outer cylindrical electrode 706 and central shaft electrode 703, e.g., a central rod with battery cover 711 and insulator base 702, which may define a chamber capable of withstanding vacuum, atmospheric pressure, and pressures in excess of atmospheric pressureAn arc plasma chamber of at least one battery 709. The cell 709 is supplied with an arc plasma gas or liquid, e.g. H₂And O. Alternatively, electrodes 703 and 706 are submerged in arc plasma gas or liquid (e.g., H) contained in vessel 709₂O) in (A). H can be made by adding an ionic source, e.g. a soluble ionic compound such as a salt₂O is more conductive to achieve arc breakdown at lower voltages. The salt may comprise a hydroxide or halide, for example an alkali metal hydroxide or halide or other hydroxide or halide of the invention. The supply may come from a source, such as a tank 707 with a valve 708 and a line 710 through which gas or liquid flows into the cell 709, and the exhaust gas flows from the cell via an outlet line 726 with at least one pressure gauge 715 and a valve 716, where a pump 717 removes gas from the cell 709 to maintain at least one of a desired flow rate and pressure. In one embodiment, the plasma gas is maintained under high flow conditions, such as supersonic flow at high pressures (e.g., atmospheric and higher pressures), to provide sufficient mass flow of the reactant for the hydrino reaction to produce the desired level of hydrino-based power. One suitable exemplary flow rate achieves a hydrino-based power that exceeds the input power. Alternatively, the liquid water may be in a battery 709, such as a reservoir with electrodes as boundaries. Electrodes 703 and 706 are connected to a high voltage-high current power supply 723 via a battery power connection 724. The connection to the center electrode 703 may be through the bottom plate 701. In one embodiment, the power supply 723 may be supplied by another power supply, such as a charging power supply 721, via connection 722. The high voltage-high current power supply 723 may comprise a capacitor bank that may be connected in series to provide high voltage and in parallel to provide high capacitance and high current, and the power supply 723 may comprise a plurality of these capacitor banks, each of which may be temporarily discharged and charged to provide a power output that may approach a continuous output. The one or more capacitor banks may be charged by a charging power supply 721.

In one embodiment, the electrodes, e.g., 703, may be powered by an AC power supply 723, and the AC power supply 723 may be high frequency and may be high power, such as the frequency and power provided by an RF generator (e.g., a tesla coil).In another embodiment, the electrode 703 comprises an antenna of a microwave plasma torch. The power and frequency may be those of the present invention, for example in the range of about 100kHz to 100MHz or 100MHz to 10GHz and 100W to 500kW per liter, respectively. In one embodiment, the cylindrical electrode may comprise only the cell wall and may be composed of an insulator such as quartz, ceramic material, or alumina. The battery cover 711 may further include an electrode, such as a grounded or ungrounded electrode. Battery operable to form H₂O, which at least partially covers the electrode 703 inside the arc plasma cell 709. The arc or steam engine greatly increases the hydrino reaction rate.

In one embodiment, arc plasma cell 709 closes to restrict thermal energy release. The water in the sealed cell is then at H according to the desired operating temperature and pressure as known to those skilled in the art₂O phase diagram, standard conditions for liquid and gas mixtures. The operating temperature may range from about 25 ℃ to 1000 ℃. The operating pressure may be in the range of at least one of: about 0.001atm to 200atm, 0.01atm to 200atm, and 0.1atm to 100 atm. The battery 709 may include a boiler, wherein at least one stage includes heating water, superheated water, steam, and a phase of the superheated steam to flow out of the steam outlet 714 and supplying a thermal or mechanical load (e.g., a steam turbine) to generate electricity. At least one of outlet stream cooling and steam condensation occurs as thermal energy is transferred to the load, and cooled steam or water is returned to the battery via loop 712. Alternatively, make-up steam or water is returned. The system is closed and may further include a pump 713, such as H₂O is recycled or returned to the pump to make H₂O circulates in its physical phase, acting as a cooling fluid. The battery may further comprise a heat exchanger 719, which heat exchanger 719 may be internal or external to the battery wall to remove heat energy into the coolant entering in a cold state at coolant inlet 718 and existing in a hot state at coolant outlet 720. Thereafter, the hot coolant flows to a heat load, such as a pure heat load or a thermo-mechanical energy converter or a thermo-electrical energy converter, such as a steam or gas turbine or a heat engine, such as a steam engine and optionally an electric generator. Heating machineOther exemplary converters of mechanical or power conversion are rankine or brayton cycle engines, stirling engines, thermionic and thermoelectric converters, and other systems known in the art. Systems and methods for at least one of thermal to mechanical and electrical conversion are also disclosed in the Mills prior applications incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

In one embodiment, electrodes 703 and 706, such as carbon or metal electrodes (e.g., tungsten or copper electrodes), may be plunged into the cell 709 as it erodes from the plasma. The electrodes may be replaced when corroded, or replaced continuously. The corrosion products can be collected from the cell in the form of, for example, sediment and recycled to the new electrode. Thus, the arc plasma cell generator further comprises an electrode corrosion product recovery system 705, an electrode regeneration system 704, and a regeneration electrode continuous feed 725. In one embodiment, at least one electrode that is prone to most corrosion, such as the cathode, e.g., the center electrode 703, may be regenerated by the systems and methods of the present invention. For example, the electrode may comprise one metal selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, which have a structure that can pass H₂The corresponding oxide reduced by treatment, heating and heating under vacuum. The regeneration system 704 may include a furnace for melting at least one of oxides and metals and casting or extruding electrodes from the regenerated metal. Systems and methods for metal melting and forming or milling are well known to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, the regeneration system 704 may comprise an electrolytic cell, such as a molten salt electrolytic cell comprising metal ions, wherein the electrode metal may be plated onto the electrode by electrodeposition using systems and methods well known in the art.

One exemplary plasma system reported in the experimental section comprises a storage capacitor connected between a bottom plate and a strip electrode and a concentric electrode containing water, wherein the strips of the bottom plate and strip electrode are below the water column. The strips being embedded in insulators, e.g. nylon or ceramic sleeves in the cylindrical part and the base plate and cylinderNylon or ceramic blocks in between. The circuit further comprises a resistor and an inductor to cause an oscillating discharge in the water between the strip and the cylindrical electrode. The capacitor may be charged by a high voltage power supply and discharged by a switch of a spark gap that may be contained in the atmosphere. The electrodes may be made of copper. The high voltage may be in the range of about 5 to 25 kV. The discharge current may be in the range of 5 to 100 kA. H₂The O-ignition to form hydrinos at high speed is achieved by a triggered water electric arc discharge, wherein the arc causes atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst formation, which react to form hydrinos, giving off high power. The motive force from the formation of hydrinos can be in the form of heat, plasma, and light energy. In one embodiment, all of the energy released can be converted to thermal energy, which is captured in a sealed cell and can be used directly for thermal applications, such as space and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy using a heat engine, or converted to electricity using a heat-to-electricity converter (such as steam turbines and generators and other systems known to those skilled in the art). The system may also be used to form hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy, such as molecular hydrino H₂(1/p). Products may be removed at outlets 705 and 726.

In one embodiment, the hydrino cell comprises a pinch plasma source to form hydrino continuum emission. The cell comprises a cathode, an anode, a power source, and at least one of a source of hydrogen and a source of HOH catalyst for forming the pinch plasma. The plasma system may comprise a dense plasma focus source, such as those known in the art. The plasma current may be very high, e.g. in excess of 1 kA. The plasma may be an arc plasma. Characterized in that the plasma gas comprises H and at least one of HOH or H catalyst, and the plasma conditions can be optimized to give a continuous spectrum emission of hydrogen. The emission can be used as a light source for EUV lithography.

IX. other Power Generation embodiments

An exemplary power generation system of the invention may include two or more electrodes configured to deliver energy to a fuel source, a power source configured to deliver energy to the electrodes, and a plasma energy converter. Fuel may be loaded into an area defined by two or more electrodes, and when a power source supplies power to the electrodes, the electrodes may cause the fuel to ignite, releasing energy. Byproducts from fuel ignition may include heat and plasma. Thus, the power generated by the ignition of the fuel may be in the form of thermal energy, and may be a highly ionized plasma of the fuel source, which is capable of being converted directly or indirectly to electricity. Once formed, the plasma may be directed to a plasma energy converter to capture the plasma energy.

As used herein, the term "ignition" refers to the establishment of high reaction kinetics resulting from a high current applied to the fuel. Ignition may occur at approximately atmospheric pressure, or may be in a vacuum, e.g., at up to about 10^-10Occurs at pressures in the above range. Thus, the fuel, electrodes and/or plasma converter may be present in a vacuum environment. In addition, one or more of these ingredients may be present in a suitable vacuum vessel to facilitate the formation and maintenance of a vacuum environment.

The chemical reactants of the present invention may be referred to as waters, which may contain a majority of H₂O or solid fuels or energetic materials (e.g. containing H)₂O or H₂A source of O and further comprising an electrically conductive material to facilitate ignition of the fuel by conducting a high applied current), or combinations thereof. The solid fuel 1003 comprises any material capable of forming a plasma and may include, for example, pellets, portions, aliquots, powders, droplets, streams, mists, gases, suspensions, or any suitable combination thereof. The solid embodiments may have any suitable shape; for example, the solid fuel 1003 may be shaped to increase the surface area of the solid fuel 1003 to facilitate ignition. The term "solid fuel" may include liquid or vapor fuels. Examples of suitable solid fuels are described in the chemical reactor section and solid fuel catalyst-induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell and energy converter section of the present invention, but the essential required reactants may include at least one of a source of H and a source of O, among others; and H₂O or H₂A source of O; and a conductor. The solid fuel and/or energetic material may comprise nascent H₂A source of O catalyst, a source of H, and a conductor. An exemplary solid fuel may comprise approximately, for example, 1: 1:1 molar ratio of transition metal oxide: transition metal: water, although any material may be approximately 2: 1 or 10: a ratio of 1 is included. Containing a majority of H₂The water-based fuel of O may comprise water or a water-based mixture or solution, such as water with one or more impurities. The water may be absorbed within another material and may include an electrically conductive element dissolved or mixed therein. While many exemplary embodiments refer to use with "solid fuels," devices for all chemical reactants, including water-based fuels, are encompassed herein.

The fuel or energetic material may be electrically conductive, such as a metal, metal oxide, or conductive element. In some embodiments, an electrically conductive matrix may be used to allow high current to penetrate the solid fuel 1003 and/or make the mixture electrically conductive during ignition. For example, the chemical reactants may be screened or coated onto a mesh in the form of a slurry and dried, followed by an electrical pulse. The chemical reactants may be loose or may be contained in a sealed container (e.g., a sealed metal container, such as a sealed aluminum container). Some fuels may not be used in conjunction with the electrically conductive container, including, for example, certain fuel pellets made from: such as alkaline earth metal halides, magnesium chloride, some transition metals or metal oxides, activated carbon, or any suitable material or combination thereof.

In one embodiment, fuel 1003 comprises reactants comprising the hydrino reactants of the present invention, including at least one reactant comprising nascent H₂A source of catalyst or catalyst for O, at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least one of a conductor and an electrically conductive matrix. In one embodiment, the fuel 1003 comprises a source of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention and at least one of the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention. In one embodiment, exemplary solid fuel 1003 comprises H for forming at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix. H₂Source of OMay comprise at least one of: bulk phase H₂O, bulk phase H₂In a state other than O, reacted to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of O. Bound H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interacting compounds, in which H₂O is H in absorption₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and water of hydration. The fuel 1003 may include a conductor and one or more process phases H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂A compound or material of at least one of O and release of hydrated water, and which has H₂O as a reaction product. Other exemplary solid or energetic material fuels 1003 are hydrated hygroscopic materials and conductors; a hydrated carbon; hydrated carbon and metal; metal oxides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O; and metal halides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O. The metals and metal oxides may comprise transition metals such as Co, Fe, Ni and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg or Ca, and a halide, such as F, Cl, Br or I. Metal and H₂O can undergo thermodynamically unfavorable reactions, such as at least one of the following group: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, wherein the fuel 1003 may be prepared by adding H₂And (4) regenerating the O. The fuel 1003 comprising the hydrino reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

As shown in fig. 12, a number of electrodes 1002 define spaces 1017 between the electrodes for receiving and/or containing solid fuel 1003. The electrodes 1002 may be configured to deliver power (e.g., in the form of short pulses of low voltage high current electricity) to the solid fuel 1003. For example, in some embodiments using a solid fuel, a lower voltage and a higher current may be applied to the fuel to facilitate ignition. For example, less than 10V (e.g., 8V) and about 14,000A/cm can be applied to the solid fuel². Method for applying higher voltage to solid fuelWhere a conductor to facilitate ignition may not be required. When a lower voltage is applied to the fuel, a conductor that promotes ignition may be used. In some embodiments, the reaction rate at which the chemical reactant is converted into a plasma may depend, at least in part, on the high current applied or extended to the reactant. For example, in some embodiments using a water-based fuel, about 4.5kV and about 20,000A/cm may be applied to the fuel². The electrode 1002 may apply a low voltage, high current, high power pulse to the solid fuel 1003, resulting in extremely fast reaction rates and energy release rates. The energy release rate can be very high and a plasma stream can be generated that flows outwardly at a relatively high velocity (e.g., supersonic) in the opposite direction.

In an exemplary embodiment, the electrode 1002 may apply a voltage of 60Hz with less than 15V peak and the current may be at about 10,000A/cm²And 50,000A/cm²Between peaks and power may be about 50,000W/cm²And 750,000W/cm²In the meantime. A wide range of frequencies, voltages, currents and powers may be suitable; for example, a range of about 1/100 times to 100 times the above parameters may also be suitable. For example, solid fuels or energetic materials can be ignited using low voltage, high current pulses, such as those generated by a spot welder, which is achieved by the constraint between two copper electrodes of a taylor-winfeld ND-24-75 type spot welder. In some embodiments, the 60Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20V RMS and the current may be about 10,000A to 40,000A.

The voltage is selected to induce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in a range of, for example, about 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, or 10kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density range may be, for example, about 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1,000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²、2,000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²、10,000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²Or 5,000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²E.g. 5,000A/cm²、10,000A/cm²、12,000A/cm²、14,000A/cm²、18,000A/cm²Or 25,000A/cm². For high conductivity fuelIn terms of DC or peak AC voltage, for example, may range from about 0.1V to 1kV, 1V to 100V, 1V to 20V, or 1V to 15V. For high resistance solid fuels (e.g. containing most of the H)₂O aqueous solid fuel), the DC or peak AC voltage may range, for example, from about 100V to 50kV, 1kV to 30kV, 2kV to 15kV, or 4kV to 10 kV. The AC frequency may range, for example, from about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, or 100Hz to 10 kH. The pulse time may range, for example, from about 10^-6s to 10s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s, or 10^-3s to 0.01 s.

In some embodiments, the current, voltage, frequency, or pulse time may be determined at least in part by the type of solid fuel 1003 or energetic material used, or the conductivity of the fuel or energetic material used. The voltage may be determined by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the fuel or energetic material sample. For example, if the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is about 1 milliohm, the applied voltage may be lower, e.g.<10V. In the case of fuel containing 100% H₂O or substantially 100% H₂O, an exemplary case with very high resistance (e.g., greater than 1 megaohm), the voltage may be higher and, in some embodiments, may exceed H₂Breakdown voltage of O (e.g. of>5 kV). In embodiments spanning both extremes, the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may range from about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, or 100Hz to 10 kH. In one embodiment, the DC voltage may be discharged to form a plasma, e.g., containing ionized H₂O arc plasma, where the current does not decay completely and oscillates as it decays.

In some embodiments, a high current pulse having a desired voltage and current may be achieved using a capacitor (e.g., a supercapacitor) discharge, which may be connected in series or in parallel. The current may be DC or may be regulated with circuit elements including, for example, a transformer (e.g., a low voltage transformer). The capacitor may be charged by the power source 1004 or may be included in the power source 1004, and the power source 1004 may include, for example, a power grid, a generator, a fuel cell, a battery, or a portion of the electrical output of the generator system 1020 or, for example, another such generator system. In an exemplary embodiment, suitable frequency, voltage and current waveforms may be achieved by power conditioning the output of a capacitor or battery. In one embodiment, the exemplary circuit achieves a current pulse of 15,000A at 8V.

In the main containing H₂In some exemplary water-based fuel embodiments of O, the high current plasma generated may be in the form of an arc plasma. Plasma gas (e.g. containing H)₂O) may be maintained at a pressure sufficient to form an arc plasma. The arc may be at a high voltage (e.g., in the range of about 100 torr to 100 atm) H₂O (including liquid H)₂O), formed by a power supply capable of providing high voltage (e.g., in the range of about 1kV to 50 kV) and high current (e.g., in the range of about 0.1mA to 100,000A), which may increase as resistance and voltage decrease, in the event of arc formation and maintenance. An exemplary power supply may include a series of capacitors that may be connected in series to increase voltage and in parallel to increase capacitance and current. Where the capacitor is optionally dynamically recharged, the capacitance may be sufficient to sustain the plasma for an extended period of time, such as about 0.1 seconds to greater than 24 hours. In some embodiments, the breakdown and the high current supply may be the same. The system may include a second power source that dynamically recharges the capacitor.

The exemplary power generation system may include other components that help maintain the arc once it is formed, such as a second high current power source. In some embodiments, the power supply may include a plurality of series or parallel capacitors that may sequentially power the arc. Multiple capacitors may be sufficient to sustain a steady state arc plasma. In some embodiments, the arc may be established at a higher DC repetition rate (e.g., in the range of about 0.01Hz to 1 MHz), and the cathode and anode may be cycled back and forth. The reversal rate may be low to sustain the arc plasma. The circulation rate of the alternating current may be at least one of about 0Hz to 1000Hz, 0Hz to 500Hz, and 0Hz to 100 Hz. The power supply may have a maximum current limit that maintains the plasma reaction rate substantially at a desired rate. In some embodiments, the high current may be varied to control the power generated by the plasma, thereby providing a variable power output. The high current limit controlled by the power supply may range from at least one of about 1kA to 100kA, 2kA to 50kA, and 10kA to 30 kA.

Catalysts for water-based fuel embodiments may include OH, H₂O、O₂At least one of nO and nH (n is an integer) to facilitate the generation of a water-arc plasma. An exemplary power generation system may include an energy storage capacitor. The capacitor may be charged by a high voltage power supply and may be discharged by a switch which may include a spark gap in atmospheric air. The high voltage range may be, for example, in the range of about 4kV to 25 kV. The discharge current may be in the range of, for example, 5kA to 100 kA. H₂The ignition of O to form a plasma at a high rate can be achieved as follows: a triggered water arc discharge such that the arc promotes the formation of atomic hydrogen, and a HOH catalyst that causes a reaction to occur via the release of high power to form a plasma. The power from the reaction can be in the form of heat, plasma, and light energy. All of the energy released can be converted to thermal energy that can be used directly for thermal applications (e.g., space and process heating) or converted to power using a heat engine (e.g., a steam turbine).

The electrode 1002 may be formed of any suitable material that is substantially resistant to fuel ignition and resulting heat generation. For example, the electrode 1002 may be formed from carbon, which may reduce or substantially prevent conductivity loss due to surface oxidation. The electrodes may be formed from a refractory metal that is stable in a high temperature ambient environment, such as high temperature stainless steel, copper, or any other suitable material or combination of materials. The electrode 1002 may include a coating that protects the electrode 1002 from the ignition process. The electrode 1002 may be coated or formed with a suitable electrically conductive material that is resistant to melting or corrosion, such as a refractory alloy, a high temperature oxidation resistant alloy [ e.g., TiAlN ], or a high temperature stainless steel), or any suitable combination thereof. Additionally, the electrode 1002 may be formed from a material that is substantially non-reactive in an aqueous environment. The one or more electrodes may include, for example, one or more of the following: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In.

The geometric area of the electrodes can facilitate the generation of high current densities for the fuel sample to be ignited and, in some cases, for the entire fuel sample. Although two electrodes 1002 are depicted in the exemplary figures, any number of electrodes may be used, for example more than three electrodes may together define an area for receiving solid fuel 1003, or multiple sets of electrodes 1002 may be included in the power generation system 1020 and these electrodes 1002 may define multiple areas for receiving fuel.

The space between the electrodes for receiving the solid fuel 1003 (shown as fuel loading zone 1017 in fig. 12) may be smaller than the size of each electrode that defines the region individually, or may be the same size as or larger than the electrode size. As shown in fig. 13A and 13B, the fuel loading area 1017 may be different in size. For example, the electrodes 1002 can be configured to move away from each other (FIG. 13A) or move closer together (FIG. 13B). As depicted in fig. 13C and 13D, the power generation system 1020 may include a plurality of electrodes defining a plurality of fuel loading zones 1017, which may be movable relative to one another, or may be fixed in motion. For example, one set of electrodes may be movable and one set of electrodes may be stationary, or both sets of electrodes may be movable or both sets of electrodes may be stationary. In movable embodiments, the varying size of the fuel loading region 1017 may be fixed, e.g., the electrodes 1002 may be movable a fixed distance relative to each other. In other embodiments, the varying size of the fuel loading region 1017 may be varied, for example to accommodate different sized fuel samples or to increase or decrease the amount of voltage or current that the power generation or electrodes 1002 deliver to the solid fuel 1003.

As shown in fig. 13A and 13C, the electrodes 1002 can be moved away from each other when receiving the solid fuel 1003, and once the solid fuel 1003 is within the fuel loading zone 1017, the electrodes 1002 can be moved closer together as shown in fig. 13B and 13D. As discussed above, the electrodes 1002 may cooperate to define a fuel loading region 1017. The electrodes 1002 may be moved away from each other or moved closer together, such as increasing or decreasing the size of the fuel loading region 1017 to facilitate transport, maintain the fuel within the fuel loading region 1017, and/or locate the solid fuel 1003 within the fuel loading region 1017. In some embodiments, one electrode can be moved closer to or away from the other while the other electrode remains in place, while in other embodiments both electrodes 1002 can be moved. Movement of the electrodes 1002 relative to each other may facilitate ignition of the solid fuel 1003 within the fuel loading zone 1017. For example, electrode surface impingement may facilitate ignition, or causing rotational or frictional movement of one or both electrodes may facilitate ignition. In other embodiments, the electrodes 1002 may each be fixed.

As shown in fig. 14A and 14B, to better confine the solid fuel 1003, one of the electrodes 1002 may include a convex portion (depicted as region a) and one of the electrodes 1002 may include a concave portion (depicted as region B). The protrusions and recesses are configured to cooperatively form a chamber capable of holding a solid fuel 1003, as shown in fig. 14B. The chamber, and thus the fuel loading zone 1017, may be in full or partial communication with or may be isolated from the surrounding environment. Additionally, the chamber is configured to be openable and/or closable with or without the electrodes 1002 moving apart or closer to each other. For example, the protrusions and recesses may comprise apertures or movable panels or doors for loading the solid fuel 1003 within the chamber defined by the electrodes 1002.

Further, the pressure achieved in the loading region 1017 may also facilitate fuel ignition and/or plasma generation and operation. The plasma generated by the ignition of the solid fuel 1003 may be highly reactive, and the inclusion of the plasma within the vacuum environment may enhance control of the plasma generation and conversion process. For example, a vacuum environment may reduce ion collisions with ambient air and/or control the plasma reaction with ambient oxygen. In various embodiments, the loading region 1017 may be enclosed within a suitable vacuum vessel, or the electrode 1002, the plasma-to-electric converter 1006, and/or any other suitable component of the system 1020 may be included within a vacuum vessel. In some embodiments, the system 1020 is completely contained within a vacuum vessel. Suitable pressures may range from approximately atmospheric toAbout 10^-10And (4) supporting the upper part. To create and maintain the vacuum pressure, the power generation system 1020 may include, for example, any suitable vacuum pumps, valves, inlets, outlets. Further, the vacuum vessel may be substantially rigid or substantially flexible (e.g., a bag or other deformable material), and may be formed of any suitable material, including, for example, metal or plastic. Suitable containers may form or maintain an oxygen-reduced or oxygen-free environment, a gas-reduced environment, or a gas-free environment, or may contain a quantity of an inert gas, such as argon, nitrogen, or other inert gas, to help control the reaction of the plasma.

In fig. 15A, the fuel loading region 1017 is flanked by the electrode 1002, and the electrode 1002 and the solid fuel 1003 are open to the ambient environment. In fig. 15B, the electrodes 1002 each include a semi-circular portion configured to cooperate to form a more enclosed fuel loading region 1017. The electrode 1002 may completely isolate the fuel loading region 1017 or may include an open-hole portion, such as one through which the expanding plasma may escape. The electrodes 1002 may be movable toward and away from each other to open and close the loading region 1017, or may remain stationary. In fig. 15C, both the electrode 1002 and the fuel loading region 1017 can be partially or completely enclosed within the cell 1001. The cell 1001 is configured to be openable and closable to allow the transfer of solid fuel 1003 within the fuel loading region 1017. As discussed above, cell 1001 may include a vacuum vessel and electrode 1002 and fuel loading region 1017 may be exposed to negative pressure. As shown in fig. 15D, the cell 1001 may enclose the fuel loading region 1017, the electrode 1002, and the plasma-electric converter 1006. The pressure inside the cell 1001 may be close to atmospheric pressure or may be a negative pressure to expose the fuel loading region 1017, the electrode 1002, and the plasma-electric converter 1006 to vacuum pressure. As in fig. 15C, the cell 1001 may partially or completely enclose the internal components and be configured to be open or closed to allow solid fuel 1003 transport within the fuel loading region 1017.

The electrode 1002 may be stand alone or may be part of a larger component within the power generation system 1020. For example, in the embodiment of fig. 12, the electrode 1002 may be included as part of a catalyst-induced hydrino transition cellAnd (4) the following steps. The power generation system may include one or more batteries. Each cell may in turn include at least two electrodes 1002. As shown in fig. 12, within cell 1001, two or more electrodes 1002 may cooperate with each other to define a fuel loading region 1017. In some embodiments incorporating battery 1001, electrode 1002 may apply a low voltage, high current, high power pulse to solid fuel 1003, resulting in an extremely fast reaction rate and energy release rate. Additionally, the pressure within the cell 1001 may be a negative pressure to facilitate plasma generation and operation and to control the reactivity of the generated plasma. For example, the fuel loading zone 1017 and/or the electrode 1002 may be present at just below atmospheric pressure to about 10^-10In a vacuum above the tray. Accordingly, any suitable vacuum pump, valves, inlets, outlets, etc. may be included in the system 1020 in order to create and maintain a vacuum pressure.

In some embodiments, the fuel 1003 and the electrodes 1002 may be electrostatically charged oppositely to facilitate loading of the solid fuel 1003 in the fuel loading region 1017, such that the solid fuel 1003 may be electrostatically adhered to a predetermined area of each electrode 1002 where the fuel is ignited. In the embodiment shown in fig. 16, the surface of the electrode 1002 may be parallel to the axis of gravity. Thereby allowing the solid fuel 1003 to be transported from a region higher than the electrode 1002 to the fuel loading region 1017. Further, the area of the electrode 1002 that defines the fuel loading region 1017 may be smooth or may be textured, for example, to facilitate ignition of the solid fuel 1003.

In some embodiments, the electrode 1002 may include a movable portion, for example, to facilitate ignition of the solid fuel 1003. One electrode may comprise a movable portion configured to interact with a surface of one or more other electrodes, or an electrode may comprise a movable portion configured to interact with a movable portion of one or more other electrodes.

In the embodiment of fig. 16, the electrodes 1002 may include movable compression mechanisms 1002a configured to interact with each other to apply a compressive force to the solid fuel 1003. For example, the one or more electrodes 1002 can include a gear adjacent to the fuel loading zone 10017. Suitable gears may include, for example, helical gears, spur gears, helical gears, double helical gears (e.g., herringbone gears), and crossed gears, and a gear may include any suitable number or orientation of teeth. As shown in fig. 17A, solid fuel 1003 may be received in the fuel loading zone 1017 between the gears. The solid fuel 1003 may be deposited in a gap formed between teeth of the gears and may be compressed by mating teeth of the mating gear. For example, as shown in FIG. 17B, the gears may interact and a gear having n teeth (where n is an integer) may receive solid fuel 1003 in the nth inter-tooth gap and the fuel in the n-1 inter-tooth gap may be compressed by the n-1 teeth of the mating gear. In some embodiments, the fuel-receiving areas of the solid fuel 1003 and the gear teeth of the electrode 1002 may be oppositely electrostatically charged such that when delivered to the electrode, the solid fuel 1003 electrostatically adheres to the area of one or both electrodes, and when the teeth mesh, the fuel in that area ignites.

In fig. 17A and 17B, the compression mechanism 1002a is shown as an area of the electrode 1002. In other compression formats, the compression mechanism 1002a may comprise all of the electrode 1002. This embodiment is shown in fig. 18A and 18B. In addition, when the compression mechanisms 1002a are movable (in these embodiments, rotated), the electrodes 1002 can also move toward and away from the respective compression mechanisms, as illustrated in fig. 17A and 17B and fig. 18A and 18B. Alternatively, the compression mechanism 1002a may be movable (in this case, rotating) and the electrode 1002 may remain stationary.

In some embodiments, one or more electrodes 1002 may include rollers as compression mechanisms 1002a instead of or in addition to gears. For example, the embodiment depicted in fig. 24 includes rollers instead of gears. The rollers may be located at the end regions of the electrodes 1002 and may be separated by gaps to facilitate the transfer of the solid fuel 1003 between the electrodes and may be moved closer to each other to apply a compressive force to the fuel once the solid fuel 1003 is delivered to the fuel loading region 1017. In other embodiments, the electrodes 1002 and the rollers are configured to remain in place and the solid fuel 1003 can be fed into the rollers from one side, e.g., down into the rollers without the electrodes 1002 moving toward or away from each other. The solid fuel 1003 and the fuel receiving area of the rollers of the electrodes 1002 may be oppositely electrostatically charged such that when delivered to the electrodes, the solid fuel 1003 electrostatically adheres to the area of one or both electrodes where the rollers contact and the fuel ignites.

In a movable embodiment, the electrodes 1002 can be biased toward or away from each other. For example, in some movable embodiments, the rollers or gears of the electrodes 1002 can be offset toward each other. Biasing the electrode 1002 or the movable portion of the electrode 1002 may be accomplished using, for example, a spring or a pneumatic or hydraulic mechanism.

Compressing the solid fuel 1003 against the drum or gear may facilitate ignition, and in embodiments including gears, meshing of the teeth and compression involving the solid fuel 1003 may create electrical contact between the mating teeth via the electrically conductive fuel. In some embodiments, the gears may include conductive material in the mesh region that contacts the fuel during meshing and may include insulating material in other regions to allow current to selectively flow through the fuel. For example, the gears may be formed from or coated with a non-conductive or insulating material, such as a ceramic, quartz, diamond film, or any other suitable material or combination of materials, and may be coated with a conductive material, such as a conductive metal, in the meshing region. In other embodiments, the gears may be formed of a conductive material and may be coated with a non-conductive or insulating material outside the meshing region. The high current generated by the electrical contact between the mating teeth and the fuel may facilitate ignition of the solid fuel 1003. The gears or rollers may be textured, for example to enhance friction and promote ignition. In some embodiments, the transfer of solid fuel 1003 may be synchronized with the movement of the gears or rollers.

The plasma formed by ignition of the solid fuel 1003 may expand toward the gears, rollers, or end regions of the electrode 1002, and a plasma-to-electric converter may be placed in the flow path to receive the plasma. In embodiments where two or more plasma streams are ejected from the electrode 1002 in opposite axial directions, a converter may be placed in the flow path of each stream. Axial flow may occur via a Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter or the plasma may be in fixed or flowing contact with a plasma-kinetic (PDC) energy converter. Furthermore, directional flow may be achieved using confinement magnets (e.g., helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles).

For example, in a mobile embodiment, the plasma expansion flow may occur along an axis parallel to the axis of the gear (if included), which may also be transverse to the direction of fuel delivery into the fuel loading region 1017. The solid fuel 1003 may be continuously fed into a gear or drum that rotates to push the fuel through the gap. The solid fuel 1003 is continuously ignited as it rotates to fill the space between the electrodes along the meshing area of a set of gears or opposite sides of a set of rollers. The conductive solid fuel 1003 may constitute an electrical circuit between the electrodes 1002, and the high current flowing through the solid fuel 1003 may ignite the fuel. In some embodiments, the output power may be generally steady state. In some embodiments, the solid fuel 1003 may be delivered intermittently to prevent the expanding plasma from interfering with the fuel stream flow. For example, the delivery of the solid fuel 1003 may occur at intervals or may be initiated automatically (e.g., using a feedback mechanism) or manually based on the output power. Exemplary delivery mechanisms are described in further detail below.

In an exemplary embodiment, the electrode 1002 (as part of a generator) may generate intermittent power pulses from the battery 1001. Alternatively, the power generation system 1020 may include a plurality of batteries 1001 that output a superposition of individual battery powers during a timed burst event of the solid fuel 1003. In multiple batteries, the timed occurrence of events may provide a more continuous output power.

The electrodes 1002 can be positioned such that they contact each other at opposite points along the length of the electrodes to produce continuous high current flow and rapid reaction kinetics along the electrodes set at specified locations. The counter contact on the counter electrode can be formed by moving the respective connection to the contact position or by electronically switching the connection. Connections may be made in a synchronous manner to achieve more stable power output from the battery or batteries.

After ignition, the resulting plasma power may then be converted to power by a suitable plasma converter. The plasma converter may convert the plasma into any suitable form of non-plasma power, such as mechanical power, nuclear power, chemical power, thermal energy, electrical power, and electromagnetic energy, or any suitable combination thereof. A description of exemplary suitable plasma energy converters is provided in the following sections: plasma Dynamics Converter (PDC) section, Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) converter section, electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converter,A direct converter section, a charge drift converter section, a magnetic confinement section, and a solid fuel catalyst induced fractional hydrogen transition (SF-CIHT) cell section. Details of these and other Plasma-to-electric energy converters are set forth in prior publications, such as r.m.mayo, r.l.mills, m.nanstel, "Direct Plasma Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to electric conductivity," ieee transactions on Plasma Science, month 10, (2002), volume 30, phase 5, pages 2066-2073; R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "On the positional of Direct and MHD conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source to electric for micro distributed Power applications," IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science,8 months, (2002), Vol.30, No. 4, p.1568-1578; R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, "Direct plasma adynamic Conversion of plasma thermal Power to electric for micro distributed Power Applications,"40th annular Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, NJ,6 months 10-13 days, (2002), pages 1-4 ("Mills' first plasma energy transfer publication"), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety; and prior publications such as the following: microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Add Power Converter, PCT/US02/06955 (short edition), PCT/US02/06945(3/7/02 edition), Long edition, U.S. Pat. No. 10/469,913 (application 9/5/03); plasma Reactor And Process For Producing Tower-energy hydrogenes specifices, PCT/US04/010608 (application 4/8/04), US/10/552,585 (application 10/12/15); and Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for sizing, and Power Conversion, PCT/US02/35872 (application 11/8/02), US/10/494,571 (application 5/6/04) ("Mills Prior Plasma energy ConversionPublications ") incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Heat and plasma may be generated by each cell as a byproduct of fuel ignition. The heat may be used directly or may be converted to mechanical or electrical power using any suitable converter or combination of converters, including, for example, a heat engine (e.g., a steam engine) or a steam or gas turbine and an electrical generator, a rankine or brayton cycle engine, or a stirling engine. For energy conversion, each cell may be connected to any converter of thermal or plasma energy to mechanical power or to electrical power (e.g. a plasma-electric converter), a heat engine, a steam or gas turbine system, a stirling engine, or a thermionic or thermoelectric converter. Exemplary plasma converters may include a plasma-dynamic energy converter,Direct converters, magnetohydrodynamic energy converters, magnetomirror magnetohydrodynamic energy converters, charge-drift converters, Post or vennetian Blind type energy converters, magnetic coils, photon-bunched microwave energy converters, photoelectric converters, electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converters, or any other suitable converter or combination of converters. In some embodiments, the battery may include at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine. Exemplary batteries are further detailed herein.

The plasma energy converted to power may be dissipated in an external circuit in some embodiments. As shown by calculations and experiments, the conversion of plasma energy to electricity may be greater than 50% in some cases.

In some embodiments, the formed plasma power may be directly converted to electricity. During H catalysis, the HOH catalyst, the energy transferred to the HOH by the catalyzed H, ionizes the electrons. These electrons can be conducted in the high current circuits employed to prevent the catalytic reaction from self-limiting due to charge accumulation. The pulses are generated by fast kinetics, which in turn cause a large number of electrons to ionize. In some embodiments, a burst of fuel, which may comprise substantially 100% ionized plasma in a high ambient magnetic field due to the applied current, expands radially outward at high velocity and may produce magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion at the crossover electrodes. The magnitude of the voltage may increase in the direction of the applied polarity, since this direction is the lorentz deflection direction due to the current direction and the corresponding magnetic field vector and radial flow direction. In embodiments using magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion and DC current, the applied high DC current may cause the corresponding magnetic field to be DC.

In embodiments using the principles of magnetic space charge separation, a plasma kinetic energy converter 1006 may be used. Electrons can be confined in the magnetic field lines of a magnetized electrode, such as a cylindrical magnetized electrode or an electrode in an applied magnetic field, due to their lower mass than the positive ions. Thus, the electrons are restricted in mobility, while the positive ions are relatively free to collide with the intrinsic or extrinsic magnetized electrode. Both electrons and positive ions substantially collide with an unmagnetized counter electrode, which may comprise a conductor oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field applied to an externally magnetized electrode. Plasma kinetic conversion ("PDC") is the extraction of energy directly from the thermal and electrical potential energy of a plasma and is not dependent on plasma flow. In contrast, energy extraction by PDC is to drive a current in an external load with a potential difference between a magnetized electrode and an unmagnetized electrode immersed in the plasma and thereby extract power directly from the stored plasma thermal energy. The conversion of plasma thermal energy to electricity using PDC can be achieved by inserting at least two floating conductors directly into the high temperature plasma body. One of these conductors may be magnetized by an external electromagnetic field or a permanent magnet, or it may be intrinsically magnetic. The other may be unmagnetized. The potential difference increases due to the difference in charge mobility of the heavy positive ions and the light electrons. This voltage is applied across the electrical load.

The power generation system 1020 may also include other internal or external electromagnets or permanent magnets or may include a plurality of internally magnetized and unmagnetized electrodes, such as cylindrical electrodes, e.g., needle electrodes. The source of the uniform magnetic field B parallel to the electrodes may be provided by an electromagnet, for example one or more helmholtz coils which may be a superconductor or a permanent magnet.

Magnet current may also be supplied to the solid fuel 1003 to initiate ignition. A power source 1004 as shown in fig. 12 may provide power to the electrode 1002 to ignite the solid fuel 1003. In these embodiments, the magnetic field generated by the high current of the power supply 1004 may be enhanced by flowing through multiple rotors of an electromagnet, followed by flowing through the solid fuel 1003. The strength of the magnetic field B can be adjusted to produce a predetermined positive ion with respect to the radius of the cyclotron electron, thereby maximizing the energy at the electrode. In some embodiments, the orientation of at least one magnetized electrode may be parallel to the applied magnetic field B and the orientation of at least one respective opposing electrode may be perpendicular to the magnetic field B such that it is unmagnetized due to its orientation relative to the B direction. Energy may be delivered to the load via a wire connected to the at least one counter electrode. In some embodiments, the cell wall may serve as an electrode.

In some embodiments, the plasma generated by the ignition event may be an expanding plasma. Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) may be a suitable conversion method if an expanding plasma is generated. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the plasma may be confined. In addition to the plasma power conversion system, the power generation system may also include a plasma confinement system, such as a solenoidal magnetic field or a magnetic bottle, to confine the plasma and extract more high energy ion energy as power. The magnets may include one or more electromagnets and permanent magnets. The magnet may be an open coil, such as a helmholtz coil. The plasma may additionally be confined in the magnet bottle by any other system and method known to those skilled in the art.

The plasma-to-electric energy converter 1006 of fig. 12, 15A-15C, and 16 can include a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter. The positive and negative ions experience a lorentz direction in opposite directions and are received at respective electrodes to affect a voltage therebetween. Thus, two magnetohydrodynamic energy converters may be used, one placed in each ion path. A typical MHD method of forming a mass stream of ions is to expand an ion-seeded high pressure gas through a nozzle to form a high velocity stream through a crossed magnetic field, where a set of electrodes is crossed by a deflection field to receive deflected ions. In the present invention, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure, although this is not necessarily so, and the directed mass flow can be achieved by igniting a solid fuel to form a highly ionized radially expanding plasma.

In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic energy converter is a segmented faraday generator. In another embodiment, a transverse current resulting from the lorentz deflection of the ion flow further undergoes lorentz deflection in a direction parallel to the direction of the ion's inspiratory flow (z-axis), while a hall voltage is generated between at least a first electrode and a second electrode that are relatively displaced along the z-axis. This device is known in the art as a hall generator embodiment of a magnetohydrodynamic energy converter. In some embodiments, the power generation system 1020 may include a tilted frame-type generator, where the "window frame" configuration has electrodes that are tilted with respect to the z-axis in the xy-plane.

In each case, the voltage may drive current through the electrical load. As shown in fig. 19, the magnetohydrodynamic converter 1006 may include a magnetic flux source 1101 transverse to the z-axis, and ions may flow in a direction 1102. Thus, ions may have a preferential velocity along the z-axis due to the confinement field 1103 provided by the helmholtz coil 1104, thereby encouraging the ions to travel into the region of transverse magnetic flux. The lorentz force acting on the transport electrons and ions is given by F ═ ev × B. This force is transverse to the ion velocity and magnetic field and is opposite in direction to the positive and negative ions. This may create a lateral current flow. The transverse magnetic field source may comprise components that provide transverse magnetic fields of different strengths as a function of position along the z-axis in order to optimize cross-deflection of flowing ions with parallel velocity dispersion.

The magnetohydrodynamic energy converter 1006 shown in fig. 19 may also include at least two electrodes 1105 transectable with the magnetic field to receive the lorentz laterally deflected ions, thereby forming a voltage across the electrodes 1105. MHD power may be dissipated in the electrical load 1106. The electrode 1002 of fig. 12-16 may also be used as an MHD electrode. The magnetohydrodynamic energy converter 1006 shown in fig. 19 may also include another set of helmholtz coils (not shown) to provide a lorentz deflection field to the flowing plasma in the magnetic expansion section to generate a voltage at the electrodes 1105 that is applied across the load 1106.

In some embodiments of the magnetohydrodynamic energy converter 1006, the ions flowing along the z-axis (where v is medium)_∥>>v_⊥) The compression section may then be entered. The compression section may comprise an increasing axial magnetic field gradient, wherein the electron motion component v parallel to the z-axis direction_∥Constant due to thermal insulationConstant and at least partially translated into vertical motion v_⊥. Due to v_⊥The resulting azimuthal current may be formed around the z-axis. The axial magnetic field may cause the current to deflect radially in the plane of motion to generate a hall voltage, for example between the inner and outer ring electrodes of a disk generator magnetohydrodynamic energy converter. The voltage may drive current through the electrical load. In some embodiments, plasma energy may also be usedA direct converter or any other suitable plasma converter device.

As discussed above, to facilitate plasma and ion manipulation and conversion, a portion or all of the magnetohydrodynamic energy converter 1006 may be present in a vacuum. For example, the pressure within the mhd energy converter 1006 may range from about atmospheric pressure to about 10^-10Supporting the negative pressure above. In some embodiments, for example, the confinement field 1103 and/or the helmholtz coil 1104 may be present in a vacuum environment.

The magnetic field of the mhd energy converter 1006 may be provided by the current of the power supply 1004, which may flow through other electromagnets than the solid fuel 1003. In some embodiments, the magnetic field of the mhd energy converter 1006 may be powered by a separate power source.

As briefly described above, the power generation system 1020 may include a power source 1004 configured to deliver short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical power to the solid fuel 1003 via the electrode 1002. Any suitable power source 1004 or combination of power sources 1004 may be used, such as a power grid, a generator, a fuel cell, solar, wind, chemical, nuclear, tidal, thermal, hydroelectric, or mechanical wave source, a battery, a power source 1020, or another power source 1020. The power source 1004 may include a Taylor-Winfield type ND-24-75 spot welder and an EM test type CSS 500N10 current surge generator (8/20US up to 10 KA). In some embodiments, the power source 1004 is DC and the plasma energy converter is adapted to a DC magnetic field, for example using magnetohydrodynamics orAn energy converter.

The power supply 1004 may provide high current to the electrodes 1002 (and the battery 1001, if included) and may power other components in the power generation system 1020, such as any plasma converter or regeneration system to convert the solid fuel ignition products back to the recyclable initial solid fuel.

In some embodiments, the power supply 1004 may also accept a current, such as the high currents specified in the present disclosure. By accepting current, self-limiting charge accumulation due to the reaction can be improved. One or more current sources and sinks may also be included. For example, the power generation system 1020 may include one or more of the following: transformer circuits, LC circuits, RLC circuits, capacitors, supercapacitors, inductors, batteries, and other low impedance or low resistance circuits or circuit elements and power storage elements or any other device or combination of devices suitable for accepting current.

Turning now to the exemplary embodiment of fig. 20 and 21, the power generation system 1020 may include other components in addition to the electrodes, power supply, and plasma-to-energy converter 1006 discussed with reference to fig. 12-19. For example, the power generation system 1020 may include a delivery mechanism 1005 for delivering the solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading zone 1017 between the electrodes 1002. The type of delivery mechanism included in the power generation system 1020 may depend at least in part on the state, type, size, or shape of the fuel being delivered to the fuel loading region 1017, for example. For example, in the embodiment of fig. 20, the solid fuel 1003 is depicted in pellet form. The conveying mechanism 1005 adapted to transfer the fuel pellets may include a carousel configured to be rotatable so as to convey the pellets to the fuel loading zone 1017. In the exemplary embodiment of fig. 20, the conveying mechanism 1005 may convey a number of fuel pellets spaced along a peripheral region of the carousel. As the carousel rotates, successive pellets may be delivered to the fuel loading zone 1017 between the electrodes 1002.

In some embodiments, the carousel may be preloaded with a predetermined number of fuel pellets. Although fig. 20 depicts the carousel pre-loaded with eight pellets, the conveying mechanism 1005 may be pre-loaded with any number of pellets. The carousel may take the form of a disposable filter cartridge configured to be removed and replaced. In these embodiments, the delivery mechanism 1005 may further include an indicator for indicating the number of pellets remaining, the number of pellets used, or the time the filter cartridge needs to be replaced. In some embodiments, the cartridge may be loaded with the pellet in place once, or may be preloaded and then reloaded when the pellet is used. For example, individual storage and/or loading mechanisms may operate in conjunction with the delivery mechanism 1005 to replace pellets at the time of use. In these reloadable or loadable embodiments, the filter cartridge may be replaceable, disposable, or permanent.

Additionally, transporting the pellets of solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading zone 1017 may include removing the pellets from the carousel, or may simply include positioning the pellets between the electrodes 1002 while the pellets remain on the carousel. Furthermore, although the pellets on the carousel in fig. 20 are depicted as bare, the pellets may also be contained within the carousel or partially enclosed, such as by an outer wall, by individual partitions between the pellets, or by an enclosure. Delivering pellets to fuel loading zone 1017 may include, for example, exposing the delivered pellets or pellets on a distribution carousel. In another embodiment, the carousel containing pellets in fig. 20 may be housed in a vacuum chamber, which may also house the electrode 1002, the fuel loading region 1017, and the plasma-to-electric converter 1006.

In some embodiments, one pellet at a time can be delivered to the fuel loading zone 1017. In other embodiments, more than one pellet may be delivered to the fuel loading zone 1017 prior to ignition of the solid fuel 1003. The solid fuel 1003 may be delivered at a constant rate or at a variable rate. The delivery rate can be varied in a manual or automatic manner (e.g., according to feedback or a time schedule) to, for example, vary the power output or maintain a substantially constant output. The fuel delivery may be synchronized with the electrode 1002 movement when the electrode 1002 is opened and closed to receive fuel or when it is moved to ignite the fuel (in a movable embodiment or an embodiment using a movable compression mechanism 1002 a).

In the embodiment of fig. 21, the conveying mechanism 1005 is depicted as a hopper or reservoir for conveying the solid fuel 1003. The hopper may transport a fuel sample, such as pellets as shown in fig. 20, or may transport particles of solid fuel 1003, such as in embodiments where solid fuel 1003 is in powder form. Powdered fuel may be delivered in individual capsules in a manner similar to the delivery of pellets, or may be delivered in the form of a bulk loose powder. The liquid fuel may be delivered in a cartridge, or may be delivered in the form of, for example, a liquid stream, a vapor, a spray, or droplets. The hopper may deliver one or more pellets to the fuel loading area 1017 or may deliver a metered amount of powder or liquid to the fuel loading area 1017. As discussed above with reference to fig. 20, the amount or rate of fuel delivered to the fuel loading zone 1017 may be constant or may vary and may be controlled using any suitable method.

The loading hopper may include a chute, valve, dip tube, or any suitable structure for directing and/or regulating the flow of solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading zone 1017. In some embodiments, the loading hopper may take the form of a fluid dispenser and may dispense the solid fuel 1003 in liquid or gaseous form. Additionally, the hopper or any of the transport mechanisms 1005 may include one or more sensors for detecting parameters of the solid fuel or the transport mechanism. For example, the transport mechanism 1005 may be operably connected to one or more sensors to detect, for example, pressure, temperature, fill level, movement, flow rate, or any other suitable parameter. The sensors may be operatively connected to a display, a meter, a control system, or any suitable means for communicating measurement data to an external reader, or to regulate the components of the power generation system 1020 based on measured parameters. One or more sensors may be useful, for example, to determine or control the amount of fuel delivered to the fluid region 1017, to detect the total amount of solid fuel 1003 remaining or used, or the condition of the solid fuel 1003 therein.

In some embodiments, the loading hopper may be positioned above the fuel loading region 1017 such that when a sample of the solid fuel 1003 is delivered, gravity urges the solid fuel to fall into the fuel loading region 1017. In other embodiments, the hopper may be immediately adjacent to or below the fuel loading region 1017 and configured to eject or push the solid fuel sample laterally or upwardly against gravity to deliver the solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading region 1017. For example, the hopper may include a crossbar, piston, spring, pneumatic device, auger, conveyor, hydraulic or electrical device or triggering device, or any other suitable mechanism or combination of mechanisms for actively pushing (as opposed to passively dropping via gravity) the solid fuel 1003 into the fuel loading region 1017.

In some powdered embodiments, the solid fuel 1003 may flow from an overhead hopper as an intermittent stream, and the electrodes 1002 may be moved away from each other to receive the flowing powdered or liquid solid fuel 1003 and moved closer to each other to ignite the stream, the timing of the intermittent stream may be synchronized to accommodate the size of the electrodes 1002. Alternatively, the fuel delivery may be continuous.

In some powder embodiments, the solid fuel 1003 may be in the form of a fine powder, such as a powder formed by ball milling (or any other suitable technique) the reclaimed or reprocessed fuel. Exemplary fuel mixtures may include, for example, transition metals, oxides thereof, and H₂And O. In these embodiments, the transport mechanism 1005 may include a sprayer (e.g., a pneumatic, aerosol, mechanical, or electronic sprayer), and the finely powdered solid fuel 1003 (e.g., a suspension or mist) may be sprayed in the fuel loading zone 1017.

In the embodiment of fig. 22, a conveyor belt may be used to transport the solid fuel 1003. For example, a conveyor (rather than a carousel) may move fuel into the loading region 1017. The conveyor belt may be pre-loaded or may be loaded from a fuel source 1014 by a solid fuel loader 1013 and conveys solid fuel 1003 from the fuel source to the fuel loading zone 1017. For example, the loader 1013 may deposit a sample of the solid fuel 1003 from the fuel source 1014 onto the conveyor belt 1005, or the conveyor belt 1005 may interact with the fuel source to remove an amount of the solid fuel 1003 from the fuel source as it passes by or through the fuel source. The conveyor belt may extend laterally to the fuel loading zone 1017 (flush with, above, or below the fuel loading zone 1017) or may extend perpendicular to the fuel loading zone 1017. In a vertical embodiment, the conveyor may comprise a series of compartments, spoons, or projections configured to transport a sample of the solid fuel 1003 along the conveyor to the fuel loading region 1017. Additionally, delivering the solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading zone 1017 may include allowing the solid fuel 1003 to remain on the conveyor or moving the solid fuel 1003 off of the conveyor into the loading zone.

In other embodiments, the conveying mechanism 1005 may comprise a screw conveyor in which threads are configured to move the solid fuel 1003, or may comprise one or more gears, valves, crossbars, pulleys, sprayers, fluid dispensers, droppers, or any other suitable conveying mechanism.

Further, any suitable conveying mechanism 1005 or combination of conveying mechanisms 1005 may be used to convey the solid fuel 1003 to the fuel loading zone 1017. For example, the hopper may be used in conjunction with a carousel or conveyor to load or reload the carousel or conveyor to displace the delivered fuel, or the conveyor may deliver the solid fuel 1003 to the hopper or carousel.

Additionally, as shown in fig. 23, the delivery mechanism 1005 may deliver fuel 1003 to multiple fuel loading zones 1017, such as in embodiments where the system 1020 includes multiple sets of electrodes 1002 and/or multiple cells 1001. In other embodiments, multiple delivery mechanisms 1005 may wait for multiple fuel loading zones 1017, or multiple delivery mechanisms 1005 may wait for a single fuel loading zone 1017. These embodiments may allow for enhanced power generation by the system 1020.

The power generation system 1020 may also include a removal system for removing by-products of the spent fuel from the fuel loading zone 1017. The byproducts may include spent fuel, unreacted fuel, or any products formed when the solid fuel 1003 is reacted. The removal system may be separate from the delivery mechanism 1005, or the delivery mechanism 1005 may perform the function of removing spent fuel in addition to loading the electrodes with fuel for ignition.

In embodiments where the delivery mechanism 1005 also performs a removal function, the delivery mechanism 1005 may take the form of, for example, a conveyor belt that removes spent fuel from the fuel loading region 1017, which may also be a conveyor belt that moves fuel into the fuel loading region 1017. In some embodiments, the solid fuel 1003 and the conveyor belt may take the form of a continuous strip that ignites only when an electrical current is passed through it. In this embodiment, the solid fuel 1003 may generally refer to a portion of a solid fuel tape, and a new portion of the tape that has not ignited may move into the fuel loading region 1017 and then, once ignited, out of the fuel loading region 1017. In other tape embodiments, the tape may comprise a powdered fuel package or pellets that may be attached to the tape, and as the tape moves along the conveyor, the fuel package or pellets may move into the loading region 1017 to ignite and then may move away from the loading region 1017 once used.

In some embodiments, the conveying mechanism 1005 may include a carousel that rotates to convey the solid fuel 1003 into the fuel loading zone 1017, pauses to ignite, and then rotates to move the spent fuel out of the area and position the new solid fuel 1003 between the electrodes 1002 in the fuel loading zone 1017 for the next ignition process. The carousel or belt or any conveying mechanism performing the removal and conveying functions may be coated or formed from a suitable material that is resistant to melting or corrosion, such as ceramic, quartz, diamond film, or metal (e.g., refractory alloys, high temperature oxidation resistant alloys [ e.g., TiAlN ], or high temperature stainless steel), or any suitable combination thereof. These materials may allow the solid fuel 1003 to remain on the conveying mechanism 1005 during ignition without substantially compromising the integrity of the conveying mechanism 1005. The delivery and/or removal mechanism that provides only one of the delivery or removal functions may also be formed of similar coatings or materials that provide additional protection or reduce wear, for example.

In embodiments where the removal system is separate from the transport mechanism 1005, the removal system may include a carousel, a belt, or any mechanism described with reference to the transport mechanism 1005, and may interact with the transport mechanism 1005 or operate separately from the transport mechanism 1005. In some embodiments, the removal system may cause a burst of the directed fluid (e.g., water or air) to expel the spent fuel from the fuel loading zone 1017. In other embodiments, a vacuum may draw spent fuel from the fuel loading region 1017, a magnet may repel or attract spent fuel from the fuel loading region 1017, or an electrostatic collection system may remove spent fuel from the loading region 1017. The electrode 1002 may also be moved so that the spent fuel may be removed from the fuel loading zone 1017 by, for example, gravity. A crossbar, sweeper, rake, hook, scraper, or other mechanical device may push, pull, or lift the spent fuel out of the fuel loading area 1017. Spent fuel or products may also be removed from the plasma-to-electric converter 1006 (e.g., MHD converter) by a similar mechanism.

In other embodiments, removal of the system may not be required because spent solid fuel 1003 may be substantially destroyed, vaporized, or otherwise "spent," such that little or no spent fuel remains after ignition of solid fuel 1003.

In the exemplary embodiment of fig. 20, the carousel may serve as a partial removal system for removing spent fuel from the fuel loading zone 1017, but once spent fuel is removed from the loading zone 1017, another removal system 1013 may be utilized that removes spent fuel from the carousel. The removal system 1013 may similarly be used with a conveyor belt or any of the other transport mechanisms 1005 described above. The removal system 1013 may also reload the carousel or other transport mechanism 1005 with unused solid fuel 1003 for introduction into the loading area 1017.

The removal system 1013 may also work in conjunction with a regeneration system 1014, which may recycle the spent fuel (e.g., into usable components such as fuel and energetic materials). Additionally, the transport mechanism 1005 may operate in conjunction with a removal system 1013 and a regeneration system 1014, as shown in the exemplary embodiment of fig. 20. The spent solid fuel may be removed from the fuel loading zone 1017 by the delivery system 1005, removed from the delivery system 1005 by the removal system 1013, processed by the regeneration system 1014, and then the delivery system 1005 may be backfilled with regenerated fuel from the regeneration system 1014, such as by backfilling the delivery system 1005 via the removal system 1013, the removal system 1013 also may serve as a heavy-duty system. Alternatively, the reloading system may be separate from the removal system 1013.

In the embodiment of fig. 21, solid fuel 1003 can be dispensed from hopper conveyor mechanism 1005 into fuel loading zone 1017. Upon ignition of the electrode 1002, the solid fuel 1003 may be partially or fully vaporized into a gaseous physical state to form a plasma during the resulting impulse or burst reaction event. Once formed, the plasma may pass through a plasma-to-electric converter 1006, and the recombined plasma may form gaseous atoms and compounds. These gaseous atoms and compounds may be condensed by condenser 1015 and collected by removal system 1013 and sent to regeneration system 1014. For example, the removal system 1013 may include a conveyor connected to the regeneration system 1014, which may be further connected to the hopper transport mechanism 1005. The spent fuel may be moved from the fuel loading zone 1017 to a condenser 1015 and/or removal system 1013, a regeneration system 1014, a storage assembly, and/or a transport mechanism 1005, and back to the zone 1017. The condenser 1015 and removal system 1013 can include any suitable system or combination of systems that collect and move material, including, for example, an electrostatic collection system, an auger, a conveyor, a carousel, or a pneumatic (e.g., vacuum or positive pressure) system.

In some embodiments, the power source 1004 may provide power to the removal system 1013 and/or the regeneration system 1014. Power generation system 1020 may further include output power terminals 1009 configured to direct power generated by plasma-to-electric converter 1006. A portion of the electrical power output at terminal 1009 may be supplied to removal system 1013 and/or regeneration system 1014 and/or condenser 1015 to provide electrical power and electricity to expand the chemical reactions necessary to regenerate the reaction products into the original solid fuel 1003. The power output by output terminal 1009 may also be used to supply any suitable component of power generation system 1020. In the presence of metal oxides and tolerance and H₂O-reacted metal and H₂In an exemplary embodiment of the solid fuel of O, the regenerating comprises rehydrating the product.

The power generation system 1020 may also include a temperature regulation system. For example, the cooling system may remove heat from the system 1020 generated by the ignition of the solid fuel 1003. As shown in fig. 20-25, the system 1020 optionally includes a heat exchanger 1010. In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 24, a portion of the heat from heat exchanger 1010 may be transferred to regeneration system 1014 via coolant lines 1011 and 1012. The heat within the regeneration system 1014 may provide thermal energy and thermal energy that extends the chemical reactions required to regenerate the reaction products into the original solid fuel 1003. In some embodiments, a portion of the output power from the plasma-to-electric converter 1006 may also be used to power the regeneration system 1014.

The regeneration system 1014 may regenerate the solid fuel 1003 using any suitable reaction or combination of reactions, including any reaction or combination of reactions described in the chemical reactor section and the solid fuel catalyst-induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell section, such as the addition of H₂、H₂O, thermal regeneration or electrolytic regeneration. Since the energy gain of the reaction is very large relative to the input energy of the starting reaction (which may be 100 times that of the NiOOH case in some embodiments (e.g., 5.5kJ output versus 46J input)), the product (e.g., Ni)₂O3 and NiO) can be converted to the hydroxide and then to the hydroxide by electrochemical and/or chemical reactionsIs an oxyhydroxide. In other embodiments, metals (e.g., Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Sm) and the corresponding oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides may be substituted for Ni. The solid fuel 1003 may also include metal oxide and H₂O, and the corresponding metals as conductive substrates. The product may be a metal oxide. The solid fuel can be regenerated by hydrogen reduction of a portion of the metal oxide to metal, followed by mixing with the rehydrated oxide. Suitable metals having oxides that are readily reduced to the metal using mild heat (e.g., less than about 1000 ℃) and hydrogen include, for example, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In, or combinations thereof.

In another embodiment, the solid fuel 1003 may include (1) a material that does not readily consist of H₂And slightly thermally reduced oxides such as alumina, alkaline earth metal oxides, and rare earth oxides; (2) the oxide can be reacted with H at a suitable temperature (e.g., less than about 1000 ℃ C.)₂A metal reduced to a metal; and (3) H₂And O. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂O。H₂Mixtures of reducible and nonreducible oxides with H₂Treated and heated under mild conditions such that only the reducible metal oxide is converted to the metal. The mixture may be hydrated to include a renewable fuel. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂O; wherein the product MgO + CuO undergoes H₂The reduction process produces MgO + Cu, which hydrates to form the fuel.

In another embodiment, H may be added by addition₂O to regenerate the product into reactant. For example, the fuel or energetic material may include H₂O and a conductive matrix, and regeneration may include addition of H₂O into the spent fuel. Addition of H₂O to regenerate spent fuel and form solid fuel 1003 may be continuous or intermittent. In other embodiments, the metal/metal oxide reactant may include a compound with H₂O is a less reactive metal whose corresponding oxide can be reduced to the metal. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals that are O reactive are those selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, or any combination thereof. The metal may be converted to the oxide form during the ignition reaction. The oxide product corresponding to the metal reactant can be regenerated back to the original metal by a regeneration system 1014, which can include hydrogen reduction by, for example, a system and other suitable systems. Hydrogen can pass through H₂And (4) supplying O through electrolysis. In another embodiment, the oxides are regenerated into the metal by carbon reduction, reduction with a reducing agent (e.g., a stronger oxygen active metal), or by electrolysis (e.g., molten salt electrolysis). The oxide-forming metal may be achieved by any suitable system and method known to those skilled in the art.

In other embodiments, the hydrous metal/metal oxide solid fuel may comprise a solid fuel with H₂O is a less reactive metal whose corresponding oxide is not formed during ignition. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals that are O reactive are those selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In, or any combination thereof. The product containing unreacted metal and metal oxide is rehydrated to form a regenerated solid fuel. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a fuel comprising H₂Carbon of O. The plasma condensed carbon products can be rehydrated in the regeneration cycle to reform solids.

The solid fuel 1003 may be disposable and does not use a regeneration step. For example, carbon containing H and O (e.g., steam carbon or activated carbon) may be a suitable exemplary reactant or solid fuel 1003 that may be consumed without regeneration. In these embodiments, the power generation system 1020 may not include the regeneration system 1014 or the condenser 1015.

The mechanical action described above with respect to the conveyance mechanism 1005, removal system 1013, or regeneration system 1014 may be achieved by any suitable system known to those skilled in the art, including, for example, pneumatic, solenoid, or electric motor action systems. Additionally, the transport mechanism 1005, removal system 1013, or regeneration system 1014 may be powered by, or in combination with, the power source 1004, output power terminals 1009, and any other power source for any of the other components in the power generation system 1020, respectively.

An exemplary power generation method may proceed as follows. The reactants of the designated solid fuel 1003 ignite to produce a plasma. The plasma-to-electric converter 1006 may utilize plasma to generate power. The plasma-to-electric converter 1006 may further include a plasma product condenser and a conveyor to the transport mechanism 1005. The product may then be transported by a transport mechanism 1005 (e.g., a carousel) to a removal system 1013, the removal system 1013 transporting the product from the transport mechanism 1005 to a regeneration system 1014. In the regeneration system 1014, the spent solid fuel may be regenerated into the original reactant or solid fuel 1003 and then directed back to the transport mechanism 1005 via the removal system 1013 or a separate heavy-duty component.

Ignition of the solid fuel 1003 generates an output plasma and thermal energy. The plasma energy may be converted directly to electricity by a plasma-to-electricity converter 1006, as discussed above. As shown in the embodiment of fig. 25, at least some energy may also be transferred and stored in a storage device 1018 included in the system 1020. The storage device 1018 may store any suitable form of energy, including, for example, electrical, chemical, or mechanical energy. The storage device 1018 may comprise, for example, a capacitor, a high current transformer, a battery, a flywheel, or any other suitable power storage device, or a combination thereof. The system 1020 may include a storage device 1018, for example, to store power generated by the plasma-to-electric converter 1006 for later use by the system 1020, for later use by another device (e.g., an external load), or to attenuate any intermittent phenomena. The system 1020 is configured to recharge or fill the storage device 1018, which, once filled, can then be removed and connected to a respective device to provide power. The system 1020 may optionally include a storage device configured to receive and store some or all of the power generated by the system 1020 for subsequent use by the system 1020, such as for use as a backup power source. As shown in fig. 25, a storage device 1018 may be electrically connected to the output power regulator 1007 and the power supply 1004. A portion of the energy generated by the system 1020 may thereby be allowed to be fed back into the system 1020 via the power supply 1004, where it may be used, for example, to power the electrode 1002 or any other suitable component of the system 1020. In other embodiments, the storage device 1018 may not receive power generated by the system 1020 and instead only power the system 1020. Further, instead of or in addition to storage device 1018, system 1020 may be electrically connected to an external device or power grid such that the power generated by system 1020 may directly power a separate device or directly power a separate power grid. In some embodiments, the electrical output from the battery 1001 of the system 1020 may deliver short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy, igniting the fuel of another battery, thereby reusing the generated power to the fuel system 1020 without the use of the storage device 1018. In addition, the power source 1004 may include its dedicated storage 1018 for receiving power from the system 1020 for use in powering the system 1020, as in the embodiment of fig. 25.

Each electrode 1002 and/or battery 1001 also outputs thermal energy, which can be extracted from heat exchanger 1010 via input coolant line 1011 and output coolant line 1012, respectively. The thermal energy may be used directly for heating or may be converted into power. The power generation system 1020 may further include a thermoelectric converter. The conversion may be achieved using any suitable energy converter, such as a power plant (e.g., a conventional rankine or brayton-type power plant), a steam plant equipped with a boiler, a steam turbine, an electrical generator, or a gas turbine equipped with an electrical generator. Exemplary reactants, regeneration reactions and systems, and energy converters are described in, for example, international applications PCT/US08/61455, PCT/US09/052072, PCT/US10/27828, PCT/US11/28889, PCT/US12/31369, and PCT/US13/041938, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Other suitable energy converters may include, for example, thermionic and thermoelectric energy converters and heat engines (e.g., stirling engines). The heat exchanger 1010 may be used to cool the electrode 1002, the plasma-to-electric converter 1006, the fuel loading region 1017, or any suitable component of the system 1020.

The electrical power generated by the power generation system 1020 may further be regulated by an output power regulator 1007, the output power regulator 1007 connected to the plasma-to-electric converter 1006 by a power connector 1008. The output power regulator 1007 may vary the quality of power produced to be compatible with the internal or external electrical load devices to which power is being transmitted. The quality of the power generated may include current, voltage, frequency, noise/coherence, or any other suitable quality. The power flow of the output power regulator 1007 and the plasma-to-energy converter 1006 connected through the power connector 1008 may be adjusted to vary the adaptation of the power, for example to reflect changes in the electrical load devices or the power generated by the system 1020. The regulator may perform one or more functions including, for example, power level, voltage regulation, power factor correction, noise suppression, or transient impulse protection. In one exemplary embodiment, the output power regulator 1007 may adapt the power generated by the system 1020 to a desired waveform, such as 60hz ac power, to maintain a more constant voltage for varying loads.

After regulation, the power generated may then be transmitted from regulator 1007 to a load via output terminal 1009. Although two power connectors 1008 are depicted in the exemplary diagram as being connected to two plasma-to-electrical converters 1006 and one output power regulator 1007, any suitable number and configuration of such devices may be incorporated into system 1020. Further, any number of output power terminals 1009 and configurations of the output power terminals 1009 may be included in the power generation system 1020.

In some embodiments, as discussed above, a portion of the power output at the power output terminal 1009 may be used to power the power supply 1004, for example, providing approximately 5-10V, 10,000-40,000A DC power. The MHD and PDC energy converters can output low voltage, high current DC power that can be re-powered to the electrodes 1002 to cause ignition of the subsequently supplied fuel. In some embodiments, a super capacitor or battery may be used to prime the battery 1001 by supplying power to initiate an ignition, so that the output power regulator 1007 provides power for subsequent ignition, which output power regulator 1007 may in turn be powered by the plasma-to-electrical energy converter 1006.

Additionally, heat exchanger 1010, where coolant flows through inlet line 1011 and outlet line 1012, can extract thermal energy. It is contemplated that additional heat exchangers are present, such as one or more heat exchangers located on the vessel 1001 or plasma-to-electrical converter (e.g., MHD converter 1006). The heat exchangers may each comprise a waterwall type, or a type containing and circulating a coolant in a line, tube, or channel. The heat may be transferred to a thermal load or to a thermoelectric power converter. The output power of the thermoelectric converter may be used to power a load and a portion may be used to power the power supply 1004.

The power generation system 1020 may further include a control system 1030, and the control system 1030 may be part of the system 1020 or may be separate and/or removable from the system 1020. Control system 1030 may monitor system 1020 and/or may automate some or all of system 1020. For example, the control system 1030 may control the timing of ignition, the amount of current or voltage used to cause ignition, the speed of the delivery mechanism 1005 and/or the timing or amount of fuel delivery or removal from the fuel loading region 1017, the positioning and/or movement of the electrodes 1002, fuel regeneration, the flow of generated power within the system 1020 (e.g., to power one or more components or stored in a storage device), the flow of generated power out of the system 1020, the cooling or heating of the activation system 1020, monitoring one or more parameters of the system 1020 (e.g., temperature, pressure, fill level, power generation parameters (such as current and voltage), magnetic field, motion, maintenance index, or any other suitable parameter), turning the system 1020 on or off, activating a safety mechanism or standby mode, or any other suitable function of the control system 1020. In some embodiments, control system 1030 may only monitor system 1020.

The power generation system 1020 may also include one or more measurement devices 1025 operably connected to one or more components of the system 1020 and configured to measure a suitable parameter. Although fig. 20 depicts one measurement device 1025 located at power output terminal 1009, one or more measurement devices 1025 may be operatively connected to any suitable component in system 1020 and may be located at any suitable location within, on, or near any suitable component of power generation system 1020. Measurement device 1025 may be operatively connected to a display, meter, control system 1030, or any suitable means for communicating measurement data with an external reader. Measurement device 1025 may include sensors, such as sensors that detect temperature, pressure, fill level, power generation parameters (e.g., current, voltage), magnetic field, motion, maintenance index, or any other suitable parameter. These sensors are configured to alert an operator of the system 1020 or the control system 1030 to the presence or potential presence of certain conditions associated with the system 1020, such as by an audible or visual alarm. In some embodiments, sensors operating in conjunction with system 1020 may form a feedback system to facilitate automatic operation of system 1020 according to one or more meaningful parameters. In some embodiments, for example, if one or more parameters are detected to be above or below a predetermined shutdown threshold, the one or more parameters measured by the measurement device 1025 may initiate an emergency shutdown or standby mode to prevent damage to the system 1020 or surrounding area, or to facilitate maintenance or repair.

Control system 1030 and/or measurement device 1025 may communicate with any suitable components of system 1020, with control mechanisms within system 1020 to facilitate automation, or with a processor or display. The control system 1030 may include a processor operably connected to the power generation system 1020. The processor may include, for example, a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), a Programmable Logic Relay (PLR), a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU), a Distributed Control System (DCS), a Printed Circuit Board (PCB), or any other type of processor capable of controlling the power generation system 1020. The display may be operably connected to the control system 1030 and may include any type of device capable of graphically depicting information (e.g., CRT monitor, LCD screen, etc.) the measurement device 1025 and/or the control system 1030 may be directly connected to each other and/or to components of the system 1020 (e.g., via hardwire) or may be wirelessly connected (e.g., WiFi, bluetooth). In addition, power generation system 1020, measurement device 1025, and/or control system 1030 are configured to communicate with a remote device (e.g., a smart phone) or a remote power control facility in order to remotely monitor and/or control system 1020. Further, if the power generation system 1020 is fully or partially automated, the system 1020 may also include a manual override, which may be actuated remotely and/or in the field.

In some embodiments, the power generation system 1020 may operate autonomously or semi-autonomously. For example, the system 1020 may generate sufficient power to power itself for continuous operation. The system 1020 may generate sufficient power to power a storage device included in the system 1020, which may be used as a backup power source when the main power source is off or when the power supplied is low. The system 1020 may also generate sufficient power to power an external load device while providing sufficient power to operate itself continuously for a period of time without receiving power from an external power source. These embodiments of the system 1020, particularly when combined with the control system 1030, may allow the power generation system 1020 to be partially or fully self-sufficient and autonomous, e.g., optionally independent of an electrical grid or traditional fossil fuel infrastructure.

These self-contained embodiments may be adapted to provide power to inaccessible locations or locations that are incompatible with or unpredictable in power sources, or for other stand-alone or internal uses. For example, while the system 1020 runs continuously over time, generating enough power to run (intermittently (as needed) or continuously), while also generating additional power to power the load, the power generation system 1020 may be established at a remote location and then maintained and monitored remotely, if at all. Control system 1030 may control one or more components of system 1020 to buffer power generation, e.g., operate independently of an external power source. In these autonomous and/or semi-autonomous embodiments, the power generation system 1020 may include a regeneration system as discussed above to allow all or most of the fuel reactant to be reused, such that the frequency with which the reactant needs to be replenished is reduced, if at all. Additionally, in embodiments requiring water as a fuel or reactant for solid fuel or energetic material regeneration, the power generation system 1020 may include, for example, a water collection assemblyConfigured to collect water from the surrounding environment into the fuel system 1020. The water collection member may comprise hygroscopic material, e.g. to extract H from the surrounding atmosphere₂O, the hygroscopic material of the present invention.

Autonomous, semi-autonomous, or non-autonomous embodiments of the invention may be used to power an external load. Embodiments of the present invention may be used to power household items (e.g., heating or cooling systems, appliances, electronics, etc.), vehicles (e.g., cars, trucks, planes, fork-lifts, trains, boats, motorcycles, etc.), for industrial use, for local power stations or generators, for telecommunications, such as data centers, or for any suitable application. Different exemplary embodiments may use different types of fuels (e.g., primarily containing H)₂O and those that are highly conductive due to the conductive elements of the solid fuel), different ignition parameters, and/or different configurations of system components in order to generate the appropriate amount of power for different applications to power different external loads. Some exemplary devices and their general exemplary power usage are provided below to demonstrate exemplary ranges of power that the power generation system 1020 is configured to output. Additionally, the autonomous or semi-autonomous power generation system 1020 may generate more power than is required for a given application in order to supply the remaining power that may be reintroduced back into the system 1020 to power system operations. Larger power systems may be achieved by configuring or connecting a plurality of modular power generation systems 1020. The connections may be in series, parallel, or a combination thereof, such that the combined cells achieve the desired voltage, current, and power.

Other mechanical power producing embodiments

In one embodiment of the present invention, a system for generating mechanical power is provided. The system can include a power source of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver the solid fuel of the present invention to the ignition chamber. Exemplary solid fuels suitable for igniting a water or water-based fuel source (referring to the solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention) to produce mechanical power are illustrated in the internal SF-CIHT cell engine section of the present invention. The embodiments disclosed in this section may use the solid fuel of the present invention. The system may also include a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to power the solid fuel to generate the plasma, and a piston positioned within the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

In another aspect, a system can include a power source of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel of the present invention to the ignition chamber. The system may also include a pair of electrodes connected to a power source and configured to supply electrical power to the solid fuel to generate a plasma, and a turbine in fluid communication with the exit orifice and configured to rotate to output mechanical power.

In another aspect, a system can include a power source having a capacity of at least about 5,000A, and an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein the impeller can include a hollow region configured to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy and the hollow region can include an inlet configured to receive a working fluid. The system may further comprise a fuel delivery device configured to deliver the solid fuel of the present invention to the hollow zone, and a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply and configured to supply power to the hollow zone to ignite the solid fuel and generate a plasma.

In another embodiment, a system may include a power source of at least about 5,000A, and a movable element configured to rotationally output mechanical power, wherein the movable element at least partially defines an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal energy. Also, the system can include a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the ignition chamber, and a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate the plasma.

In another embodiment, a system may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, and a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy. The system also includes a fuel delivery device configured to deliver the solid fuel to the plurality of ignition chambers, and a plurality of electrodes connected to the power source, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes is coupled to at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate the plasma.

In another embodiment, a system may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber. The system may further include a pair of electrodes coupled to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate the arc plasma, and a piston fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

In another embodiment, a system can include a power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy, wherein the ignition chamber comprises an exit orifice; and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver the water-based fuel to the ignition chamber. A pair of electrodes connected to a power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate an arc plasma, and a turbine in fluid communication with the exit orifice and configured to rotate to output mechanical power may also be included.

In another embodiment, a system can include a power source of at least about 5,000A; an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein the impeller comprises a hollow region configured to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal energy and the hollow region comprises an inlet end configured to receive a working fluid; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver the water-based fuel to the hollow zone; and a pair of electrodes connected to the power supply and configured to supply power to the hollow region to ignite the water-based fuel and generate an arc plasma.

In another embodiment, a system can include a power source of at least about 5,000A; a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the plurality of ignition chambers; and a plurality of electrodes connected to the power supply, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes is connected to at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and is configured to power the water based fuel to generate an arc plasma.

In another embodiment, an ignition chamber may include an enclosure defining a hollow chamber configured to form at least a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a fuel container in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, wherein the fuel container is electrically connected to a pair of electrodes; and a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber.

In another embodiment, the ignition chamber may include a housing defining a hollow chamber, and an injection device in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, wherein the injection device is configured to inject fuel into the hollow chamber. The chamber may further include a pair of electrodes electrically connected to the hollow chamber and configured to supply electrical power to the fuel sufficient to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal energy in the hollow chamber; and a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber.

In another embodiment, a method of generating mechanical power may include delivering a solid fuel to an ignition chamber, and passing an electrical current of at least about 5,000A through the solid fuel and applying a voltage of less than about 10V to the solid fuel to ignite the solid fuel and generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy. The method may also include mixing thermal energy with the working fluid, and directing the working fluid toward the movable element to move the movable element and output mechanical power, wherein in the present invention it is meant that the power of the plasma and the arc plasma is spontaneously decayed or converted to thermal energy. The thermal energy may be converted into mechanical power by means of, for example, pressure-volumetric work. The plasma may be converted directly to electrical power by a plasma-to-energy converter (such as those of the present invention, e.g., MHD or PDC converters). Electrical power may be converted to mechanical power by means of, for example, an electric motor, or plasma or arc plasma power may be converted to heat and thermal energy may be converted to mechanical power by means of, for example, a heat engine, where heat may be associated with pressure volume work.

Another method may include delivering a water based fuel to an ignition chamber and passing an electrical current of at least about 10,000A through the water based fuel and applying a voltage of at least about 4kV to the water based fuel to ignite the water based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy. Also, the method may include mixing thermal energy with the working fluid and directing the working fluid toward the movable element to move the movable element and output mechanical power.

Another method may include supplying a solid fuel to an ignition chamber, supplying at least about 5,000A to an electrode electrically connected to the solid fuel, igniting the solid fuel in the ignition chamber to generate at least one of a plasma and thermal energy, and converting at least a portion of the at least one of the plasma and thermal energy into mechanical power.

Another method may include supplying a water based fuel to an ignition chamber, supplying at least about 5,000A to an electrode electrically connected to the water based fuel, igniting the water based fuel in the ignition chamber to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy, and converting at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal energy to mechanical power.

Another embodiment of the present invention provides a machine for land transportation. The machine may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber. The machine may also include a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a drive shaft mechanically coupled to the movable element and configured to provide mechanical power to the transport element.

Another embodiment of the present invention provides a machine for air transport. The machine may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber. The machine may also include a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and an aerospace member mechanically coupled to the movable member and configured to provide propulsion in the aerospace environment.

Another embodiment of the present invention provides a machine for marine transportation. The machine may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber. The machine may also include a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a marine element mechanically coupled to the movable element and configured to provide propulsion in a marine environment.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure provides a work machine that may include a power supply of at least about 5,000A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy, and a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber. The work machine may also include a pair of electrodes connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy; a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a working element mechanically coupled to the movable element and configured to provide mechanical power.

In embodiments of the invention, the power source may be at least about 10,000A, for example at least about 14,000A. In other embodiments of the invention, the power supply may be less than about 100V, for example less than about 10V or less than about 8V. In other embodiments of the invention, the power source may be at least about 5,000 kW. In other embodiments, the solid fuel may comprise a portion of water, a portion of the water-absorbing material, and a portion of the electrically conductive component, and non-limiting examples include at least about 30 mole percent of the portion of water of the solid fuel, at least about 30 mole percent of the portion of the water-absorbing material of the solid fuel, and at least about 30 mole percent of the portion of the electrically conductive component of the solid fuel.

In other embodiments, the system may include an inlet configured to deliver the working fluid to the ignition chamber. In certain embodiments, the working fluid may comprise air, H₂O and an inert gas, and the working fluid can be delivered to the ignition chamber at a pressure at least one of below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure. Additionally, the system may include at least one of the pair of electrodes electrically connected to at least one of the piston and the ignition chamber. In certain embodiments, the fuel delivery device comprises an injection device configured to inject at least a portion of the solid fuel into the ignition chamber, such as an injection device configured to inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and solid particles into the ignition chamber. Additionally, the fuel delivery device may include a carousel. In certain embodiments, at least one of the fuel delivery device and the pair of electrodes may comprise a container configured to receive the solid fuel.

Certain embodiments of the present invention further comprise at least one of a cooling system, a heating system, a vacuum system, and a plasma converter. Additionally, certain systems may further include a regeneration system configured to achieve at least one of: trapping, regenerating, and recycling one or more components produced by the ignition of the solid fuel.

In an embodiment of the present invention, at least one of the pair of electrodes may be electrically connected to at least one of the turbine and the ignition chamber. Additionally, the fuel delivery device may include an injection device configured to inject at least a portion of the solid fuel into the ignition chamber, or the injection device may be configured to inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and solid particlesThe chamber is ignited. In certain embodiments, the impeller may include at least one blade configured to divert a flow of a working fluid, and the working fluid includes air, H₂At least one of O and an inert gas. In other embodiments, the working fluid may be delivered to the hollow region at a pressure at least one of below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure.

In an embodiment of the present invention, at least one of the pair of electrodes may be electrically connected to at least one of the impeller and the hollow region. Additionally, the fuel delivery device may include an injection device configured to inject at least a portion of the solid fuel into the hollow region, and the injection device is configured to inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and solid particles into the hollow region.

In some embodiments, the movable element may form at least a portion of a first electrode of the pair of electrodes, and the second movable element may form at least a portion of a second electrode of the pair of electrodes. In an embodiment, the movable element comprises a container configured to receive a fuel, the movable element may comprise a nozzle fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to direct a flow of at least one of plasma and thermal energy, the movable element is configured to move in at least one of a linear, an arcuate, and a rotational direction, and the movable element comprises at least one of a gear and a roller.

FIG. 26 depicts a mechanical power generation system 2010, according to an exemplary embodiment. System 2010 is configured to produce at least one type of mechanical output. This output may include translational motion in one or more linear or rotational directions. For example, the generation of mechanical power may include movement of a movable element associated with the system 2010, such as a piston (see fig. 28), a turbine (see fig. 29), a gear (see fig. 30), or an impeller (see fig. 33A, 33B). The movable element is configured to move in a linear, arcuate, rotational direction, or a combination of these or one or more other directions. Other types of movable elements may provide mechanical power using the ignition processes and assemblies described herein.

System 2010 may be configured to ignite hydrogen, oxygen, water, or water-based fuel 2020 (referring to solid fuels of the present invention such as those specified in the internal SF-CIHT cell engine section, chemical reactor section, and solid fuel catalyst-induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell and energy converter section of the present invention). Fuel 2020 may comprise a solid fuel as disclosed herein, wherein it is shown herein that the fuel may comprise other physical states. In embodiments, the fuel or solid fuel may be at least one of gaseous, liquid, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, and pneumatic flow. Fuel 2020 is configured to ignite to form a plasma. The solid fuel may include a portion of water, a portion of water-absorbing material, and a portion of electrically conductive components, as described above. The molar fraction of these components may range from about 1% to about 99%. In some embodiments, the fractions may each be about 30% of the solid fuel. In other embodiments, the fuel 2020 may include a water-based fuel that may ignite to form at least one of an arc plasma and thermal energy. The water-based fuel may include at least 50% water, at least 90% water, or a material comprising water in a range of about 1% to 100% (mol/mol, volume/volume, or weight/weight). Fuel 2020 may include different forms of materials, including gases, liquids, and solids. The liquid may further encompass a range of viscosities from very low to very high viscosities, and may include liquids having a paste or gel-type consistency. While fig. 27 shows the fuel 2020 as being in a solid, elongated form, it is contemplated that the system 2010 uses other forms of the fuel 2020. As explained below, system 2010 may use different combinations of gas, liquid, or gaseous, liquid, or solid forms of fuel 2020. For example, fuel 2020 may include pellets, portions, aliquots, powders, droplets, streams, mists, gases, suspensions, or any suitable combination thereof. The basic reactants may include, inter alia, a source of H and a source of O, and these may form H₂O or H as a product or intermediate reaction product.

The fuel 2020 may also include one or more energetic materials of the present invention that are also configured to undergo an ignition process (in the present invention)Solid fuels are also referred to as energetic materials due to the high energy production and high kinetics and corresponding power). In addition, the energetic material fuel 2020 may be electrically conductive. For example, the energetic material may comprise H₂O, and at least one of a metal and a metal oxide, and a conductive component. The energetic material fuel 2020 may comprise a variety of physical forms or states, such as at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In one embodiment, fuel 2020 comprises reactants comprising the hydrino reactants of the present invention, including at least one fuel comprising nascent H₂A catalyst source or catalyst for O, at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least one of a conductor and an electrically conductive matrix. In one embodiment, fuel 2020 comprises a source of solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention and at least one of a solid fuel or energetic material of the present invention. In one embodiment, exemplary solid fuel 2020 comprises H₂An O source and an electrically conductive substrate to form at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, an atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen. H₂The O source may comprise a bulk phase H₂O, bulk phase H₂At least one of a state other than O, a compound, the one or more compounds performing at least one of: reaction to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂And O. Bound H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interacting compounds, in which H₂O is in the state of at least one of: absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂O and water of hydration. Fuel 2020 may comprise a conductor and one or more of release of at least one of the following and in H₂Compound or material with O as reaction product: bulk phase H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂O and water of hydration. Other exemplary solid or energetic material fuels 2020 are hydrated hygroscopic materials and conductors; a hydrated carbon; hydrated carbon and metal; metal oxides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O; and metal halides, metals or carbon with H₂A mixture of O. The metal and metal oxide may compriseTransition metals such as Co, Fe, Ni and Cu. The metal halide may comprise an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg or Ca; and halide ions, such as F, Cl, Br or I. The metal can be reacted with H₂O is thermodynamically unfavourable, for example at least one of the following groups: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In, wherein the fuel 2020 can be prepared by adding H to the fuel₂And O is regenerated. The fuel 2020, which constitutes the hydrino reactant, may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

System 2010 may also include one or more electrodes. For example, system 2010 may include a pair of electrodes 2030. The electrodes 2030 may include movable components such as gears, cogs, rollers, or other components configured to move in one or more directions (including rotational, arcuate, or linear movement). Electrodes 2030 may also include one or more fixed electrodes and one or more moving electrodes. All electrodes may be fixed or movable. For example, electrode 2030 is configured to allow fuel 2020 to move linearly or rotate relative to electrode 2030 while electrode 2030 remains stationary. Electrode 2030 may also be configured to be wear resistant.

In general, electrodes 2030 are configured to interact with fuel 2020 such that an electrical current may be applied across fuel 2020. The fuel may be highly conductive. Fuel 2020 may be ignited by applying a high current, which may be in the range of about 2,000A to 100,000A. The voltage may be low, for example in the range of about 1V to 100V. Alternatively, with or without minor amounts of additives, containing non-H₂Fuel of O substance (e.g. H)₂O) may have a high resistance. Ignition may also be achieved by applying a sufficiently high voltage and current to electrode 2030. For example, 1kV to 50kV is applied across the electrodes 2030. This ignition process may form at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, a similar species form, and a heated species. Light, heat, and other reaction products may also be formed.

Electrode 2030 is configured to apply an electrical pulse to fuel 2020. In particular, electrodes 2030 may be designed to apply a high intensity current across fuel 2020, a low or high intensity voltage suitable for fuel resistance to achieve a high current, or other high intensity power flow. As explained below, the one or more electrodes 2030 may be connected to a movable or fixed component. For example, one or more electrodes may be connected to a piston, turbine, gear, impeller, or other movable element. One or more other electrodes may be connected to the ignition chamber, or hollow region, a conduit associated with the ignition chamber or hollow region, or other stationary component of the system 2010.

Electrodes 2030 may be formed of suitable materials having particular dimensions to provide one or more electrical pulses. The electrodes 2030 may also require insulation, cooling, and control mechanisms to operate, if necessary. It is contemplated that a high AC, DC, or AC-DC hybrid current may be applied across electrodes 2030. The current range may be about 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, or 10kA to 50kA, and the DC or peak AC current density range may be about 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1,000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²Or 2,000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm². The DC or peak AC voltage range may be about 0.1V to 50kV, 1kV to 20kV, 0.1V to 15V, or 1V to 15V. The AC frequency may range from about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, or 100Hz to 10 kH. And the pulse time may range from about 10^-6s to 10s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s, or 10^-3s to 0.01 s.

It is also contemplated that electrode 2030 may have a 60Hz voltage less than 15V peak, a current between about 10,000A/cm and 50,000A/cm peak, and a power between about 10,000W/cm and 750,000W/cm. The range of frequencies, voltages, currents and powers that can be applied is wide. For example, a range of about 1/100 times to 100 times the above parameters may also be suitable. In particular, the fuel can be ignited using a low voltage, high current pulse, such as that produced by a spot welder, which is achieved by the constraint between the two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Wenfield ND-24-75 spot welder. The 60Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20V RMS, and the current and current density through fuel 2020 may be about 10,000A to 40,000A, and 10,000A/cm, respectively²To 40,000A/cm²。

System 2010 may also include other systems, devices, or components. For example, the system 2010 may include a cooling system 2040, a fuel delivery device 2050, a regeneration system 2060, and a power source 2070. Cooling system 2040 is configured to cool one or more components of system 2010, such as electrodes 2030. The fuel delivery device 2050 is configured to deliver fuel 2020 to the electrode 2030. The regeneration system 2060 is configured to regenerate one or more materials associated with the fuel 2020. For example, metallic forms contained within the fuel 2020 may be captured, recycled, and returned to the fuel delivery device 2050.

The power source 2070 is configured to supply power, e.g., electrical power, to the electrodes 2030. In some aspects, the power supply 2070 is configured to supply power sufficient to generate a plasma. For example, the power source 2070 may be at least about 10,000A, at least about 14,000A, less than about 100V, less than about 10V, less than about 8V, or at least about 5,000 kW. In other aspects, the power supply 2070 is configured to supply power sufficient to generate an arc plasma. For example, the power source 2070 may be at least about 10,000A, at least about 12,000A, at least about 1kV, at least about 2kV, at least about 4kV, or at least about 5,000 kW.

As shown in fig. 27, the system 2010 may also include an ignition chamber 2080 in which the fuel 2020 reacts to form at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, or thermal energy. As explained below, the system 2010 may include one or more firing chambers 2080. The chamber 2080 may be formed from a metal or other suitable material capable of withstanding the forces and temperatures associated with water ignition or at least one of plasma and thermal energy formation. The chamber 2080 may include a generally cylindrical conduit configured to provide an environment suitable for ignition of water. The chamber 2080 may be shaped, sized, or configured according to different applications.

As explained below, the chamber 2080 may be configured to operate with one or more movable elements configured to output mechanical power. Chamber 2080 may also include one or more apertures, cams, injection devices, or other components configured to allow fluid to enter or exit chamber 2080. Specifically, the chamber 2080 may include an inlet configured to allow fluid to be delivered into the chamber 2080. The chamber 2080 may also include an outlet aperture configured to allow fluid to exit the chamber 2080. The orifices are configured to operate with a working fluid configured to operate with at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy to provide mechanical power. The working fluid may comprise air, an inert gas, or another fluid capable of operating with at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy. A working fluid or any other type of fluid may be delivered under compression into chamber 2080. Specifically, the fluid may be delivered to the chamber 2080 at subatmospheric, atmospheric, or superatmospheric pressures. Various components (e.g., a turbocharger or supercharger) may be utilized to compress the fluid, which is then supplied into the chamber 2080.

The ignition chamber 2080 can also include an outer shell defining a hollow cavity configured to form at least one of a plasma, an arc plasma, and thermal energy. Chamber 2080 may also include a fuel container in fluid communication with the hollow chamber. The fuel container may be electrically connected to a pair of electrodes. Chamber 2080 may also include a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber.

Fig. 28 depicts an exemplary embodiment ignition chamber 2080. As shown, chamber 2080 includes a piston 2090 configured to convert a portion of the energy resulting from ignition of fuel 2020 into mechanical power. The piston 2090 is configured to reciprocate within a combustion chamber (e.g., the chamber 2080). In other embodiments, the piston 2090 may undergo reciprocating movement in a combustion chamber in fluid communication with the chamber 2080. Piston 2090 may also be sized and designed to operate with different combustible fuels in different combustion environments. Further, the piston 2090 may be formed from a variety of materials depending on the type and requirements of the combustion process. As explained in more detail below, other types of movable elements may also be utilized to provide mechanical power. Additionally, system 2010 may be modified to operate as a stirling engine.

For example, as shown in fig. 29, the turbine 2100 may be in fluid communication with the output of one or more chambers 2080 to provide rotational power. The system 2010 shown in fig. 29 may include other components, such as one or more other turbines, or compressors, mixing chambers, expanders, blowers, air intakes, superchargers, recombiners, coolers, motors, generators, regenerators, recyclers, heat exchangers, dampers, or exhausts. Thus, system 2010 may be configured as a brayton-type engine, or a variation thereof. Other components, devices, and systems may be integrated with system 2010 or used in conjunction with system 2010 to provide mechanical power.

Fig. 30 depicts an electrode 2030 according to an exemplary embodiment, including an anode 2110 and a cathode 2120. As shown, the anode 2110 and cathode 2120 are configured to rotate. Accordingly, electrode 2030 may include gear 2125. Cathode 2120 is also shown, with pellets 2130 of fuel 2020 associated with gear teeth 2140. Fuel delivery device 2050 may position bolus 2130 relative to gear teeth 2140, such as at the tip of gear teeth 2140. In other embodiments (not shown), pellets 2130 may be located at least partially between adjacent gear teeth 2140 or on anode 2110.

The cathode 2120 or the fuel 2020 may be coupled to each other using any suitable mechanism. For example, the bolus 2130 may be coupled to the gear teeth 2140 using a mechanical grasper (not shown). Fuel 2020, in liquid form, may be connected to cathode 2120 via surface tension. Magnetic and other forces may also be utilized.

The fuel 20 or pellets 2130 may be moved around the system 2010 using different delivery mechanisms. For example, mechanical mechanisms (e.g., augers, rollers, helical tubing, gears, belts, etc.) may be used. It is also contemplated that pneumatic, hydraulic, electrostatic, electrochemical or other mechanisms may be used. Desired regions of fuel 2020 and gear teeth 2140 of electrodes 2030 may be oppositely charged such that fuel 2020 flows into and electrostatically adheres to desired regions of one or both electrodes 2030. The fuel 2020 may then ignite when the opposing teeth 2140 engage. In another embodiment, the rollers or gears 2125 are maintained in tension toward each other by a biasing mechanism (e.g., by spring loading or by pneumatic or actuation). The meshing of teeth 2140 and the compression of fuel 2020 therebetween may facilitate electrical contact between mating teeth 2140 via electrically conductive fuel 2020.

Once connected to cathode 2120, pellets 2130 can be rotated such that pellets 2130 are in close proximity to or in contact with anode 2110. Once so positioned, a high density current may be applied across electrodes 2030, causing ignition of the water in fuel 2020. The expanding gas 2135 produced by the ignition process of pellets 2130 may cause rotation of electrode 2030. This rotation may be connected to a spindle (not shown) to provide rotational power.

One or more of the gears 2125 can include a set of herringbone gears, each gear comprising an integer number n of teeth, wherein fuel 2020 flows into the nth inter-tooth gap or bottom when fuel in the nth-1 inter-tooth gap is compressed by the n-1 teeth of the mating gear. The present invention contemplates other geometries for gear 2125 or the function of gear 2125 such as, for example, a fork, multiple or delta tooth gear, a helical gear, and an auger as known to those skilled in the art.

Electrodes 2030 may include conductive and non-conductive regions. For example, gear teeth 2140 of cathode 2120 may comprise an electrically conductive material, while gear teeth 2140 of anode 2110 may be electrically non-conductive. Conversely, the material between gear teeth 2140 of anode 2110 may be electrically conductive, thereby providing an electrically conductive path between anode 2110 and cathode 2120 through pellet 2130. If gear 2125 has an interdigitated conductive region that contacts fuel 2020 during meshing, and is insulated in other regions, current may selectively flow through fuel 2020. At least a portion of gear 2125 can comprise a non-conductive ceramic material and the interdigitated regions can be metal plated to be conductive.

In operation, gear 2125 may be intermittently energized such that when gear 2125 is engaged, a high current flows through fuel 2020. Fuel 2020 may be timed to flow to match the delivery of pellets 2130 to gear 2125 when gear 2125 is engaged and generate an electrical current that flows through pellets 2130. The consequent high current flow causes ignition of fuel 2020. The resulting plasma expands to the side of the gear 2125. The plasma expansion stream may flow along an axis parallel to the axis of the gear 2125 and transverse to the direction of flow of the fuel 2020. Furthermore, the one or more plasma streams may be directed to an energy converter, such as an MHD converter, as explained in more detail below. Furthermore, orienting the plasma flow may be achieved using confinement magnets (e.g., magnets or magnetic bottles of Helmholtz coils).

The electrodes 2030 may include a regeneration system or method that removes material deposited on the gear teeth 2140 via an ignition process. A heating or cooling system (not shown) may also be included.

Although in the figures, each gear tooth 2140 of cathode 2120 may be connected to a granule 2130, in some embodiments, one or more gear teeth 2140 may not be connected to a granule 2130. Additionally, anode 2110, cathode 2120, or both electrodes 2030 may each include pellets 2130 of fuel 2020 or other forms of different distributions, e.g., different numbers of pellets 2130 may be located on each tooth of different gear teeth 2140.

In operation, fuel 2020 may continuously flow through the gear 2125 (or barrel), and the gear 2125 (or barrel) may rotate to propel the fuel 2020 through the gap. The fuel 2020 may be continuously ignited as it rotates to fill the space between the electrodes 2030 containing the meshing area of the set of gears 2125. This operation can output a generally constant mechanical or electrical power output.

Fig. 31 depicts an electrode 2030 according to another exemplary embodiment, wherein the anode 2110 moves (e.g., rotates) while the cathode 2120 remains stationary. In other embodiments, the cathode 2120 may be movable and the anode 2110 may remain stationary.

As shown, fuel delivery device 2050 causes pellets 2130 to be delivered between gear teeth 2140. Rotation of anode 2110 can then bring agglomerate 2130 into contact with or close proximity to cathode 2120. Ignition of the water within pellets 2130 may then cause anode 2110 to rotate in a manner similar to that described above.

Fig. 32 illustrates another configuration in which the electrode 2150, which may include the anode 2110 or the cathode 2120, includes one or more ignition flow outlets 2160 positioned around the electrode 2150 to provide rotational thrust. For example, the outflow port 2160 may be inclined relative to the circumference of the electrode 2150 such that ignition gas exits the outflow port 2160 at an angle, as shown in fig. 32. This angular pushing force may cause electrode 2150 to rotate. Other means (not shown) may be utilized, such as a baffle, conduit, or other mechanism, to generate a rotational force to the electrode 2150, which may then drive a spindle (not shown) or other component to output rotational power.

Fig. 33A, 33B illustrate an embodiment of the system 2010 in which the impeller 2170 is rotated using an ignition process. This radial impeller may be driven by the above-described ignition process using fuel 2020. As shown in fig. 33A, the fuel delivery device 2050 may extend toward the central hollow region 2180 of the impeller 2170. The pellets 2130 may be generally positioned within the hollow region 2180 as shown in FIG. 33B. Electrodes (not shown) may also be positioned in the hollow region 2180 and may be configured to be electrically connectable to the pellets 2130 when the pellets 2130 are located within the hollow region 2180. Once properly positioned, pellets 2130 can be ignited, generating a radially expanding ignition gas and/or plasma. These gases may be directed through one or more blades 2190 of the impeller 2170. The vanes 2190 may direct the ignition gas to flow at an angle to the impeller 2170, thereby causing rotational movement of the impeller 2170.

Fig. 34 depicts another exemplary embodiment of a system 2010 in which a fuel delivery device 2050 includes a carousel 2200. Carousel 2200 is configured to move fuel 2020, typically via rotational movement, between electrodes 2030. For example, once properly positioned within the ignition chamber 2080, high-intensity electrical pulses may be applied to the pellets 2130. Other components of system 2010 are described above.

Another embodiment of the invention is shown in fig. 35A, 35B, where a fuel delivery device 2050 is movably coupled to an ignition chamber 2080. In particular, the carousel 2200 is configured to receive pellets 2130 in a container 2210. Once the pellets 2130 are attached to the container 2210, the carousel 2200 may be rotated to position the pellets 2130 around the aperture 2220 of the ignition chamber 2080. For example, pellets 2130 may be positioned within port 2220 or in fluid communication with port 2220. Once properly positioned, high-intensity electrical pulses may be applied across electrodes 2030 and may pass through pellets 2130. The ignition gas can expand and, in this case, pressure can be applied to the piston 2090 to actuate the piston 2090.

Fig. 36 depicts another exemplary embodiment of a system 2010 in which carousel 2200 operates in conjunction with chamber array 2230. The chamber array 2230 may include a collection of two or more ignition chambers 2080. In operation, the array of chambers 2230 may move relative to the carousel 2200 or other form of fuel delivery device 2050. For example, array 2230 may be rotationally movable relative to a stationary fuel delivery device 2050. Alternatively, chamber array 2230 may remain stationary while carousel 2200 moves, or both array 2230 and carousel 2200 may move.

Fuel from the fuel delivery devices 2050 may be loaded sequentially or simultaneously into one or more firing chambers 2080 of the array 2230. Once loaded, the one or more pellets 2130 within the one or more chambers 2080 can be ignited to power one or more pistons, turbines, gears, or other movable elements (not shown). Although system 2010 is shown with a single carousel 2200, it is also contemplated that multiple carousels 2200 may be utilized to supply fuel to array 2230. Such a system may include a single carousel 2200 associated with a single ignition chamber 2080 such that four carousels (not shown) supply fuel to the four ignition chambers 2080 of the array 2230. This embodiment may improve the ignition rate as compared to using a single carousel 2200.

As mentioned above, the water-based fuel 2020 can be supplied in one or more different forms, including gas, liquid, or solid. Solid pellets 2130 may be provided in different shapes and are exemplary of the hockey-disc shape shown in the above figures. In other embodiments, pellets 2130 can be cubic, spherical, sheet-shaped, irregular, or any other suitable shape. Additionally, pellets 2130 may be shaped in any suitable size, including millimeter, micron, and nanometer sized particles.

The shape and size of the pellets 2130 may affect the configuration of the electrodes 2030. For example, as shown in fig. 37A, 37B, disc-type pellets may be received in a suitably shaped container 2240. A portion of the container 2240 may be formed by a wall element 2250 that may be fixed or movable, and once the pellet 2130 is received, the wall element 2250 may enclose or partially enclose the pellet 2130. A portion of vessel 2240 may also be formed by one or more electrodes 2030. As further shown in fig. 37A, 37B, different configurations of the electrodes 2030 and/or the wall elements 2250 may produce different force directions (arrows shown as "F"). Further, differently shaped electrodes 2030 and/or wall elements 2250 may be configured to form differently shaped receptacles, such as spherical receptacles 2240, as shown in fig. 37C.

As explained above, solid, liquid, or gaseous forms of fuel 2020 may be used. This fuel may be injected into the ignition chamber 2080 using one or more injection devices 2260, as shown in fig. 38A and 38B. The first injection device 2260 is configured to supply water or an aqueous material as a fine stream of particulate matter, as a liquid, slurry, gel, or gas. The second injection device 2260 is configured to supply a solid fuel or energetic material, as described above (the latter including some H in some embodiments of the invention)₂O or formation of H₂O). A stream of one or more materials can be introduced into chamber 2080 to provide for proper mixing and/or positioning of the materials relative to electrodes 2030.

In other embodiments, one or more injection devices 2260 are configured to deliver working fluid to the chamber 2080. The working fluid may comprise air, inert gas, other gases or combinations of gases, or a liquid. The working fluid may be injected at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure.

Although fig. 38A shows two injection devices 2260 associated with a single ignition chamber 2080, one or more injection devices may be associated with one or more chambers 2080. It is also contemplated that injection device 2260 may include one or more electrodes 2030. One or more electrodes may be fixed or movable relative to the ignition chamber 2080. For example, as shown in fig. 38B, the piston 2090 may include a cathode and the chamber 2080 may include an anode. Relative movement between the electrode 2030 and the chamber 2080 may allow for regeneration of the fuel 2020, reduce maintenance of the system 2010, or extend the operational life of the system 2010. Further, one or more injection devices 2260 can be movable relative to the ignition chamber 2080, similar to the fuel delivery device 2050 described above. Moving the injection device 2260 relative to the ignition chamber 2080, followed by ignition of the fuel 2020, may reduce maintenance of the injection device 2260 and extend the operational life of the injection device 2260.

In other aspects, one or more injection devices 2260 may be used with the system 2010 described above. For example, fuel 2020 in the form of a fine powder may be injected onto the area of gear teeth 2140. The fuel trapped between adjacent electrodes 2030 may ignite, thereby transferring a force to the movable element to output mechanical power. In another aspect, fuel 2020 may be injected into the hollow region 2180 as shown in fig. 38A and 38B.

Fig. 39 depicts another exemplary embodiment of a system 2010, wherein the ignition chamber 2080 comprises an at least partial vacuum. In particular, the hollow area of the chamber 2080 containing the piston 2090 may include at least a partial vacuum. The vacuum range may be about 10^-1Is supported to about 10^-10And (4) supporting. In some embodiments, atmospheric pressure may be utilized. In other embodiments, pressures greater than atmospheric pressure may be utilized.

in operation, the piston 2090 may move left and right as shown in fig. 39, for example, igniting the fuel 2020 on the left side of the chamber 2080 may drive the piston 2090 to move right, then igniting the fuel 2020 on the right side of the chamber 2080 may drive the piston 2090 to move left, between ignition cycles, the fuel delivery device 2050 may replenish the fuel 2020, the piston 2090 may be connected to a mechanical component (not shown) configured to output mechanical power.

The closed loop system may also operate in conjunction with one or more movable elements. And in general, one or more components of system 2010 may form part of a closed loop system. For example, the chamber 2080 may form part of a closed loop system configured to recirculate the working fluid. The system may operate as a heat exchanger. For example, system 2010 may operate in a freeze cycle, where a working fluid is circulated between a heating element and a cooling element. This system may include periodic injection of fuel 2020 to sustain at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal energy formation, as necessary.

In some embodiments, the system 2010 of fig. 39 can include one or more Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converters comprising at least one pair of electrically conductive elements 2270 that serve as MHD electrodes or comprising magnets 2270 to generate a transverse magnetic field relative to a flow axis (shown as the longitudinal axis of the combustion chamber 2080), wherein the pair of electrodes 2270 and magnets 2270 are transverse to each other and to the plasma flow direction. In other embodiments, a similar device is configured to generate electrical power. For example, in a plasma kinetic converter (PDC), one or more magnetized conductive elements (not shown) placed in chamber 2080 may be used to generate electrical power in cooperation with corresponding unmagnetized paired conductive elements (not shown) placed in chamber 2080. In other embodiments, the power may also be generated using an electromagnetic direct converter, a charge drift converter, or magnetic confinement.

MHD energy conversion relies on the passage of ions or plasma streams through a magnetic field. Depending on the electrode placement, positive and negative ions may be directed along different trajectories, and a voltage may be applied between the electrodes. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions involves expanding an ion-seeded high pressure gas through a nozzle. This may produce a high velocity flow through the crossed magnetic field, with a set of electrodes positioned relative to the deflection field to receive the deflected ions. In system 2010, the pressure at which the reaction is ignited is typically, but not necessarily, greater than atmospheric pressure. The directional mass flow may be achieved by ignition of fuel 2020 to form an ionized expanding plasma.

This configuration may allow for the generation of mechanical and electrical power via the ignition of water. Additionally, at least a portion of the electrical energy generated by the ignition process may be used to power the electrode 2030 or other electrical components of the system 2010.

Fig. 40 depicts another exemplary embodiment of a system 2010, wherein one or more turbines 2280 are located in a flow chamber 2290. One or more injection devices 2260 may also be directed into the flow chamber 2290.

As described above with respect to chamber 2080, flow chamber 2290 is configured to ignite fuel 2020. The flow chamber 2290 may also be configured to receive a working fluid through the flow chamber 2290. As shown, the turbine 2280 upstream of the injection device 2260 may receive the flow of working fluid and at least partially compress the working fluid. The injection device 2260 may then inject one or more substances as described above into the compressed working fluid. The ignition may expand the working fluid through a downstream second turbine 2280, generating thrust. Alternatively, mechanical power may be output via a spindle (not shown) or other device mechanically connected to the turbine 2280.

Fig. 41 depicts another exemplary embodiment of a system 2010, wherein a thruster 2320 is configured to provide thrust as indicated by the arrow. For example, fuel 2020 may be supplied to channel 2300. In some embodiments, fuel 2020 and/or fluid in channel 2300 may be directed at least partially through element 2310 towards nozzle 2330. Additionally, the channel 2300 is configured to compress or direct the fuel 2020 or fluid in the channel 2300. As explained above, the fluid in the channel 2300 may include a working fluid. One or more electrodes 2030 may be associated with channel 2300 or element 2310. Such a configuration may be used to provide the propeller 2320.

In operation, fuel 2020 may be ignited as described above. For example, high current initiated ignition may generate an expanding plasma, which may provide thrust. The propeller 2320 may include a closed-circuit battery, but the nozzle 2330 is configured to direct the expanding plasma to provide thrust. In another embodiment, the thruster 2320 may comprise a magnetic or other plasma confinement region. Other components may direct the magnetic field system to cause plasma to flow in a directed manner from electrode 2030 after high current ignition. In another embodiment, highly ionized plasma may be used in ion motors and ion thrusters known to those skilled in the art to provide thrust.

The systems, engines, and ignition processes described herein may be used in a variety of applications where mechanical power is required. For example, the present systems, devices and methods may be used or may be readily adapted to operate in an onshore, airborne, marine, underwater or space environment. Mechanical power generation using the principles described herein may be applied to transportation, mining, farming, or industrial equipment. For example, large output motors may be used in industrial processing, power generation, HVAC, or manufacturing facilities. Medium output applications may include use in cars, trucks, trains, boats, motorcycles, scooters, jet skis, snowmobiles, outboard marine engines, fork lifts, and the like. The features described herein may also be used in household appliances (e.g., refrigerators, washing machines, dishwashers, etc.), garden equipment (e.g., pruning machines, snow blowers, bush cutters, etc.), or other applications requiring small output motors.

For example, embodiments of the present invention may be used with machines configured for land transportation. One or more aspects of the system 2010 described above may be mechanically coupled to a drive shaft or other component configured to output mechanical power to a transport element. The transport element may comprise at least one of: wheels, tracks, gear assemblies, hydraulic components, or other devices that may provide movement over the ground. Various machines for land transportation are contemplated, including automobiles, locomotives, snowmobiles, trucks, or trains. Other types of private, recreational and commercial vehicles are also contemplated.

In another embodiment, one or more aspects of system 2010 may be used with a machine configured for airborne delivery. The machine may include one or more aerospace components configured to provide propulsion. It is contemplated that the aerospace element can include an aerospace propeller, a compressor, or other element configured to generate propulsion forces in an aerospace environment. Such machines may include turbojet engines, turbofan engines, turboprops, turbine shafts, paddle fan engines, ramjet engines, scramjet engines, supersonic combustion ramjet engines, or other types of aircraft engines.

Aspects of the invention may also be configured to operate in a marine environment. For example, the marine element may provide propulsion in a marine environment and may include a marine propeller. Other types of marine elements may be considered by the skilled artisan and may form part of a pump jet, hydrojet, water jet, or other type of hydraulic engine.

Other aspects of the present disclosure include a work machine having a working element configured to provide mechanical power. The working element may comprise a rotating shaft, reciprocating rod, cog, auger, vane, or other assembly known in the art. The working element may form part of a refrigerator, washing machine, dishwasher, lawnmower, snow blower, pruner or other type of working machine.

Experiment XI

A. Exemplary SF-CIHT cell test results relating to energy and solid fuel regeneration

In the experimental test, the sample contained 1cm²Nickel mesh conductors coated with thin cast coatings of NiOOH (<1mm thick); 11 wt% carbon; and 27 wt% Ni powder. The material is constrained between two copper electrodes of a taylor-winfield ND-24-75 type spot welder and subjected to short pulses of low voltage, high current power. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. After about 0.14ms (where the energy input is about 46J), the material vaporizes within about 1 ms. Several numbers of wires were tested to determine if 8V was sufficient to produce an explosive line phenomenon that could be observed when a high-energy, high-capacitance capacitor with several thousand volts of electricity was shorted. In the case of 0.25mm diameter Au wires, only known resistive heating to red heat and heating to melting were observed.

The thermodynamically calculated energy to just vaporize 350mg of NiOOH and 50mg of Ni metal was 3.22kJ or 9.20kJ/g of NiOOH. This experiment shows that the energy release is large because the NiOOH decomposition energy is essentially zero. After applying negligible 40J total energy, the burst started. The burst produced 3.22kJ of thermal energy released in 3ms, corresponding to 1,100,000W (1.1MW) of thermal energy. If the sample size has 1cm²Area sum<1mm thick, the volumetric power density exceeds 11X 10⁹W/l heat. The gas temperature was 25,000K from the fitting of the visible spectrum recorded with an Ocean Optics visible spectrometer to the black body radiation curve.

The calculated heat energy assuming 350mg NiOOH and 50mg Ni mesh composition of the reaction mixture just achieved the observed vaporization was 3.22 kJ. 350mg of H in NiOOH solid Fuel₂The number of moles was 2 millimoles. According to H₂Transfer to H₂(1/4) hydrino reaction (in which 2/3 of the stoichiometric H is transferred to the HOH catalyst and 1/3 is transferred to hydrino H₂(1/4)) calculated enthalpy of 50 mJoule/mole H₂(1/4) formation of H₂(1/4) the corresponding maximum theoretical energy produced was 33 kJ; thus, about 10% of the available hydrogen is converted to H₂(1/4). Corresponding fractional hydrogen reaction yield of 64.4 micromole H₂(1/4)。

Another embodiment of the solid fuel comprises 100mg Co powder and 20mg hydrated MgCl₂. The reactants were compressed into pellets and ignited by subjecting the pellets to short pulses of low voltage, high current electricity using a taylor type winfield ND-24-75 spot welder. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. The burst occurred in an argon filled glove bag and released an estimated 3kJ of plasma energy. The plasma particles are coagulated into nanopowders. Product with 10mg H₂The O hydrates and ignites repeatedly. The repeated bursts of regenerated solid fuel are stronger than the first burst, releasing about 5kJ of energy.

Calorimetry of solid fuels for SF-CIHT cells

Calorimetry was performed on solid fuel pellets using a Parr 1341 common jacketed calorimeter with a Parr 6774 calorimeter option. The Parr 1108 oxygen combustion chamber of the calorimeter was modified to allow the initiation of chemical reactions with high current. A copper rod ignition electrode comprising a 1/2 "Outer Diameter (OD) × 12" length copper cylinder was passed through a sealed chamber containing graphite pellets (approximately 1000mg, L × W × h ═ 0.18"× 0.6" × 0.3") as a control resistive load for calibrating the heat capacity of the calorimeter or solid fuel pellets with a copper clip at the end that tightly bound each sample. The calorimeter bath was loaded with 2,000g of DI water (according to Parr's manual). The power source used for calibration and ignition of the solid fuel pellets was a Taylor-Wenfield ND-24-75 spot welder, which supplied short pulses of power in the form of a low voltage of 60Hz at about 8V RMS and a high current of about 15,000 to 20,000A. When the product of voltage and current is integrated over the input time, a calibration and input energy for solid fuel ignition is obtained. The voltage was measured by a Data Acquisition System (DAS) comprising a PC and National Instruments USB-6210 data acquisition module and Labview VI. The current was also measured by the same DAS using a Rogowski coil (model CWT600LF, fitted with 700mm cable) with an accuracy of 0.3% as a signal source. The V and I input data are obtained at 10KS/s and the analog input voltage is brought within +/-10V of USB-6210 using a voltage attenuator.

The calibrated heat capacity of the calorimeter and electrode apparatus was measured at 12,000J/deg.C using a graphite pellet with a spot welder input energy of 995J. Cu (45mg) + CuO (15mg) + H (15 mg)) contained in DSC aluminum pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7X3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum pan lid D: 6,7, stamped, tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₂A solid fuel sample of O (15mg) was ignited at a peak voltage of 60Hz of applied 3V and a peak current of about 11,220A. The input energy of the ignitable sample measured using voltage and current versus time, as indicated by the split spikes in the waveform, was 46J, with a total power pulse input of 899J for the spot welder and a total output energy calculated from the thermal reaction to the energy released by the ignited solid fuel in calorimetry using a calibrated heat capacity of 3,035.7J. By subtracting the input energy, the net energy for the 0.075g sample is 2,136.7J. In the use of H₂In the O control experiment, the alumina pot did not experience reactions other than gasification in the explosion. XRD also showed no alumina formation. Therefore, the theoretical chemical reaction energy is zero, and the solid fuel generates an excess energy of 28,500J/g when forming hydrino.

C. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) of solid fuels

The solid fuel was tested for excess energy and maximum theoretical energy using a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter using an Au coated crucible and representative results are shown in table 8.

Table 8 exemplary DSC test results

D. Spectral identification of molecular hydrinos

0.05ml (50mg) of H₂O addition to 20mg CO₃O₄Or CuO, sealed in a DSC aluminum pan (aluminum crucible 30 μ l, D: 6.7x3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6,7, stamped, not tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) and ignited at about 8V RMS using a Taylor-Wenfield ND-24-75 type spot welder with a current between 15,000A and 25,000A. The high power pulses were observed to vaporize the samples into high energy, highly ionized, expanding plasmas, respectively. A MoCu wisdom foil disk (50-50 at%, AMETEK, 0.020 "thickness) was placed 3.5 inches from the center of the ignited sample, so that the expanding plasma was incident on the surface to inject H₂(1/4) the molecules are embedded in the surface.

In the presence of hydrogen₂(1/4) plasma after that, the MoCu foil was observed to have 40cm using Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman in macro mode with 780nm diode laser^-1Broad absorption peak. The peak was not observed in the original alloy, and the peak intensity increased with increasing plasma intensity and laser intensity. Since no other elements or compounds are known to absorb near 1.33eV (780nm laser minus 1950 cm)^-1Energy of) single 40cm of infrared line^-1(0.005eV), H is considered₂(1/4). Starting at 1950cm^-1Absorption peak of (2) and H₂(1/4) the free space rotation energy (0.2414eV) is matched to four significant digits and is 40cm^-1Is matched with the orbital-nuclear coupling energy level splitting [ Millsgutp ]]。

And H₂(1/4) the absorption peak of the rotational energy match is a true peak and cannot be explained by any known substance. Excitation of the hydrino rotation can produce absorption peaks by the reverse raman effect (IRE). Here, a continuum generated by the laser is absorbed and converted to a laser frequency, where the continuum is strong enough to maintain the population of rotationally excited states to allow for anti-stokes energy effects. Typically, the laser power of IRE is extremely high, but the MoCu surface was found to produce Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). H for a transition from J ═ 1 to J ═ 0₂(1/4) for rotational energy, the absorption is due to the reverse Raman effect (IRE). The results show that H₂(1/4) free rotor, H in silicon substrate₂This is true, to say, for example. The results for the MoCu foil exposed to the plasma matched those of previously observed CIHT cells as reported in Mills prior publications: R.Mills, J.Lotoski, J.Kong, G Chu, J.He, J.Trevey, High-Power-sensitivity Catalyst Induced Hydrogenation Transport (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell, (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

MAS 1H NMR, Electron Beam excitation emission Spectroscopy, Raman Spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission Spectroscopy were performed on samples of the reaction product comprising a CIHT electrolyte, a CIHT electrode and an inorganic compound getter KCl-KOH mixture, which were placed in a sealed container of a CIHT closed cell.

MAS NMR on molecular hydrinos trapped in a protic matrix represents a way to identify them via their interaction with the matrix, exploiting their unique characteristics. The only consideration associated with NMR spectroscopy is the possible molecular hydrino quantum states. Like H₂Excited state, molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(l/p) has a state where λ is 0,1,2, …, p-1. Even the l ≠ 0 quantum state has a relatively large quadrupole moment, and in addition, the corresponding orbital angular momentum of the λ ≠ 0 state produces a magnetic moment [ Mills GUT ] that can cause displacement of high-field substrates]. When the matrix contains exchangeable H, for example a matrix with water of hydration or an alkaline hydroxide solid matrix (with whichH₂(1/p) local interactions affect a larger population due to fast exchange), this effect is particularly advantageous. The CIHT cell getter, KOH-KCl, showed that MASNMR active constituents of the matrix (KOH) were displaced from +4.4ppm to about-4 to-5 ppm after exposure to the atmosphere within the sealed CIHT cell. For example, an initial KOH-KCl (1:1) getter (the same KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from CIHT cells containing [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO)]And [ CoCu (H infiltration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]And MAS NMR spectra outputting 2.5Wh, 80mA (125% gain) and 6.49Wh, 150mA (186% gain), respectively, showed a known low-field peak of the OH matrix shifted from about +4ppm to a high-field region of about-4 ppm. The molecular hydrinos produced by CIHT cells significantly shift the substrate from the positive region to the high field. Different numbers of possible quanta in the different p-4 states can produce different high-field matrix shifts, consistent with the observation of multiple such peaks around-4 ppm. Hydroxide ion (OH) when shifted to high field^-) The MASNMR peaks of the KOH matrix, shifted to high field by forming complexes with molecular hydrinos, can be sharp when acting as a free rotor, consistent with previous observations. The MAS-NMR results are consistent with previous positive ion ToF-SIMS spectra showing multimeric clusters of matrix compounds where a dihydro is part of the structure: m: h₂(M ═ KOH or K)₂CO₃). In particular, KOH and K are included₂CO₃Previous CIHT cell getters (e.g., K)₂CO₃KCl (30: 70% by weight))) shows K⁺(H₂: KOH) n and K⁺(H₂：K₂CO₃)_nWith H in the form of a complex in the structure₂(1/p) consensus [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrogenation (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal of energy research]。

Direct molecular hydrinos identification based on ultra-high characteristic spin-vibration energy is achieved using raman spectroscopy. Another distinguishing feature is that the molecular fraction hydrogen is chosen differently from ordinary molecular hydrogen. Like H₂An excited state, the molecular hydrido having a state where λ ═ 0,1,2₂(1/p)；p＝1The long spherical photon field of, 2, 3.., 137 has a spherical harmonic angular component (relative to the semimajor axis) of quantum number λ [ Mills GUT ]]. In the case of no corresponding to H₂During the pure vibrational transitions of the electronic transitions observed in the excited states, the transitions between these long spherical harmonic states allow for rotational transitions Δ J of 0, ± 1. The life of the angular state is sufficiently long that H₂(1/p) can uniquely undergo a pure spin-vibration transition with a selection rule Δ J ═ 0, ± 1.

The emission spin-vibrational molecular hydrino states can be excited by energetic electron collisions or by laser excitation, where p is due to²(J +1) rotational energy of 0.01509eV [ Mills GUT]The excited spin state cannot be increased in the form of a statistical thermodynamic population at ambient temperature, since the corresponding thermal energy is less than 0.02 eV. Thus, the spin-vibrational population distribution reflects the excitation probability of the external source. In addition, p is a ratio of the rotational energy to p²The vibrational energy of 0.515eV is up to thirty-five times higher, so it is expected that only the first order v 1 can be excited exogenously. The molecular hydrino state can undergo a lambda quantum number change at ambient temperature, and the J quantum state can change when power is converted to heat during electron beam or laser irradiation. Thus, the initial state may be any one of λ 0,1,2,3 independent of the J quantum number. Thus, the rotation and rotation-vibration transitions have raman and IR activity, where R, Q, P branches allow for the presence, where the angular momentum between the rotation state and the change in electronic state is preserved. With the change in quantum number allowed, the deenergized vibrational transition v 1 → v 0 with rotational energy up-converted (J ' -J "═ 1), down-converted (J ' -J" ═ 1), and unchanged (J ' -J "═ 0) yields P, R and the Q branch, respectively. Predicting v ═ 1 → v ═ 0 corresponding to pure vibration transitions; the peak of the Q branch is strongest when Δ J is 0, while P and R are high order transition peaks of the column with rapidly decreasing intensity, where more peaks in the P branch are expected to be stronger than the R branch due to the available energy of the internal transition. The influence of the expected matrix may cause a displacement of vibrational energy from that of the free vibrator, and the expected matrix rotational energy barrier may cause the P and R branch peaks to each produce approximately the same energy displacement, expressed as a non-zero intercept of the linear energy spacing of a series of rotational peaks.

Previously [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrogenation (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or energy research]Reporting H trapped within the lattice of a gas getter for a CIHT cell₂(1/4) spin-vibration emission was carried out by using an incident type 6KeV electron gun with a beam current of 8 μ A at 5X 10^-6Torr, and recorded by windowless UV spectroscopy. H trapped in the metal lattice of MoCu was observed by electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy using the same method₂(1/4). From CIHT cells [ MoCu (50/50) (H bleed)/LiOH + LiBr/NiO ] outputting 5.97Wh, 80mA at 190% gain]]H recorded by MoCu anode of₂The example of an resolved spin-vibration spectrum (so-called 260nm band) of (1/4) shows that the 258nm maximum peaks, with representative peak positions at 227, 238, 250, 263, 277 and 293nm, have an equal spacing of 0.2491 eV. Results with H₂The predicted values of (1/4) are very consistent: the vibrational and free rotor rotational transitions to substrate displacement are v 1 → v 0 and Q (0), R (1), P (2), and P (3), respectively, where Q (0) can be identified as the strongest peak of the column. The peak width (FWHM) was 4 nm. H is expected because the energies involved are anomalous (sixteen times higher) and couple significantly with the acoustic subbands of the lattice, leading to broadening of the resonance₂(1/4) spin-vibration transition vs. ordinary H in lattice₂And is widened. For the MoCu starting material, no 260nm band was observed. When sealed in a CIHT cell, is used as H₂(1/4) second order Raman fluorescence spectra were observed in the 260nm band observed in KOH-KCl crystals of the getter for gases, as described previously [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydroxyl Transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. A260 nm band was also observed in the CoCu anode.

Further confirmation of H by Raman spectroscopy₂(1/4), where the latter is expected to be dominant in the population due to the large energy difference between the ortho and para positions. Assuming that the alignment is uniform, a typical selection rule for pure rotational transitions is Δ J ± 2 for even integers. However, the orbital rotation angular momentum is coupledThe lambda quantum number is changed while the photon angular momentum stimulating the rotational energy level remains unchanged, wherein the resonant photon energy undergoes a frequency transition due to the orbital-atomic nucleus hyperfine energy relative to the transition without the lambda quantum number change. Furthermore, for λ ≠ 0, the nuclei are aligned along the internuclear axis, as is evident in chapter 12 of the reference [ Mills GUT ≠ 0]. The rotation selection rule for the smith's spectrum, defined as initial minus final state, is Δ J ═ J' -J ═ -1, the orbital angular momentum selection rule is Δ λ ± -1, and during the coupling of rotation and orbital angular momentum excitation, the conservation of angular momentum allows transitions [ Mills GUT ] to occur]. And the expected intensity is independent of the nuclear spins.

After excess power was generated, the presence of 40cm of MoCu hydrogen permeation anode was observed using a ThermoScientific DXR SmartRaman in macro mode with 780nm diode laser^-1Broad absorption peak. The peak was not observed in the original alloy, and the peak intensity increased with increasing excess energy and laser intensity. Furthermore, it is a pre-sonic treatment and a post-sonic treatment of the present invention, indicating that the only possible elements considered as sources are Mo, Cu, H and O, as confirmed by SEM-EDX. Displacement of the control compound did not reproduce the peak. This peak was also observed in cells with Mo, CoCu and MoNiAl anodes, for example, cells outputting 6.49Wh, 150mA at 186% gain [ CoCu (H penetration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]And a cell [ MoNiAl (45.5/45.5/9 wt%)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] outputting 2.40Wh, 80mA at 176% gain]. In separate experiments, KOH-KCl generated a series of very strong fluorescence or photoluminescence peaks from the gases absorbed by these cells, which were attributed to H₂(1/4) rotation-vibration. Since no other elements or compounds are known to absorb near 1.33eV (780nm laser minus 2000 cm)^-1Energy of) single 40cm of infrared line^-1(0.005eV), H is considered₂(1/4). Starting at 1950cm^-1Absorption peak of (2) and H₂(1/4) the free space rotation energy (0.2414eV) is matched to four significant digits and is 40cm^-1Is matched with the coupled energy level splitting of the orbital-nuclear]。

And H₂(1/4) the absorption peak matched with the rotational energy is a true peak and cannot be usedWhat known substance explains. Excitation of the hydrino rotation can produce an absorption peak by two mechanisms. In the first mechanism, the Stackers light is absorbed by the crystal lattice due to the strong interaction of the rotational fraction hydrogen as a lattice inclusion body. This is similar to the resonance broadening observed with a 260nm electron beam. The second mechanism involves the known inverse raman effect. Here, the continuum generated by the laser is absorbed and converted to a laser frequency, where the continuum is strong enough to maintain the population of rotationally excited states to allow for anti-smith-stokes energy effects. Typically, the laser power for IRE is extremely high, but the molecular fraction hydrogen is a special case due to its non-l-zero quantum number and corresponding selection rules. Furthermore, because of the small size of the Mo and Cu grain boundaries of the metal mixture, MoCu is expected to produce Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). Thus, the results are discussed in the context of the latter mechanism.

H for a transition from J ═ 1 to J ═ 0₂(1/4) for rotational energy, the absorption is due to the Inverse Raman Effect (IRE) [ MillsGUT]. The results show that H₂(1/4) free rotor, H in silicon substrate₂This is true, to say, for example. Furthermore, because of H₂(1/4) complexes can be formed with hydroxides, as shown by MAS NMR and ToF-SIMs, and matrix shifts (due to local environment versus H in the crystal lattice) are observed using electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy₂(1/4) influence of the site), it is expected that IRE shifts [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrochloric Transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or Energy Research ] also occur in different matrices and under pressure]. Similarly, H as a substrate-enclosed body₂The raman peak of (a) appears shifted under pressure. Several cases were observed by raman spectroscopic screening of metals and inorganic compounds. Ti and Nb appear to start at 1950cm^-1Small absorption peaks, counting about 20. Al shows a much larger peak. The case of the inorganic compound includes LiOH and LiOH-LiBr, which are respectively shown to be located at 2308cm^-1And 2608cm^-1Peak of (2). The reaction generated by ball milling LiOH-LiBr greatly strengthens IRE peak and makes it shift to the center at 2308cm^-1E.g., LiOH, and the center of formation is located at 1990cm^-1Peak of (2). At 2447cm^-1Formation of H was observed₂Ca (OH) of O₂Particularly strong absorption peaks. Ca (OH)₂At 512 deg.C or by reaction with CO₂Upon dehydration by reaction, this H₂O can be used to form H₂(1/4) the catalyst. These reactions are hydrino-forming solid fuel type reactions, as previously reported [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst-induced hydrogenation (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or energy research]. LiOH and Ca (OH)₂All show H₂(1/4) IRE Peak, and LiOH is commercially available from Ca (OH)₂With Li₂CO₃And reacting to form. Thus, Ca (OH)₂+Li₂CO₃The mixture was reacted by ball milling and was centered at 1997cm^-1Extremely strong H was observed₂(1/4) IRE peak.

H as a solid fuel reaction product₂(1/4) it has been previously reported [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal of Energy Research; R.Mills, J.Lotoski, W.good, J.He, "Solid Fuels at Form HOH Catalyst," (2014)]. The energy released by the formation of hydrinos according to equations (6-9) shows that high kinetic energy H can be generated^-. Using solid fuel Li + LiNH₂+ dissociating agent RU-Al₂O₃Which can be measured by Al (OH)₃Decomposition and Li with H₂O and LiNH₂The reaction formed H and HOH catalyst, and after the ions reached, m/e was observed to be 1 by ToF-SIMS, confirming that the energy release of equation (9) is expressed by high kinetic energy H-. Other ions, such as oxygen (m/e ═ 16), show no earlier peaks. The relationship between the time of flight T, the mass m and the acceleration voltage V is:

where a is a constant that depends on the flight distance of the ion. According to an earlier observed peak with an acceleration voltage of 3kV and an m/e of 0.968, the sample is conveyedThe kinetic energy of the H species obtained by the hydrino reaction is about 204eV, which matches the HOH catalyst reaction obtained by equation (6-9). In the corresponding to H⁺The same earlier spectrum is observed in the positive mode, but at a lower intensity.

XPS was performed on solid fuel. For Li, LiBr and LiNH₂Dissociating agent R-Ni (containing about 2 wt% Al (OH))₃) And 1atm H₂Shows that peaks at 494.5eV and 495.6eV on the XPS spectra of the reaction products of two different experiments cannot be attributed to any known element. Since only Li, Br, C and O peaks are observed, Na, Sn and Zn, which have the only possibility, are easily excluded from the absence of any other corresponding peak of these elements. This peak is associated with the theoretically permissible molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(1/4) double ionization Energy matching [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy further confirmed molecular hydrinos as products. Raman spectrum of LiHBr as solid fuel product is centered at 1994cm^-1H of (A) to (B)₂(1/4) absorption peak of reverse Raman effect. FTIR spectra of the solid fuel product LiHBr indicated a position of 1988cm^-1New sharp peak of (A), this and H₂The free rotor energies of (1/4) are well matched. In addition, MAS NMR showed strong high field shift peaks, consistent with those shown for other samples of the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter for CIHT cells, e.g., containing [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]A CIHT cell with a 125% gain output of 2.5Wh, 80mA, exhibiting high field shift matrix peaks at-4.04 ppm and-4.38 ppm, and a cell comprising [ CoCu (H infiltration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]A CIHT cell outputting 6.49Wh, 150mA at 186% gain, exhibiting high field-shifted matrix peaks at-4.09 ppm and-4.34 ppm.

XPS is also performed on the anode of CIHT cells, e.g., [ MoCu (H penetration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.56Wh, 50mA, 189% gain), and [ MoNi (H infiltration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.53Wh, 50mA, 190% gain). A 496eV peak was also observed. This peak is due to H since other possibilities are excluded₂(1/4). In particular, in each case, the 496eV peak and Mo 1s can beIrrelevant, because its intensity is much smaller than the Mo 3p peak and energy is higher than the observed energy, and it cannot be attributed to Na KLL, because no Na 1s is present in the spectrum.

Another successful cross-validation technique in searching for hydrino spectra involves the use of a Raman spectrometer in which H matched to a 260nm electron band is observed₂(1/4) spin-vibration is second order fluorescence. From batteries [ Mo, 10 Bipolar plate/LiOH-LiBr-MgO/NiO](2550.5Wh, 1.7A, 9.5V, 234% gain), [ MoCu/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](3.5Wh, 80mA, 120% gain), [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.8Wh, 80mA, 140%) and [ CoCu (H infiltration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ]]The gas (6.49Wh, 150mA, 186% gain) was absorbed with KOH-KCl (50-50 at%) and the raman spectrum of the getter was recorded using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM amides raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325nm laser in microscope mode (magnification 40X). In each case, 8000cm was observed^-1To 18,000cm^-1There is a series of 1000cm in the area^-1(0.1234eV) equi-energy spaced strong Raman peaks. Conversion of Raman spectra to fluorescence or photoluminescence spectra is disclosed, together with H corresponding to the 260nm band₂(1/4) second order spin-vibration spectral matching, this band being first observed by electron beam excitation [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrochloric Transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. Peaks in the spectra corresponding to Q, R and the P branch were assigned at 12,199, 11,207, 10,191, 9141, 8100, 13,183, 14,168, 15,121, 16,064, 16,993 and 17,892cm, respectively^-1Observed Q (0), R (1), R (2), R (3), R (4), P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4), P (5) and P (6). Excitation is thought to be achieved by high energy UV and EUV He and Cd emission of laser light, where the laser optics are transparent and grating for at least 170nm (Labram amides 2400g/mm460mm focal length system, 1024X 26 μm²Pixel CCD) is dispersed and has its highest efficiency at the shorter wavelength side of the spectral range (the range is the same as the 260nm band). For example, cadmium has a very strong spectrum (5.8eV) at 214.4nm, which is correlated with H in KCl matrix according to electron beam excitation data₂(1/4) matching of rotation-vibration excitation energy. CC (challenge collapsar)D also reacts most strongly at 500nm (second order region of the 260nm band centered at 520 nm).

The photoluminescence band is also associated with NMR peaks shifted towards high field. For example, the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter for MoNi anode CIHT cells with high field shift matrix peaks at-4.04 ppm and-4.38 ppm, containing [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ], and the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter for CoCuH penetrate anode CIHT cells with high field shift matrix peaks at-4.09 ppm and-4.34 ppm, containing [ CoCu (H penetration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ], show a series of photoluminescence peaks corresponding to a 260nm electron beam.

In general, Raman results (e.g., for 0.241eV (1940 cm)^-1) The peak of the raman reverse raman effect and the observation result of the raman photoluminescence band matching the spectrum of the 260nm electron beam at 0.2414eV) strongly prove that the nuclear distance of the molecular hydrogen is H₂1/4 of the distance between nuclei. The evidence in the latter case is further confirmed by: located in a region where there is no known possible assignment of first order peaks or matrix peaks, which are consistent with theoretical predictions by four significant figures.

Raman spectroscopy was performed on 1g of a KOH-KCl (1:1) getter sample, which was mixed with a sample solution containing CuO (30mg) + Cu (10mg) + H₂O (14.5mg), the centers of 15 consecutive starting points of 15 individual solid fuel pellets sealed in a DSC aluminum pot (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7X3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6,7, punch, tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) were kept 2 "apart. Each sample of solid fuel was ignited using a taylor-winfield ND-24-75 type spot welder which supplied short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. The getter samples were contained in alumina crucibles covered with polymer mesh wire tied around the crucible. The mesh prevents any solid reaction products from entering the sample while allowing gas to pass through. Fifteen individual solid fuel samples were ignited in rapid succession and 15 cumulative exposures of getter samples were transferred to an Ar glovebox where they were mixed uniformly using a mortar and pestle. Horiba with a HeCd 325nm laser in microscope mode (magnification 40X)Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer, and a series of 1000cm are observed^-1Equi-energy spaced Raman peaks with H within v 1 → v 0₂And (1/4) second-order rotation emission matching. In particular, at 12,194, 11,239, 10,147, 13,268, 14,189, 15,127, 16,065, 17,020 and 17,907cm^-1Q, R and P-branched peaks Q (0), R (1), R (2), P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4) and P (5) were observed, respectively, and it was confirmed that the molecular fraction H was molecular hydrogen₂(1/4) is a high-energy explosion source of the ignited solid fuel.

Vacuum pumping is carried out to 5 x 10^-4EUV spectroscopic analysis of a solid fuel sample contained in a vacuum chamber of a tray, the sample comprising a thin cast coating coated with NiOOH: (<1mm thick) of 0.08cm²Nickel mesh conductor, 11 wt% carbon and 27 wt% Ni powder. The material was constrained between two copper electrodes of a 75KVA spot Welder, model 3-42-75 by Acme Electric Welder corporation, such that the horizontal plane of the sample was aligned with the optical system of the EUV spectrometer, as confirmed by the alignment laser. The sample is subjected to a short pulse of low voltage, high current power. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. EUV spectra were recorded using a McPherson grazing incidence EUV spectrometer (model 248/310G) equipped with a platinum coated 600G/mm grating and an aluminum (Al) (800nm thickness, Luxel corporation) filter to block visible light. The incident angle was 87 °. The wavelength resolution with an entrance slit width of 100 μm is about 0.15nm at the center of the CCD and 0.5nm at the limit of the CCD wavelength range window of 50 nm. The plasma source, which was the ignited solid fuel, was located 70cm from the spectrometer inlet. EUV light was detected by a CCD detector (Andor iDus) cooled to-60 ℃. The CCD detector is centered at 35 nm. Continuous radiation in the region of 10nm to 40nm was observed. From the recording of the burst spectrum, the Al window was confirmed to be intact. The flat spectrum displayed by the outer burst of the quartz window that passes visible light while intercepting any EUV light demonstrates that the short wavelength continuum is not attributable to the scattered visible light passing through the Al filter. The high voltage helium narrow discharge spectrum shows only He atomic and ion lines, which is used for wavelength calibration spectra. Thus, high-energy light is confirmed as a true signal. Energy radiation of about 125eV is not possible due to field acceleration due to the maximum applied voltageLess than 8V; furthermore, no known chemical reaction can release more than a few electron volts. Newborn H₂The O molecule can be used as a catalyst by accepting 81.6eV (m-3) to form an intermediate that decays under the emission of a continuous band with an energy cut-off of 9²13.6 eV: 122.4eV and short wavelength cutoffThe continuum radiation band and wavelength in the 10nm region becomes longer, according to equations (43-47), matching the theoretically predicted transition of H to the hydrino state H (1/4).

E. Plasma dynamic power conversion

0.05ml (50mg) of H₂O addition to 20mg CO₃O₄Or CuO, sealed in a DSC aluminum pan (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7X3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6,7, stamped, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB 37409)). Each sample was ignited with a current of between 15,000 and 25,000A applied at about 8V RMS to an ignition electrode comprising a 5/8 "Outer Diameter (OD) x 3" length copper cylinder with a flat end circumscribing the sample using a taylor-wenfield ND-24-75 type spot welder. The high power pulses were observed to vaporize each sample into a high energy, highly ionized, expanding plasma. The PDC electrode contains two 1/16' OD copper wires. The magnetized PDC electrode is shaped as an open ring of diameter 1 "that is placed around the ignition electrode in the plane of the fuel sample. Since the current is axial, the magnetic field generated by the high current is radial, parallel to the profile of the annular PDC electrode. The non-magnetized PDC counter electrode is parallel to the direction of the ignition electrode and the high current; thus, the radial magnetic field lines are perpendicular to this PDC electrode. The PDC relative to the electrodes extends up and down 2.5 "beyond the sample plane. The PDC voltage was measured across a standard 0.1 ohm resistor. After ignition, the power of one set of PDC electrodes was recorded to be 6250W, which corresponds to a voltage of 25V and a current of 250A. The PDC power is linearly proportional to the number of PDC electrode pairs.

F.H₂ O arc plasma battery

Measured by experimental methodsTrying to stand on H₂High power resulting from the generation of an arc plasma in the O-column to form hydrinos. Experimental H₂A schematic of an O-arc plasma cell generator 800 is shown in fig. 11. H₂The O-arc plasma system includes a storage capacitor 806, the storage capacitor 806 connected between the copper substrate rod electrodes 803 and 802 and the outer concentric cylindrical copper electrode 801, where the rod 802 of the substrate rod electrodes 803 and 802 is located below the water column. The rod 802 is embedded in the nylon insulator sleeve 804 of the cylindrical electrode section and the nylon block 804 is located between the base plate 803 and the cylinder 801. A tap water column or tap water column 805 with added deionized water stands between the center rod electrode 802 and the outer cylindrical and ring electrodes 801. Deionized water did not achieve a discharge at the applied voltage. Capacitor bank 806 is connected across the electrodes with one wire connected to ground 410 through a 0.6 milliohm resistor 808, the capacitor bank 806 containing four capacitors (Sprague, 16uF 4500V DC, model a-109440, 30P12) connected in parallel to two 1 inch wide by 1/8 inch thick copper bars via end bolts. The capacitor bank is charged by a high voltage power supply 809(Universal volts, 20kV DC, model 1650R 2), via a connection with a 1 milliohm resistor 807 and discharged through an air spark gap switch 411 comprising stainless steel electrodes. The high voltage is in the range of about 3kV to 4.5 kV. Below 3kV discharge cannot be achieved. The discharge current is in the range of 10kA to 13kA (measured by rogowski cwt600LF type coil and 700mm cable). 4ml H in the open cell tested₂Exemplary parameters for O are: a capacitance of about 64 μ F; an intrinsic inductance of about 6 muH; an intrinsic resistance of about 0.3 Ω; the cylindrical electrode 801 Inner Diameter (ID) and depth were 1/2 inch and 2.5 inches, respectively; the rod 802 has an Outer Diameter (OD) of 1/4 inch; the distance between the cylindrical electrode 801 and the central rod 802 is 1/8 "; the charging voltage was about 4.5 kV; and the loop time constant is about 20 mus. H₂The O ignition and high rate of fractional hydrogen formation can be achieved by a triggered water arc discharge, where the arc promotes atomic hydrogen formation, and a HOH catalyst, which causes the reaction to occur via the release of high power to form fractional hydrogen. The high power is evident in the fact that in the laboratory, the entire H₂Supersonic jet of O inclusions 10 feet high, with the jetted water column impacting the ceilingAnd (3) a plate.

Thermal measurements were taken using a Parr 1341 conventional jacketed calorimeter with a Parr 6774 calorimeter option. 2,000g DI water was loaded into the calorimeter water bath (according to Parr's manual), and H was added₂The O arc plasma battery generator is placed inside and submerged under water. The only modification of the arc plasma cell is to fasten a cap with a pressure relief channel to the top of the cylindrical electrode. The power supply for calibration and ignition is a capacitor bank with a total capacitance C of 64 muf. The positive connection of the capacitor bank was connected to the battery with an 8AWG 40 vdc lead and the negative lead was connected with a 10AWG90 type lead. In the calibration ignition H₂Input energy E capable of determining water bath heat capacity during input energy of O arc plasma_{Input device}Obtained by the following formula:

wherein V_iAnd V_fRespectively an initial voltage before discharge of the capacitor and a final voltage after discharge. After signal decay (according to voltage divider) into the instrument range, the voltage was measured using a NIST traceable, calibrated Fluke 45 digital voltmeter.

The heat capacity was determined by heating a water bath using a discharge cell with the same heat capacity and displacement, which did not produce arc plasma. The calibrated heat capacity of the calorimeter and the arc plasma apparatus was determined to be 10,678J/° K. Discharge to generate H₂The initial and final voltages of the capacitor of the O-arc plasma were 3.051kV and 0.600kV, respectively, corresponding to an input energy of 286.4J. By using calibrated heat capacity, thermal reaction to input energy in calorimetry and ignition H₂The total output energy of the energy released by the O-arc plasma was calculated to be 533.9J. By subtracting the input energy, the net energy is 247.5J, which is released as hydrinos form.

Claims

1. A mechanical power system, comprising:

at least one piston cylinder of an internal combustion engine;

a fuel, comprising:

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;

at least one fuel inlet having at least one valve;

at least one exhaust outlet having at least one valve;

at least one piston;

at least one crankshaft;

a source of high current; and

at least two electrodes that confine and conduct a high current through the fuel;

wherein, contains H₂The fuel of O origin comprises at least one of the following: bulk phase H₂O, bulk phase H₂In a state other than O, reacted to form H₂O and liberation of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of O.

2. The mechanical power system of claim 1 further comprising a generator powered by mechanical power of the engine.

3. The mechanical power system of claim 1 further comprising a fuel regenerator.

4. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein, during the power stroke of the reciprocating cycle:

igniting the compressed fuel;

subjecting the product and any additional added gas or source of gas to heat; and

the heated gas in the cylinder causes the piston to move in the cylinder and rotate the crankshaft.

5. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises H for forming at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix.

6. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the combined H₂O comprises and H₂O interacting compound, wherein said H₂H with O in absorption₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and water of hydration.

7. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises a conductor and one or more process-release phases H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physically adsorbed H₂At least one of O and hydrated water and having H₂O as a compound or material of the reaction product.

8. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the nascent H is₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen comprises at least one of:

a) at least one H₂A source of O;

b) at least one source of oxygen, and

c) at least one source of hydrogen.

9. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel used to form at least one of the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the atomic hydrogen comprises at least one of:

a)H₂o and the H₂A source of O;

b)O₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; and

c) an electrically conductive substrate.

10. The mechanical power system of claim 9 wherein there is at least one of:

the oxyhydroxide comprises at least one of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH and SmOOH;

the oxide contains CuO and Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO and Ni₂O₃At least one of;

the hydroxide comprises Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂At least one of;

the oxygen-containing compound comprises at least one of: sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, perchlorates, perbromates and periodates, MXO₃、MXO₄Cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, rare earth metal oxide, and oxyhydroxide, wherein M ═ metal; x ═ F, Br, Cl, I, and

the electrically conductive matrix comprises at least one from the following group: metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitride, or nitrile.

11. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises metal, metal oxides thereof and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored.

12. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises a metal, a metal halide and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored.

13. As claimed in claimThe mechanical power system of 1, wherein the fuel comprises a transition metal, an alkaline earth halide, and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored.

14. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O.

15. The mechanical power system of claim 14 wherein the conductor comprises metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is not thermodynamically favored.

16. The mechanical power system of claim 14 wherein the moisture absorbent material comprises at least one member of the group consisting of: lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, ferric ammonium citrate, potassium and sodium hydroxides and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, silica, activated carbon, and calcium sulfate.

17. The mechanical power system of claim 14 comprising a conductor, a hygroscopic material and H₂O mixture of metal, hygroscopic material and H₂The relative molar amounts of O are: 0.001 to 100 metal, 0.001 to 100 moisture-absorbing material and 0.001 to 100H₂O。

18. The mechanical power system of claim 11, 12, 13 or 15 wherein H and H are selected from the group consisting of₂Said metal with which O has a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction is at least one selected from the group consisting of: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In.

19. The mechanical power system of claim 18 wherein the fuel is provided by adding H₂And O is regenerated.

20. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises metal, metal oxides thereof and H₂O, wherein the metal oxide is capable of H at a temperature of less than 1000 ℃₂And (4) reducing.

21. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the fuel comprises a mixture of:

a) at H₂And oxides that are not readily reducible at less than 1000 ℃;

b) having the ability to be heated at temperatures below 1000 ℃ by H₂A metal reduced to an oxide of the metal; and

c)H₂O。

22. the mechanical power system of claim 20 or 21 wherein the coolant is supplied by H at a temperature below 1000 ℃₂The metal reduced to the oxide of the metal is selected from at least one of the following: cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In.

23. The mechanical power system of claim 21 wherein the H is₂And the metal oxide which is not easily reduced at less than 1000 ℃ comprises at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth metal oxide and a rare earth metal oxide.

24. The mechanical power system of claim 3 wherein the fuel comprises carbon and H₂O, wherein the mixture is prepared by adding H₂O rehydration and regeneration。

25. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the H is₂The content of O mol% is in the range of 0.001-100%.

26. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the current of the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy is sufficient to react the fuel at a very high rate to form hydrinos.

27. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy is capable of providing high voltage to achieve H₂O arc plasma.

28. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy comprises:

a voltage selected to induce high AC, DC or AC-DC mixing with currents in the range of 100A to 1,000,000A; at 100A/cm²～1,000,000A/cm²DC or peak AC current density in the range of (1), wherein

The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the fuel,

the voltage is obtained by multiplying the required current by the resistance of the fuel;

the DC or peak AC voltage is in the range of 0.1V-500 kV, and

the AC frequency is in the range of 0.1Hz to 10 GHz.

29. The mechanical power system of claim 1 wherein

The resistance of the fuel is in the range of 0.001 MOmega to 100 MOmega, and

conductivity per unit electrode area for suitable loading effective to form hydrinos is 10^-10Ω^-1cm^-2～10⁶Ω^-1cm^-2Range of (1)And (4) the following steps.

30. The mechanical power system of claim 3 wherein the regeneration system comprises at least one of a hydration system, a thermal system, a chemical system, and an electrochemical system.

31. The mechanical power system of claim 1 further comprising a heat exchanger on the outer surface of the cylinder to remove heat generated by the battery and transfer it to a load;

the heat exchanger comprises a coolant inlet for receiving cold coolant from a load and a coolant outlet for supplying or returning hot coolant to the load, wherein

The heat is converted into mechanical or electrical energy, either directly or using a corresponding converter, and

the at least one thermal-to-electrical converter comprises at least one of the group of: heat engines, steam turbines and generators, gas turbines and generators, rankine cycle engines, brayton cycle engines, stirling engines, thermionic energy converters, and thermoelectric energy converters.