GB2570314A

GB2570314A - A thermal reactor

Info

Publication number: GB2570314A
Application number: GB1800871.4A
Authority: GB
Inventors: Morris Andrew
Original assignee: ENVIROFUSION Ltd
Current assignee: ENVIROFUSION Ltd
Priority date: 2018-01-19
Filing date: 2018-01-19
Publication date: 2019-07-24
Also published as: GB201800871D0

Abstract

A reactor 200 suitable for processing feed material comprises an outer wall 202 defining a chamber 212. Feed material is received in a feed opening 206. Air distribution openings 220 in the outer wall 202 at a level below the feed opening 206 guide air to generate a vortex within the chamber 212. A lateral distribution member 208 in the chamber 212 and below the feed opening 206 distributes the feed material in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex to provide a concurrent flow of feed material and air. The lateral distribution member 208 may be a conical hat. The reactor may have a devolatilisation zone (106, Fig. 1), a pyrothermic zone (108, Fig. 1), and a molten zone (110, Fig. 1). The air openings 220 may supply air heated by exhaust gases. The reactor is typically suitable for processing waste material. A method of operating a reactor, a reactor comprising a separation device 246 and a reactor with air openings 220 and burners 224 on an outer wall 202 are also claimed.

Description

A Thermal Reactor

The present invention relates to the field of reactors for processing feed materials.

There are many and various ways of dealing with waste materials, including the production of electrical energy from the waste. Possible methods for dealing with waste include incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, the use of plasma or anaerobic digestion.

Typical difficult wastes to handle include asbestos, medical waste, certain hazardous and toxic wastes, classified nuclear waste, and all household, commercial and industrial wastes. It is desirable to provide an apparatus for disposing of at least some of the above categories of waste at a lower capital or operating cost than existing solutions. It is desirable for the apparatus to be able to dispose of materials without the requirement to sort the materials into different categories of waste prior to disposal.

Envirofusion Ltd’s international patent application published as WO 2014/140551 discloses a reactor for processing feed material, comprising:

a de-gasifier zone configured to operate at a de-gasifier temperature and receive the feed material in order to remove components from the feed material that take a gas or vapour form below the de-gasifier temperature;

a pyrothermic zone configured to operate at a pyrothermic temperature and receive the feed material from the de-gasifier zone in order to cause pyrolysis of the feed material to release a gas from the feed material;

a molten zone configured to operate at a molten temperature and receive the feed material and released gas from the pyrothermic zone; and a heater configured to heat the molten zone to the molten temperature by burning the released gas received from the pyrothermic zone.

The present disclosure relates to further innovative improvements over the design of the reactor in WO 2014/140551.

According to an aspect of the invention there is provided a reactor or furnace for processing feed material, comprising:

an outer wall defining a chamber;

a feed opening, which may be in a roof of the chamber, for receiving the feed material;

one or more air distribution openings in the outer wall, optionally at a level below the feed opening, each air distribution opening configured to guide air in order to generate a vortex within the chamber; and a lateral distribution member provided within the chamber, below the feed opening, and configured to distribute the feed material in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex, which may provide a cocurrent flow of the feed material and air in the vortex.

The feed material may be carried by the vortex, or cyclone.

The outer wall may be continuous, or cylindrical, when viewed in a lateral plane.

Each of the air distribution openings may be configured to guide air in an airflow direction. The airflow direction may be oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that air distribution opening is located in order to promote rotation of the vortex. The airflow direction may have a (non-zero) component, in a lateral plane, in a direction that is towards a centre of the chamber. The airflow direction may have a (non-zero) component, in a lateral plane, in a direction that is parallel to, or tangential to, a portion of the outer wall in which that air distribution opening is located.

The reactor may comprise one or more heaters. The one or more heaters may be situated on the outer wall. The one or more heaters may be configured to increase a temperature within the chamber. The one or more heaters may comprise one or more burners. Each burner may be directed inwards in a burner direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that burner is located in order to promote rotation of the vortex. The one or more burners may be directed towards a base of the reactor. The burner direction may have a (non-zero) component in a longitudinal, or axial, direction such that the heater is directed towards a base of the chamber. The burner direction may have a (non-zero) component, in a lateral plane, in a direction that is towards a centre of the chamber. The burner direction may have a (non-zero) component, in a lateral plane, in a direction that is parallel to, or tangential to, a portion of the outer wall in which that burner is located.

The reactor may comprise an exit aperture in a base of the reactor. The exit aperture may be located at a centre of the base.

The reactor may comprise a separation device located at the exit aperture. The separation device may have upright filtering portions around the aperture. The separation device may have a cover extending over the aperture between the upright filtering portions. The separation device may be configured to form a weir of molten ash. The separation device may be configured to retain feed material within the reactor.

The reactor may comprise a roof. The feed opening may be provided in the roof. The lateral distribution member may comprise a conical hat situated directly below the feed opening.

The reactor may comprise an inner core. The inner core may define an enclosed void within the chamber. The one or more air distribution openings may be configured to induce the vortex around the enclosed void.

The outer wall may comprise an upper section and a lower section. The upper section may be engaged with the lower section by a liquid seal.

The upper section may have a fixed lateral relationship to the lower section in that it does not rotate. The outer wall does not comprise a rotatable portion.

The reactor may comprise a devolatilisation zone. The devolatilisation zone may be configured to operate at a devolatilisation temperature and receive the feed material in order to remove components from the feed material that take a gas or vapour form below the devolatilisation temperature. The reactor may comprise a pyrothermic zone. The pyrothermic zone may be configured to operate at a pyrothermic temperature and receive the feed material from the devolatilisation zone. The reactor may comprise a molten zone. The molten zone may be configured to operate at a molten temperature and receive the feed material and released gas from the pyrothermic zone.

The pre-heat zone may be located vertically above the devolatilisation zone. The devolatilisation temperature may be greater than the pre-heat temperature. The reactor may further comprise a hot air supply configured to heat the devolatilisation zone and/or the pre-heat zone. The one or more air distribution openings, or air distribution system, may be configured to supply hot air supply provided by, or heated by, exhaust gasses from the reactor. The devolatilisation zone may be located vertically above the pyrothermic zone. The pyrothermic zone may be located vertically above the molten zone.

The pre-heat temperature may be between 300 °C and 400 °C. The devolatilisation temperature may be between 350 °C and 500 °C. The pyrothermic temperature may be between 1100 °C and 1350 °C. The molten temperature may be between 1400 °C and 2000 °C. The heater temperature may be between 1100 °C and 1400 °C.

According to a further aspect there is provided a method of operating a reactor for processing feed material, the method comprising:

receiving the feed material at a feed opening of the reactor;

guiding air to generate a vortex within the chamber using one or more air distribution openings in an outer wall of the chamber; and distributing feed material in a lateral direction within the chamber, below the feed opening, in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex, which may provide a cocurrent flow of the feed material and air in the vortex.

According to a further aspect there is provided a reactor for processing feed material, comprising a:

an exit aperture in a base of the reactor; and a separation device at the exit aperture, the separation device having upright filtering portions around the aperture and a cover extending over the aperture between the upright filtering portions, in which the separation device is configured to form a weir of molten ash and retain feed material within the reactor.

According to a further aspect there is provided a reactor for processing feed material, comprising:

an outer wall defining a chamber;

one or more air distribution openings and one or more burners, situated on the outer wall, each air distribution opening and burner is directed inwards in a direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that device is located in order to generate a vortex within the chamber.

Also disclosed is a reactor for processing feed material, comprising:

an outer wall defining a chamber;

one or more air distribution devices, situated on the outer wall, each air distribution device is directed inwards in a direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that device is located in order to generate a vortex within the chamber.

The one or more air distribution devices may comprise one or more air distribution openings or one or more burners. A feed opening may be provided in a roof of the chamber for receiving the feed material. The one or more air distribution devices may be at a level below the feed opening. The reactor may comprise a lateral distribution member provided within the chamber, below the feed opening. The lateral distribution member may be configured to distribute the feed material in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex.

Embodiments of the present invention will now be described by way of example and with reference to the accompanying drawings in which:

Figure 1 illustrates a block diagram of a pyrothermic reactor;

Figure 2a illustrates an isomeric perspective view of the main body of a pyrothermic reactor;

Figure 2b illustrates a plan view of a side of the main body of the pyrothermic reactor of Figure 2a;

Figure 2c illustrates a plan view taken through a cross section of a main body and a roof section of a reactor;

Figures 3a and 3b illustrate separation devices for use in a reactor; and

Figure 4 illustrates a method of operating a pyrothermic reactor.

A reactor, or thermal reactor, as disclosed herein may economically dispose of waste materials that are not suitable for recycling. A further possible advantage of such a reactor is that latent energy within waste materials can be released and used to produce thermal energy for heating or the production of electrical energy.

Figure 1 illustrates a block diagram 100 of a reactor that shows how waste feed material is processed by the reactor. The reactor in this example will be referred to as a pyrothermic reactor (PTR) and comprises a number of heating zones, including a preheat zone 102, a devolatilisation zone 106, a pyrothermic zone 108 and a molten zone 110. The general arrangement of the zones 102, 106, 108, 110 of the reactor is similar to that of the reactor described in WO 2014/140551.

A feed material 111 such as waste from residential, commercial or industrial establishments is fed into the pre-heat zone 102. The pre-heat zone operates at a pre heat temperature, which may be between about 300 °C and 400 °C. In this example the pre-heat temperature is 350 °C. The pre-heat zone 102 may remove water vapour from the feed material. The pre-heat zone 102 is heated using hot air 103, which may be provided by an external source of energy or may be provided by, or heated by, exhaust gasses from a subsequent stage in the reactor process. A by-product from pre-heating in the pre-heat zone 102 is hot air and water vapour. The hot air and water vapour remain within the reactor and are involved in phase changes to the feed material that subsequently take place in the devolatilisation zone 106, pyrothermic zone 108 and molten zone 110.

After pre-heating, material passes into the devolatilisation zone 106. The devolatilisation zone 106 operates at a devolatilisation temperature, which may be between about 350 °C and 500 °C. In this example the devolatilisation temperature is 400 °C. The devolatilisation zone 106 removes components from the feed material that take a gas or vapour form below the devolatilisation temperature. Devolatilisation is a term used to describe the removal of gasses from the solid feed material 111. Devolatilisation is performed using hot air 103, similar to that described above in the pre-heat zone 102. However, the temperature necessary to perform devolatilisation may be slightly higher than that required for pre-heating.

Some combustion may also occur in the devolatilisation zone 106. Such combustion may be used to remove environmental oxygen that has been admitted into the reactor with the feed material 111.

After devolatilisation the feed material passes into the pyrothermic zone 108 of the reactor. The pyrothermic zone 108 operates at a pyrothermic temperature, which may be between about 1100 °C and 1350 °C. In this example the pyrothermic temperature is 1275 °C. This results in the release of gasses from the feed material due to thermal degradation. The composition of the gasses therefore depends upon the original feed material. The heat in the pyrothermic zone 108 is received through the combination of the combustion process and thermal contact with the molten zone 110 as shown in figure 1 by arrows 119. Therefore, the pyrothermic zone 108 can be heated by a heater 112 that heats the molten zone 110, as will be described below.

The molten zone 110 receives the feed material 111 and the released gasses from the pyrothermic zone 108. The molten zone 110 operates at a molten temperature, which may be between about 1200 °C and 1500 °C. In this example the molten temperature is 1400 °C. At these elevated temperatures the inorganic element of the waste feed material becomes molten.

One or more heaters 112 are used to heat the molten zone 110. In this example, the one or more heaters 112 comprise a plurality of burners that burns fuel oil 114 received from an external fuel source with combustion air 116. The fuel oil 114 is treated with an atomizing air stream 118 prior to combustion.

The high molten temperature in the molten zone 110 represents a significant advantage as feed material can be broken down in such a way that would not be possible without the presence of the molten material in the molten zone 110. One of the principal features of the pyrothermic reactor (PTR) is the operating temperature of the molten zone 110. Other advantages provided by such examples can be an improved thermal efficiency, lower operating cost, reduced maintenance costs and small envelope size.

In order to sustain a high temperature, the region of the apparatus that houses the molten zone 110 may be provided using a refractory material combined with good insulation.

A separation device 120 is provided to filter solid feedstock material, which is retained within the reactor 100, from exhaust gas and molten material, some of which is able to pass through the separation device 120 to exit the reactor as a residue.

The residue typically comprises inert or non-combustible materials is allowed to run off from the molten zone 110 through the separation device 120. Some examples of reactors described herein can provide an overall disposal performance of 98 % (that is, the waste output residue can be around only 2 % of the mass of the feed material 111) which is considerably higher than many prior art solutions.

The molten residue is allowed to fall into a quench tank 122, which quickly reduces the temperature of the residue to around 50 to 80 °C. The residue may then be considered to be a vitrified solid 124 that is suitable for conventional disposal. The solid waste output residue may itself be utilized by applications that require inert pellets of material.

The exhaust gasses released from the separation device 120, which are typically at 1400 °C to 2000 °C, can be passed to a heat exchanger, which extracts heat from the gas so as to provide heat for a pressurized boiler 126. The hot fluid (such as pressurised water and steam) stored in the boiler may be used for heating or power generation applications.

Figures 2a to 2c show various views of a reactor 200 for processing feed material. The reactor has a main body and a roof section. Figure 2a illustrates an isomeric perspective view of the reactor 200. Figure 2b illustrates a plan view of a side of the reactor 200. Figure 2d illustrates a plan view taken through a cross section of the main body of the reactor 200.

The reactor 200 has a cylindrical outer wall 202, a roof 210 and a base 234. A chamber 212 is defined within the reactor 200. The reactor 200 may comprise features and zones that are similar to those described above with reference to Figure 1. These zones include a pre-heat zone, a devolatilisation zone, a pyrothermic zone and a molten zone, as discussed below. The zones are vertically disposed relative to each other in this example such that material moves between the various zones under gravity, as described further below with reference to the method of Figure 5. The temperature of the various zones within the chamber decrease along a vertical upwards direction from the molten zone at the base 234 of the reactor 200.

Turning to Figures 2b and 2c, the roof section comprises the roof 210, a transition duct 204 and a conical hat 208 provided directly below an opening 206 in the transition duct 204. The transition duct 204 provides a passage in which feed stock can be introduced into the chamber 212 of the reactor from a central location in the roof 210. The feed material may be transferred to the transition duct 204 via a rotary valve 205. The feed material is mixed with hot air, which provides a pre-heat zone within the chamber 212.

The conical hat 208 provides a lateral distribution within the reactor 200 below the feed valve 206. The conical hat 208 has an apex at its top so that feed material that is fed into the reactor 200 via the transition duct 204 is disbursed laterally within the reactor under the action of gravity. That is, the feed material that falls on the conical hat is distributed radially by the conical hat 208.

In this example, struts 218 are provided to suspend the conical hat 208 in position. Alternatively, the conical hat 208 may be suspended from the roof 210.

The conical hat 208 is provided at the top of the chamber 212. The conical hat 208 may form the roof of an inner core (not shown). The inner core defines an enclosed void within the chamber. A substantially toroidal volume 214 is defined within the chamber 212 around the conical hat 208 and inner core. A substantially cylindrical volume 216 is defined within the chamber 212 below the toroidal volume 214 and inner core. The pyrothermic zone is provided in the toroidal portion of the chamber 214 as well as the cylindrical volume 216, which is above the molten zone 216, 234 provided in the cylindrical portion of the chamber. The pyrothermic zone is in fluid and thermal communication with the molten zone.

As shown in Figures 2a and 2b, an air distribution opening 220 is provided in the outer wall 202. In other examples, a plurality of air distribution openings may be distributed around the outer wall 202. Hot air, which may supply by, or heated by, exhaust gasses from the reactor, may be introduced into the chamber via the air distribution opening. The air distribution opening is arranged to guide air in an air flow direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall 202 in which the air distribution opening 220 is located. The air flow direction 222 has a component, in a lateral plane of the reactor (as shown in the plan view of Figure 2a), in a direction that is towards a centre of the chamber 212 and has a component, in the lateral plane, in a direction that is tangential to the portion of the outer wall 202 in which the air distribution opening 220 is located. An effect of the arrangement of the air distribution opening 220, in combination with the outer wall 202 and inner void is that air is forced to travel in a circumferential direction around the chamber 212, forming a vortex, or cyclone. Air is fed by the air distribution opening into the substantially toroidal portion 214 of the chamber 212. The vortex propagates from the toroidal portion 214 to the cylindrical portion 216 of the chamber 212.

Feed material is fed by the conical hat 208 into the vortex that is present in the toroidal portion 214 under the action of gravity. A cocurrent flow of the feed material and air is present in the vortex. That is, the feed material flows in substantially the same direction as the air within the vortex. The reactor 200 may therefore be considered to be a concurrent flow combustor.

In this example, the reactor 200 comprises a plurality of burners 224 that are situated on, and distributed around, the outer wall 202. The burners 224 may be considered to be externally mounted because they are situated on the outer wall 212 of the reactor 200. Each of the burners 224 receives compressed air via an air distribution system 226 from a compressor 228. Each burner 224 also receives fuel via a fuel distribution system 230 from a fuel source 232. The fuel may be diesel oil, for example.

Each burner 224 is directed inwards within the chamber 202 in a burner direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that particular burner is located. The burner direction, for each burner 224, has a component in a longitudinal direction, which is in line with an axis of the reactor 200 in this example, such that the burner 224 is directed towards a base 234 of the reactor 200. The burner direction also has components, in the lateral plane, in a direction that is towards the centre of the chamber 212 and in a direction that is tangential to the portion of the outer wall 202 in which that particular burner 224 is located. The burner direction may therefore be considered to have a radial and an axial component. The burners 224 are arranged to project flames (not shown) into the substantially cylindrical portion 216 of the chamber 212 in order to increase the temperature within the chamber 212. The provision of a high temperature within the reactor 200 enables organic components to be destroyed, for example. The orientation of each of the burners 224 promotes the flow of material in the vortex. The vortex therefore comprises hot air that carries feed material and combustion products.

The inner core (not shown) below the conical hat 208 may be provided with additional air distribution openings for providing process air in order to assist in the combustion of the material adjacent to the burners 224.

One advantage of providing burners on the outer wall 202, rather than within the reactor or on the base or roof is that, potentially, a greater number of burners may be provided because the surface area is bigger. A start-up time of the reactor may therefore be reduced because a greater range of energy addition to the system can be achieved. Another advantage of providing burners on the outer wall 202, rather than within a central region of the reactor, for example, is that the burners may be easier to access for servicing, and for routing the air and fuel distribution systems 226, 230.

The air distribution opening 220 and burners 224 are each examples of air distribution devices that are situated on the outer wall and directed inwards in a direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in order to generate a vortex within the chamber. The generation of the vortex using such air distribution devices ensures mixing of the feedstock and air within the chamber without the requirement to provide moving parts to mix the material. As such, the complexity of the reactor can be reduced by removing the need for mechanical mixing means, such as a rotating portion of the chamber. In this example, the outer wall 212 does not comprise a rotatable portion in this respect.

The outer wall 212 comprises an upper section 240 and a lower section 242. The upper section 240 is engaged with the lower section 242 by a liquid seal, such as a water seal. The water seal acts a safety device ensuring that pressure build up within the reactor can be safely dealt with. A lateral relationship between the upper section 240 is fixed with reference to the lower section 242 in that the upper section 240 does not rotate with respect to the lower section 242.

The molten zone is situated at the base 234 of the chamber 212 and is the hottest zone in the reactor 200. The base 234 of the reactor 200 comprises a centrally located exit aperture 244. The exit aperture 244 allows residue to pass out of the reactor 200 from the molten zone. A separation device 246 is provided within the chamber 212, covering the exit aperture 244.

Figure 3a illustrates a separation device 346 for use in the reactor of Figures 2a to 2c. The separation device 346 has upright filtering portions 350 which extend around an edge 352 of the aperture 344, and a cover portion 354 extending over the aperture 344. The upright filtering portions 350 connect the cover portion 354 to the base 334. Openings 356 are provided around the separation device, between the respective upright filtering portions 350. The arrangement of the upright filter portions 350 and openings 356 ensures that the separation device 346 forms a weir of molten ash and retains feed material within the reactor 200 to be combusted. However, molten ash and hot gas are able to pass through the openings 356 and exit through the exit aperture 244. The separation device 346 can be considered to provide a hive structure which provides a gas/liquid/sold separator that assists in maintaining equilibrium operating conditions within the reactor. It has been found that the heat loss performance of such a device is better than a molten filter, which filter liquid feed material in a similar way that a molten filter in a metallurgical furnace filters a molten metal. In this way, the separation device 346 enables a reactor to provide a molten ash inerting system in which molten ash is converted to inert material.

Figure 3b illustrates another separation device 360 of a modular construction. The separation device 360 comprises a plurality of interlocking members in order to aid construction and transportation. The plurality of interlocking members have matingengagement features in order to maintain the members in position once engaged. In this example, the area of opening within the separation device is greater than the area of upright filtering portions. A pressure-drop across the separation device 360 is therefore relatively low.

Figure 4 illustrates a method 400 for operating a reactor such as that described previously with reference to Figures 2a to 2c. Feed material is fed 402 into a feed opening of the reactor. Air is guided 404 to generate a vortex within the chamber using one or more air distribution devices on an outer wall of the chamber. The air distribution devices may be provided by air distribution openings or heaters. Feed material, below the feed opening, is distributed 406 in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex. In some examples, the feed material falls, under the action of gravity, from the feed opening of the reactor onto a lateral distribution member which is shaped so that the feed material is guided laterally away from the centre of the chamber, towards a periphery in which air flows in the vortex. From the periphery of the chamber, the feed material may fall under the action of gravity, subject to mixing forces of the vortex, towards a base of the reactor. Optionally, residue is allowed to leave the chamber via a separation device situated at the base of the reactor.

It will be appreciated that features described in regard to one example may be combined with features described with regard to another example, unless an intention to the contrary is apparent.

Claims

1. A reactor for processing feed material, comprising:

an outer wall defining a chamber;

a feed opening for receiving the feed material;

one or more air distribution openings in the outer wall at a level below the feed opening, each air distribution opening configured to guide air in order to generate a vortex within the chamber; and a lateral distribution member provided within the chamber, below the feed opening, and configured to distribute the feed material in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex to provide a cocurrent flow of the feed material and air in the vortex.

2. The reactor of claim 1, in which each of the air distribution openings is configured to guide air in an airflow direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that air distribution opening is located.

3. The reactor of claim 1 or claim 2, comprising one or more heaters, situated on the outer wall, and configured to increase a temperature within the chamber.

4. The reactor of claim 3, in which the one or more heaters comprise one or more burners, each burner directed inwards in a burner direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that burner is located.

5. The reactor of claim 4, in which the one or more burners are directed towards a base of the reactor.

6. The reactor of any of claims 1 to 5, comprising an exit aperture in a base of the reactor.

7. The reactor of any preceding claim, comprising a separation device located at the exit aperture, the separation device having upright filtering portions around the aperture and a cover extending over the aperture between the upright filtering portions, the separation device configured to form a weir of molten ash and retain feed material within the reactor.

8. The reactor of any preceding claim, in which the lateral distribution member comprises a conical hat situated directly below the feed opening.

9. The reactor of any preceding claim, comprising an inner core defining an enclosed void within the chamber, in which the one or more air distribution openings are configured to induce the vortex around the enclosed void.

10. The reactor of any preceding claim, in which the outer wall comprises an upper section and a lower section, in which the upper section is engaged with the lower section by a liquid seal.

11. The reactor of claim 10, in which the upper section has a fixed lateral relationship to the lower section.

12. The reactor of any preceding claim, comprising:

a devolatilisation zone configured to operate at a devolatilisation temperature and receive the feed material in order to remove components from the feed material that take a gas or vapour form below the devolatilisation temperature;

a pyrothermic zone configured to operate at a pyrothermic temperature and receive the feed material from the devolatilisation zone in order to cause pyrolysis of the feed material to release a gas from the feed material; and a molten zone configured to operate at a molten temperature and receive the feed material and released gas from the pyrothermic zone.

13. The reactor of any preceding claim, wherein the devolatilisation zone is located vertically above the pyrothermic zone, and the pyrothermic zone is located vertically above the molten zone.

14. The reactor of any preceding claim, wherein which the one or more air distribution openings are configured to supply hot air provided by, or heated by, exhaust gasses from the reactor.

15. A method of operating a reactor for processing feed material, the method comprising:

receiving the feed material at a feed opening of the reactor;

guiding air to generate a vortex within the chamber using one or more air distribution openings in an outer wall of the chamber; and distributing feed material in a lateral direction within the chamber, below the feed opening, in a lateral direction such that the feed material is fed to the vortex to provide a cocurrent flow of the feed material and air in the vortex.

5

16. A reactor for processing feed material, comprising a:

an exit aperture in a base of the reactor; and a separation device at the exit aperture, the separation device having upright filtering portions around the aperture and a cover extending over the aperture between the upright filtering portions, in which the separation device is configured to form a weir of 10 molten ash and retain feed material within the reactor.

17. A reactor for processing feed material, comprising:

an outer wall defining a chamber;

one or more air distribution openings and one or more burners, situated

15 on the outer wall, each air distribution opening and burner is directed inwards in a direction that is oblique to a portion of the outer wall in which that device is located in order to generate a vortex within the chamber.