AU2015202166A1

AU2015202166A1 - Electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide

Info

Publication number: AU2015202166A1
Application number: AU2015202166A
Authority: AU
Inventors: Emily Barton Cole; Narayanappa Sivasankar; Kyle Teamey
Original assignee: Liquid Light Inc
Current assignee: Liquid Light Inc
Priority date: 2010-07-29
Filing date: 2015-04-28
Publication date: 2015-05-14

Abstract

Abstract A method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide is disclosed. The method generally includes steps (A) to (C) . Step (A) may bubble the carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell. The divided electrochemical cell may include an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment. The cathode generally reduces the carbon dioxide into a plurality of components. Step (B) may establish a molar ratio of the components in the synthesis gas by adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of the cathode. Step (C) may separate the synthesis gas from the solution.

Description

ELECTROCHEMICAL PRODUCTION OF SYNTHESIS GAS FROM CARBON DIOXIDE The present application is a divisional application from Australian patent application number 2011282783, the entire 5 disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to chemical reduction generally and, more particularly, to a method and/or apparatus 10 for implementing electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide. Background of the Invention The combustion of fossil fuels in activities such as 15 electricity generation, transportation and manufacturing produces billions of tons of carbon dioxide annually. Research since the 1970s indicates increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may be responsible for altering the Earth's climate, changing the pH of the oceans and other potentially 20 damaging effects. Countries around the world, including the United States, are seeking ways to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide. A mechanism for mitigating emissions is to convert carbon dioxide 25 into economically valuable materials such as fuels and industrial chemicals. If the carbon dioxide is converted using energy from renewable sources, both mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions and conversion of renewable energy into a chemical form that can be stored for later use will be possible. Electrochemical and 30 photochemical pathways are techniques for the carbon dioxide conversion. 1 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Previous work in the field has many limitations, including the stability of systems used in the process, the efficiency of systems, the selectivity of the system or process for a desired chemical, the cost of materials used in systems/processes, the ability to control the process effectively, and the rate at which carbon dioxide is converted. Existing systems for producing synthesis gas rely on gasification of biomass or steam reformation of methane. The processes use high temperatures and pressures. In the case of synthesis gas made from fossil fuels, liquid fuels made therefrom increase greenhouse gas emissions. Synthesis -gas from biomass can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but can be difficult to convert efficiently and produces unwanted ash and other toxic substances. No commercially available solutions for converting carbon dioxide to economically valuable fuels or industrial chemicals currently exist. Laboratories around the world have attempted for many years to use electrochemistry and/or photochemistry to convert carbon dioxide to economically valuable products. Hundreds of publications exist on the subject, starting with work in the 19th century. Much of the work done prior to 1999 is summarized in "Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide Mitigation Science and Technology", by Halmann and Steinberg. A more recent overview of work on electrochemical means of reducing carbon dioxide is "Electrochemical Carbon Dioxide Reduction Fundamental and Applied Topics (Review) ", by Maria Jitaru in Journal of the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 2007, pages 333-344. Laboratory electrochemical methods usually involve a small (i.e., <l liter) glass cell containing electrodes and an aqueous solution with supporting electrolyte in which carbon dioxide is bubbled, though a solvent other than water can be used. 2 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Reduction of the carbon dioxide takes place directly on the cathode or via a mediator in the solution that is either a transition metal or a transition metal complex. Photoelectrochemical methods also incorporate aqueous solutions with supporting electrolyte in which carbon dioxide is bubbled. The main difference is that some or all of the energy for reducing the carbon dioxide comes from sunlight. The reduction of the carbon dioxide takes place on a photovoltaic material, or on a catalyst photosensitized by a dye. All systems developed to date have failed to make commercial systems for the reasons outlined above. The systems developed in laboratories could not be scaled to commercial or industrial size because of various performance limitations. Existing electrochemical and photochemical processes/ systems have one or more of the following problems that prevent commercialization on a large scale. Several processes utilize metals such as ruthenium or gold that are rare and expensive. In other processes, organic solvents were used that made scaling the process difficult because of the costs and availability of the solvents, such as dimethyl sulfoxide, acetonitrile and propylene carbonate. Copper, silver and gold have been found to reduce carbon dioxide to various products. However, the electrodes are quickly "poisoned" by undesirable reactions on the electrode and often cease to work in less than an hour. Similarly, gallium-based semiconductors reduce carbon dioxide, but rapidly dissolve in water. Many cathodes make a mix of organic products. For instance, copper produces a mix of gases and liquids including methane, formic acid, ethylene and ethanol. A mix of products makes extraction and purification of the products costly and can result in undes-irable waste products to dispose. Much of the work done to date on carbon dioxide reduction is inefficient because of 3 high electrical potentials utilized, low faradaic yields of desired products and/or high pressure operation. The energy consumed for reducing carbon dioxide thus becomes prohibitive. Many conventional carbon dioxide reduction techniques have very low rates of reaction. For example, some commercial systems have current densities in excess of 100 milliamperes per centimeter squared (mA/cm 2 ), while rates achieved in the laboratory are orders of magnitude less. The above discussion of background art is included to explain the context of the present invention. It is not to be taken as an admission that any of the documents or other material referred to was published, known or part of the common general knowledge at the priority date of any one of the claims of this specification. Summary of the Invention The present invention concerns a method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide. The method generally includes steps (A) to (C) . Step (A) may bubble the carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell. The divided electrochemical cell may include an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment. The cathode generally reduces the carbon dioxide into a plurality of components. Step (B) may establish a molar ratio of the components in the synthesis gas by adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of the cathode. Step (C) may separate the synthesis gas from the solution. It would be desirable to provide a method and/or apparatus for implementing electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide that may provide (i) cathode combinations for simultaneous evolution of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas using carbon dioxide and water as feedstock, (ii) combinations of cathode materials, electrolytes, electrical potentials, pH levels, carbon 4 dioxide flow rates and/or heterocycle catalysts, used to get a desired molar ratios of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas, (iii) specific process conditions that optimize the carbon dioxide conversion to carbon monoxide while optimizing hydrogen gas evolution, (iv) a choice of specific configurations of heterocyclic amine catalysts with engineered functional groups, (v) process conditions that may facilitate long life electrode and cell cycling and/or (vi) process conditions that may provide long term product recovery. According to a first embodiment of the invention there is provided a method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide intoa plurality of components; (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of said cathode; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution. According to a second embodiment of the invention there is provided a method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide into a plurality of components; 5 (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting one or more of (i) said electrolyte, and (ii) said catalyst; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution. According to a third embodiment of the invention there is provided a method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide into a plurality of components; (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting one or more of (i) a pH level and (ii) a flow rate of said carbon dioxide; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution. Brief Description of the Drawings FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a table illustrating relative organic product yields for different cathodes; FIG. 3 is a formula of an aromatic heterocyclic amine catalyst; FIGS. 4-6 are formulae of substituted or unsubstituted aromatic 5-member heterocyclic amines or 6-member heterocyclic amines; FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of an example method used in electrochemical examples; and FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of an example method used in photochemical examples. 5a WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, an electro-catalytic system is provided that generally allows carbon dioxide to be converted at modest overpotentials to highly reduced species in an aqueous solution. Some embodiments generally relate to an evolution of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas from carbon dioxide and water. Carbon-carbon bonds and/or carbon-hydrogen bonds may be formed in the aqueous solution under mild conditions utilizing a minimum of energy. In some embodiments, the energy used by the system may be generated from an alternative energy source or directly using visible light, depending on how the system is implemented. The reduction of carbon dioxide may be suitably catalyzed by aromatic heterocyclic amines (e.g., pyridine, imidazole and substituted derivatives.) Simple organic compounds have been found effective and stable homogenous electrocatalysts and photoelectrocatalysts for the aqueous multiple electron, multiple proton reduction of carbon dioxide to organic products, such as formic acid, formaldehyde and methanol. High faradaic yields for the reduced products have generally been found in both electrochemical and photoelectrochemical systems at low reaction overpotentials. Some embodiments of the present invention thus relate to environmentally beneficial methods for reducing carbon dioxide. The methods generally include electrochemically and/or photoelectrochemically reducing the carbon dioxide in an aqueous, electrolyte-supported divided electrochemical cell that includes an anode (e.g., an inert conductive counter electrode) in a cell compartment and a conductive or p-type semiconductor working cathode electrode in another cell compartment. A catalyst of one 6 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic heterocyclic amines may be included to produce a reduced organic product. Carbon dioxide may be continuously bubbled through the cathode electrolyte solution to saturate the solution. For electrochemical reductions, the electrode may be a suitable conductive electrode, such as Al, Au, Ag, Cd, C, Co, Cr, Cu, Cu alloys (e.g., brass and bronze), Ga, Hg, In, Ir, Mo, Nb, Ni, Ni alloys, Ni-Fe alloys, Os, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, Sn, Sn alloys, Ti, V, W, Zn, stainless steel (SS) , austenitic steel, ferritic steel, duplex steel, martensitic steel, Nichrome, elgiloy (e.g., Co-Ni Cr), degenerately doped p-Si, degenerately doped p-Si:As and degenerately doped p-Si:B. Other conductive electrodes may be implemented to meet the criteria of a particular application. For photoelectrochemical reductions, the electrode may be a p-type semiconductor, such as p-GaAs, p-GaP, p-InN, p-InP, p-CdTe, p-GaInP 2 and p-Si. Other semiconductor electrodes may be implemented to meet the criteria of a particular application. The catalyst for conversion of carbon dioxide electrochemically or photoelectrochemically may be a substituted or unsubstituted aromatic heterocyclic amine. Suitable amines are generally heterocycles which may include, but are not limited to, heterocyclic compounds that are 5-member or 6-member rings with at least one ring nitrogen. For example, pyridines, imidazoles and related species with at least one five-member ring, bipyridines (e.g., two connected pyridines) and substituted derivatives were generally found suitable as catalysts for the electrochemical reduction and/or the photoelectrochemical reduction. Amines that have sulfur or oxygen in the rings may also be suitable for the reductions. Amines with sulfur or oxygen may include thiazoles or oxazoles. Other aromatic amines (e.g., quinolines, adenine, 7 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 benzimidazole and 1,10-phenanthroline) may also be effective electrocatalysts. Before any embodiments of the invention are explained in detail, it is to be understood that the embodiments may not be limited in application per the details of the structure or the function as set forth in the following descriptions or illustrated in the figures of the drawing. Different embodiments may be capable of being practiced or carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of terms such as "including," "comprising," or "having" and variations thereof herein are generally meant to encompass the item listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items. Further, unless otherwise noted, technical terms may be used according to conventional usage. In the following description of methods, process steps may be carried out over a range of temperatures (e.g., approximately 10'C (Celsius) to 50'C) and a range of pressures (e.g., approximately 1 to 10 atmospheres) unless otherwise specified. Numerical ranges recited herein generally include all values from the lower value to the upper value (e.g., all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value enumerated are considered expressly stated) . For example, if a concentration range or beneficial effect range is stated as 1% to 50%, it is intended that values such as 2% to 40%, 10% to 30%, or 1% to 3%, etc., are expressly enumerated. The above may be simple examples of what is specifically intended. A use of electrochemical or photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide, tailored with certain electrocatalysts, may produce carbon monoxide and/or hydrogen gas 8 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 in a high yield of 0% to about 100%. Relative yields may be controlled by changing the cathode materials, catalysts and various aspects of reaction conditions such as pH and carbon dioxide flow rate. The overall reaction for the evolution of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide may be represented as follows:

CO

2 + H20 - CO + H2 + 02 The reduction of the carbon dioxide may be suitably achieved efficiently in a divided electrochemical or photoelectrochemical cell in which (i) a compartment contains an anode that is an inert counter electrode and (ii) another compartment contains a working cathode electrode and one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic heterocyclic amines. The compartments may be separated by a porous glass frit or other ion conducting bridge. Both compartments generally contain an aqueous solution of an electrolyte. Carbon dioxide gas may be continuously bubbled through the cathodic electrolyte solution to saturate the solution. In the working electrode compartment, carbon dioxide may be continuously bubbled through the solution. In some embodiments, if the working electrode is a conductor, an external bias may be impressed across the cell such that the potential of the working electrode is held constant. In other embodiments, if the working electrode is a p-type semiconductor, the electrode may be suitably illuminated with light. An energy of the light may be matching or greater than a bandgap of the semiconductor during the electrolysis. Furthermore, either no external source of electrical energy may be used or a modest bias (e.g., about 500 millivolts) may be applied. The working electrode potential is generally held constant relative to a saturated calomel electrode (SCE). The 9 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 electrical energy for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide may come from a normal energy source, including nuclear and alternatives (e.g., hydroelectric, wind, solar power, geothermal, etc.), from a solar cell or other nonfossil fuel source of electricity, provided that the electrical source supply at least 1.6 volts across the cell. Other voltage values may be adjusted depending on the internal resistance of the cell employed. Advantageously, the carbon dioxide may be obtained from any sources (e.g., an exhaust stream from fossil-fuel burning power or industrial plants, from geothermal or natural gas wells or the atmosphere itself). The carbon dioxide may be obtained from concentrated point sources of generation prior to being released into the atmosphere. For example, high concentration carbon dioxide sources may frequently accompany natural gas in amounts of 5% to 50%, exist in flue gases of fossil fuel (e.g., coal, natural gas, oil, etc.) burning power plants and nearly pure carbon dioxide may be exhausted of cement factories and from fermenters used for industrial fermentation of ethanol. Certain geothermal steams may also contain significant amounts of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide emissions from varied industries, including geothermal wells, may be captured on-site. Separation of the carbon dioxide from such exhausts is known. Thus, the capture and use of existing atmospheric carbon dioxide in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention generally allow the carbon dioxide to be a renewable and unlimited source of carbon. For electrochemical conversions, the carbon dioxide may be readily reduced in an aqueous medium with a conductive electrode. Faradaic efficiencies have been found high, some reaching about 100%. A mix of cathode materials may be used to achieve the desired carbon dioxide to hydrogen ratio for the 10 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 synthesis gas. The mix may include alloys and/or an aggregate of several adjoining materials. The adjoining materials may form strip patterns, dot patterns, speckles and other multi-surfaced arrangements. For photoelectrochemical conversions, the carbon dioxide may be readily reduced with a p-type semiconductor electrode, such as p-GaP, p-GaAs, p-InP, p-InN, p-WSe 2 , p-CdTe, p-GaInP 2 and p-Si. The electrochemical/photoelectrochemical reduction of the carbon dioxide generally utilizes one or more catalysts in the aqueous solution. Aromatic heterocyclic amines may include, but are not limited to, unsubstituted and substituted pyridines and imidazoles. Substituted pyridines and imidazoles may include, but are not limited to mono and disubstituted pyridines and imidazoles. For example, suitable catalysts may include straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl (e.g., Cl-C1O) mono and disubstituted compounds such as 2-methylpyridine, 4-tertbutyl pyridine, 2,6 dimethylpyridine (2,6-lutidine); bipyridines, such as 4,4'-bipyridine; amino-substituted pyridines, such as 4 dimethylamino pyridine; and hydroxyl-substituted pyridines (e.g., 4-hydroxy-pyridine) and substituted or unsubstituted quinoline or isoquinolines. The catalysts may also suitably include substituted or unsubstituted dinitrogen heterocyclic amines, such as pyrazine, pyridazine and pyrimidine. Other catalysts generally include azoles, imidazoles, indoles, oxazoles, thiazoles, substituted species and complex multi-ring amines such as adenine, pterin, pteridine, benzimidazole, phenonthroline and the like. A variety of heterocycle catalysts may be used. Some of the catalysts may selectively produce carbon monoxide, such as quinoline. Cathode materials that work with heterocyclic catalysts generally include Sn, Cu, Cu alloys such as brass or bronze, and 11 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 stainless steels. Some cathode materials may be combined with other cathode materials more selective to hydrogen evolution, such as platinum group metals (e.g., Ir, Os, Pd, Pt, Rh and Ru), to produce a desired carbon monoxide to hydrogen molar ratio at a given potential and pH. Referring to FIG. 1, a block diagram of a system 100 is shown in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The system (or apparatus) 100 generally comprises a cell (or container) 102, a liquid source 104, a power source 106, a gas source 108 and an extractor 112. An output gas may be presented from the extractor 112. Another output gas may be presented from the cell 102. The cell 102 may be implemented as a divided cell. The divided cell may be a divided electrochemical cell and/or a divided photochemical cell. The cell 102 is generally operational to reduce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) into one or more products. The reduction generally takes place by bubbling carbon dioxide into an aqueous solution of an electrolyte in the cell 102. A cathode in the cell 102 may reduce the carbon dioxide and protons into one or more molecules (e.g., carbon monoxide and/or hydrogen) and/or organic compounds. The cell 102 generally comprises two or more compartments (or chambers) 114a-114b, a separator (or membrane) 116, an anode 118 and a cathode 120. The anode 118 may be disposed in a given compartment (e.g., 114a). The cathode 120 may be disposed in another compartment (e.g., 114b) on an opposite side of the separator 116 as the anode 118. An aqueous solution 122 may fill both compartments 114a-114b. A catalyst 124 may be added to the compartment 114b containing the cathode 120. 12 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 The liquid source 104 may implement a water source. The liquid source 104 may be operational to provide pure water to the cell 102. The power source 106 may implement a variable voltage source. The source 106 may be operational to generate an electrical potential between the anode 118 and the cathode 120. The electrical potential may be a DC voltage. The gas source 108 may implement a carbon dioxide source. The source 108 is generally operational to provide carbon dioxide to the cell 102. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide is bubbled directly into the compartment 114b containing the cathode 120. The extractor 112 may implement an oxygen extractor. The extractor 112 is generally operational to extract oxygen (e.g., O2) byproducts created by the reduction of the carbon dioxide and/or the oxidation of water. The extracted oxygen may be presented through a port 128 of the system 100 for subsequent storage and/or consumption by other devices and/or processes. Synthesis gases (e.g., carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas) created by the reduction of the carbon dioxide may be extracted from the cell 102 via a port 130. In the process described, water may be oxidized (or split) into protons and oxygen at the anode 118 while the carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide at the cathode 120. Protons from oxidized water may also be reduced to hydrogen gas at the cathode 120. The electrolyte 122 in the cell 102 may use water as a solvent with any salts that are water soluble and the catalyst 124. The catalysts 124 may include, but are not limited to, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen containing heterocycles. Examples of the heterocyclic compounds may be pyridine, imidazole, pyrrole, 13 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 thiazole, furan, thiophene and the substituted heterocycles such as amino-thiazole and benzimidazole. Cathode materials generally include any conductor. The cathode material may be configured in such a way that an appropriate ratio of hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide are produced at the cathode 120. Generally, the ratio may be one or more (e.g., three) moles of hydrogen gas per mole of carbon monoxide. Any anode material may be used. The overall process is generally driven by the power source 106. Combinations of cathodes 120, electrolytes 122, catalysts 124, pH level, flow rate of carbon dioxide to the cell 102, and electric potential from the power source 106 may be used to control the reaction products of the cell 102. For example, increasing the flow rate of the carbon dioxide into a 100 milliliter (mL) cell 102 from 5 mL per minute to 10 mL per minute generally increases the yield (e.g., 10% to 20% increase) of carbon monoxide with a corresponding decrease in hydrogen gas. The process is controlled to get a desired gases by using combinations of specific cathode materials, catalysts, electrolytes, surface morphology of the electrodes, pH levels, electrical potential, flow rate of the carbon dioxide and/or introduction of carbon dioxide relative to the cathode. Efficiency may be maximized by employing a catalyst/cathode combination selective for reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide in conjunction with cathode materials optimized for hydrogen gas evolution. An electrode material may be utilized that does not interact well with either the heterocyclic catalyst nor the carbon dioxide, but has a low overpotential for hydrogen evolution. Half cell potentials at the cathode 120 may range from -0.7 volts to -1.5 volts relative to the SCE, depending on the cathode material used. 14 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Referring to FIG. 2, a table illustrating relative organic product yields for different cathodes are shown. The table generally shows gas evolution in the cell 102 with an aqueous solution of 0.5 M KCl and 10 mM pyridine. The carbon dioxide may be bubbled into the cell 102 at the rates ranging from 5 mL per minute to 10 mL per minute. In the presence of a heterocycle catalyst, combining cathode materials that produce mostly carbon monoxide (e.g, C, Cr, Nb, Sn and stainless steel) with materials producing mostly hydrogen gas (e.g., Ni, V and platinum group metals) a system making a desired ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen may be created. The electrode materials may be in bulk form or present as particles or nanoparticles loaded on to a substrate such as graphite, carbon fiber or other conductor. Further control over the reaction is generally possible by changing a pH level, cell electrical potential and the flow rate of the carbon dioxide. As illustrated, faradaic yields (FY) for one or both of carbon monoxide and the hydrogen gas may be at least 25% for several cathode materials. Cell design and cathode treatment (e.g., surface morphology or surface texture) may both affect product yields and current density at the cathode 120. For instance, a divided cell 102 generally has higher yields with a heavily scratched (rough) cathode 120 than an unscratched (smooth) cathode 120. Matte tin generally performs different than bright tin. Maintaining carbon dioxide bubbling only on the cathode side of the divided cell 102 (e.g., in compartment 14b) may also increase yields. Some process embodiments of the present invention for making synthesis gas generally consume a small amount of water (e.g., approximately 1 to 3 moles of water) per mole of carbon. 15 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Therefore, the processes may be a few thousand times more water efficient than existing production techniques. Referring to FIG. 3, a formula of an aromatic heterocyclic amine catalyst is shown. The ring structure may be an aromatic 5-member heterocyclic ring or 6-member heterocyclic ring with at least one ring nitrogen and is optionally substituted at one or more ring positions other than nitrogen with R. L may be C or N. R1 may be H. R2 may be H if L is N or R2 is R if L is C. R is an optional substitutent on any ring carbon and may be independently selected from H, a straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl, hydroxyl, amino, pyridyl, or two R's taken together with the ring carbons bonded thereto are a fused six-member aryl ring and n = 0 to 4. Referring to FIGS. 4-6, formulae of substituted or unsubstituted aromatic 5-member heterocyclic amines or 6-member heterocyclic amines are shown. Referring to FIG. 4, R3 may be H. R4, R5, R7 and R8 are generally independently H, straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl, hydroxyl, amino, or taken together are a fused six-member aryl ring. R6 may be H, straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl, hydroxyl, amino or pyridyl. Referring to FIG. 5, one of Ll, L2 and L3 may be N, while the other L's may be C. R9 may be H. If Li is N, R10 may be H. If L2 is N, Rl may be H. If L3 is N, R12 may be H. If Ll, L2 or L3 is C, then RIO, Rll, R12, R13 and R14 may be independently selected from straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl, hydroxyl, amino, or pyridyl. Referring to FIG. 6, R15 and R16 may be H. R17, R18 and R19 are generally independently selected from straight chain or branched chain lower alkyl, hydroxyl, amino, or pyridyl. 16 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Suitably, the concentration of aromatic heterocyclic amine catalysts is about 10 millimolar (mM) to 1 M. Concentrations of the electrolyte may be about 0.1 M to 1 M. The electrolyte may be suitably a salt, such as KCl, NaNO 3 , Na 2

SO

4 , NaCl, NaF, NaClO 4 , KClO 4 , K 2 SiO 3 , or CaCl 2 at a concentration of about 0.5 M. Other electrolytes may include, but are not limited to, all group 1 cations (e.g., H, Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs) except Francium (Fr), Ca, ammonium cations, alkylammonium cations and alkyl amines. Additional electrolytes may include, but are not limited to, all group 17 anions (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I and At), borates, carbonates, nitrates, nitrites, perchlorates, phosphates, polyphosphates, silicates and sulfates. Na generally performs as well as K with regard to best practices, so NaCl may be exchanged with KCl. NaF may perform about as well as NaCl, so NaF may be exchanged for NaCl or KCl in many cases. Larger anions tend to change the chemistry and favor different products. For instance, sulfate may favor polymer or methanol production while Cl may favor products such as acetone. The pH of the solution is generally maintained at about pH 4 to 8, suitably about 4.7 to 5.6. Some embodiments of the present invention may be further explained by the following examples, which should not be construed by way of limiting the scope of the invention. Example 1: General Electrochemical Methods. Chemicals and materials. All chemicals used were > 98% purity and used as received from the vendor (e.g., Aldrich), without further purification. Either deionized or high purity water (Nanopure, Barnstead) was used to prepare the aqueous electrolyte solutions. Electrochemical system. The electrochemical system was composed of a standard two-compartment electrolysis cell 102 to 17 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 separate the anode 118 and cathode 120 reactions. The compartments were separated by a porous glass fruit or other ion conducting bridge 116. The electrolytes 122 were used at concentrations of 0.1 M to 1 M, with 0.5 M being a typical concentration. A concentration of between about 1 mM to 1 M of the catalyst 124 was used. The particular electrolyte 122 and particular catalyst 124 of each given test were generally selected based upon what product or products were being created. Referring to FIG. 7, a flow diagram of an example method 140 used in the electrochemical examples is shown. The method (or process) 140 generally comprises a step (or block) 142, a step (or block) 144, a step (or block) 146, a step (or block) 148 and a step (or block) 150. The method 140 may be implemented using the system 100. In the step 142, the electrodes 118 and 120 may be activated where appropriate. Bubbling of the carbon dioxide into the cell 102 may be performed in the step 144. Electrolysis of the carbon dioxide into various products may occur during step 146. In the step 148, the products may be separated from the electrolyte. Analysis of the reduction products may be performed in the step 150. The working electrode was of a known area. All potentials were measured with respect to a saturated calomel reference electrode (Accumet) . Before and during all electrolysis, carbon dioxide (Airgas) was continuously bubbled through the electrolyte to saturate the solution. The resulting pH of the solution was maintained at about pH 4 to pH 8 with a suitable range depending on what product or products were being made. For example, under constant carbon dioxide bubbling, the pH levels of 18 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 10 mM solutions of 4-hydroxy pyridine, pyridine and 4-tertbutyl pyridine were 4.7, 5.28 and 5.55, respectively. Example 2: General Photoelectrochemical Methods. Chemicals and materials. All chemicals used were analytical grade or higher. Either deionized or high purity water (Nanopure, Barnstead) was used to prepare the aqueous electrolyte solutions. Photoelectrochemical system. The photoelectrochemical system was composed of a Pyrex three-necked flask containing 0.5 M KCl as supporting electrolyte and a 1 mM to 1 M catalyst (e.g., 10 mM pyridine or pyridine derivative). The photocathode was a single crystal p-type semiconductor etched for approximately 1 to 2 minutes in a bath of concentrated HN0 3 :HCl, 2:1 v/v prior to use. An ohmic contact was made to the back of the freshly etched crystal using an indium/zinc (2 wt. % Zn) solder. The contact was connected to an external lead with conducting silver epoxy (Epoxy Technology H31) covered in glass tubing and insulated using an epoxy cement (Loctite 0151 Hysol) to expose only the front face of the semiconductor to solution. All potentials were referenced against a saturated calomel electrode (Accumet). The three electrode assembly was completed with a carbon rod counter electrode to minimize the reoxidation of reduced carbon dioxide products. During all electrolysis, carbon dioxide gas (Airgas) was continuously bubbled through the electrolyte to saturate the solution. The resulting pH of the solution was maintained at about pH 4 to 8 (e.g., pH 5.2). Referring to FIG. 8, a flow diagram of an example method 160 used in the photochemical examples is shown. The method (or process) 160 generally comprises a step (or block) 162, a step (or block) 164, a step (or block) 166, a step (or block) 168 and a step 19 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 (or block) 170. The method 160 may be implemented using the system 100. In the step 162, the photoelectrode may be activated. Bubbling of the carbon dioxide into the cell 102 may be performed in the step 164. Electrolysis of the carbon dioxide into various products may occur during step 166. In the step 168, the products may be separated from the electrolyte. Analysis of the reduction products may be performed in the step 170. Light sources. Four different light sources were used for the illumination of the p-type semiconductor electrode. For initial electrolysis experiments, a Hg-Xe arc lamp (USHIO UXM 200H) was used in a lamp housing (PTI Model A-1010) and powered by a PTI LTS-200 power supply. Similarly, a Xe arc lamp (USHIO UXL 151H) was used in the same housing in conjunction with a PTI monochromator to illuminate the electrode at various specific wavelengths. A fiber optic spectrometer (Ocean Optics S2000) or a silicon photodetector (Newport 818-SL silicon detector) was used to measure the relative resulting power emitted through the monochromator. The flatband potential was obtained by measurements of the open circuit photovoltage during various irradiation intensities using the 200 watt (W) Hg-Xe lamp (3 W/cm 2 - 23 W/cm 2 ) The photovoltage was observed to saturate at intensities above approximately 6 W/cm 2 . For quantum yield determinations, electrolysis was performed under illumination by two different light-emitting diodes (LEDs). A blue LED (Luxeon V Dental Blue, Future Electronics) with a luminous output of 500 milliwatt (mW) +/- 50 mW at 465 nanometers (nm) and a 20 nm full width at half maximum (FWHM) was driven at to a maximum rated current of 700 mA using a Xitanium Driver (Advance 20 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 Transformer Company) . A Fraen collimating lens (Future Electronics) was used to direct the output light. The resultant power density that reached the window of the photoelectrochemical cell was determined to be 42 mW/cm 2 , measured using a Scientech 364 thermopile power meter and silicon photodetector. The measured power density was assumed to be greater than the actual power density observed at the semiconductor face due to luminous intensity loss through the solution layer between the wall of the photoelectrochemical cell and the electrode. Example 3: Analysis of Products of Electrolysis. Electrochemical experiments were generally performed using a CH Instruments potentiostat or a DC power supply with current logger to run bulk electrolysis experiments. The CH Instruments potentiostat was generally used for cyclic voltammetry. Electrolysis was run under potentiostatic conditions from approximately 6 hours to 30 hours until a relatively similar amount of charge was passed for each run. Gas Chromatography and Detection of Gaseous Products. The gas products evolved during electrolysis were analyzed using a Quest Technologies CO detector and a QMS300 quadrupole mass spectrometer. For dissolved products in the aqueous phase, the removal of the supporting electrolyte salt was first achieved with an Amberlite IRN-150 ion exchange resin (cleaned prior to use to ensure no organic artifacts by stirring in a 0.1% v/v aqueous solution of Triton X-100, reduced (Aldrich), filtered and rinsed with a copious amount of water, and vacuum dried below the maximum temperature of the resin (approximately 60 0 C) before the sample was directly injected into the GC which housed a DB-Wax column (Agilent Technologies, 60 m, 1 micrometer (pm) film thickness). Approximately 1 gram of resin was used to remove the salt from I 21 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 milliliter (mL) of the sample. The injector temperature was held at 2000C, the oven temperature maintained at 120 0 C, and the detector temperature at 2000C. Carbon dioxide may be efficiently converted to value added gases, using either a minimum of electricity (that could be generated from an alternate energy source) or directly using visible light. Some processes described above may generate high energy density fuels that are not fossil-based as well as being chemical feedstock that are not fossil or biologically based. Moreover, the catalysts for the processes may be substituents-sensitive and provide for selectivity of the value added gases. By way of example, a fixed cathode may be used in an electrochemical system where the electrolyte and/or catalyst are altered to change the gas mix. In a modular electrochemical system, the cathodes may be swapped out with different materials to change the gas mix. In a photoelectrochemical system, the anode and/or cathode may use different photovoltaic materials to change the gas mix. Some embodiments of the present invention generally provide for new cathode combinations for simultaneous evolution of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas using carbon dioxide and water as feedstock. Specific combinations of cathode materials, electrolytes, catalysts, pH levels and/or electrical potentials may be established that optimize the carbon dioxide conversion to carbon monoxide while also optimizing hydrogen gas evolution. Choice of specific configurations of heterocyclic amine catalysts with engineered functional groups may be utilized in the system 100. Process conditions described above may facilitate long life 22 WO 2012/015921 PCT/US2011/045534 (e.g., improved stability), electrode and cell cycling and product recovery. Various process conditions disclosed above, including electrolyte choice, cell voltage, and manner in which the carbon dioxide is bubbled, generally improve control of the reaction so that precise molar ratios within synthesis gas may be maintained with little or no byproducts. Greater control over the reaction generally opens the possibility for commercial systems that are modular and adaptable to make different gases. The new materials and process conditions combinations generally have high faradaic efficiency and relatively low cell potentials, which allows an energy efficient cell to be constructed. While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to the preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made without departing from the scope of the invention. 23

Claims

1. A method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide intoa plurality of components; (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of said cathode; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said components comprises carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein said molar ratio comprises at least one mole of said hydrogen per mole of said carbon monoxide.

4. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein said cathode material is at least one of Al, Au, Ag, C, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Cu alloys, Ga, Hg, In, Ir, Mo, Nb, Ni, Ni alloys, Ni-Fe alloys, Os, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, Sn, Sn alloys, Ti, V, W, Zn, elgiloy, Nichrome, austenitic steel, duplex steel, ferritic steel, martensitic steel, stainless steel, degenerately doped p-Si, degenerately doped p-Si:As and degenerately doped p Si:B.

5. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein (i) said cathode comprises a plurality of particles of metal loaded onto a substrate and (ii) said substrate is conductive. 24

6. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein said surface morphology of said cathode comprises a smooth surface.

7. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein said surface morphology of said cathode comprises a rough surface.

8. A method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide into a plurality of components; (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting one or more of (i) said electrolyte, and (ii) said catalyst; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution.

9. The method according to claim 8, wherein said components comprises carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

10. The method according to claim 8 or claim 9, wherein said electrolyte is at least one of Na 2 SO 4 , KC1, NaNO 3 , NaCl, NaF, NaC10 4 , KC10 4 , K 2 SiO 3 , CaC1 2 , a H cation, a Li cation, a Na cation, a K cation, a Rb cation, a Cs cation, a Ca cation, an ammonium cation, an alkylammonium cation, a F anion, a Cl anion, a Br anion, an I anion, an At anion, an alkyl amine, borates, carbonates, nitrites, nitrates, phosphates, polyphosphates, perchlorates, silicates, sulfates, and a tetraalkyl ammonium salt.

11. The method according to any one of claims 8 to 10, wherein said catalyst is one or more of adenine, amines 25 containing sulfur, amines containing oxygen, azoles, benzimidazole, bipyridines, furan, imidazoles, imidazole related species with at least one five-member ring, indoles, methylimidazole, oxazoles, phenanthroline, pterin, pteridine, pyridines, pyridine related species with at least one six-member ring, pyrrole, quinoline and thiazoles.

12. The method according to any one of claims 8 to 11, wherein a faradaic yield of hydrogen in said synthesis gas is at least 25 percent.

13.The method according to any one of claims 8 to 12, wherein a faradaic yield of carbon monoxide in said synthesis gas is at least 25 percent.

14. The method according to any one of claims 8 to 13, wherein said establishing of said molar ratio includes adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of said cathode.

15. A method for electrochemical production of synthesis gas from carbon dioxide, comprising the steps of: (A) bubbling said carbon dioxide into a solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst in a divided electrochemical cell, wherein (i) said divided electrochemical cell comprises an anode in a first cell compartment and a cathode in a second cell compartment, (ii) said cathode reducing said carbon dioxide into a plurality of components; (B) establishing a molar ratio of said components in said synthesis gas by adjusting one or more of (i) a pH level and (ii) a flow rate of said carbon dioxide; and (C) separating said synthesis gas from said solution.

16. The method according to claim 15, wherein said components comprises carbon monoxide and hydrogen. 26

17. The method according to claim 16, wherein said molar ratio comprises at least one mole of said hydrogen per mole of said carbon monoxide.

18. The method according to any one of claims 15 to 17, wherein said pH level ranges from approximately 4 to approximately 8.

19. The method according to any one of claims 15 to 18, wherein an electrical potential ranges from approximately -0.7 volts to approximately -1.5 volts.

20. The method according to any one of claims 15 to 19, wherein said establishing of said molar ratio includes adjusting at least one of (i) a cathode material and (ii) a surface morphology of said cathode.

21. Synthesis gas produced from carbon dioxide by a method of any one of claims 1 to 21. 27