Key takeaways
- Ovarian cancer often causes vague symptoms that are similar to those of other conditions, which can make early diagnosis challenging.
- Ovarian cancer risk factors include family history, older age, undergoing hormone therapy, and never having children. Factors such as pregnancy and birth control pills potentially reduce the risk.
- Treatment options and survival rates for ovarian cancer depend on the type and stage. Early diagnosis significantly improves the chances of successful treatment and long term survival.
Ovarian cancer is
The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates that in 2025, around 20,890 people in the U.S. may receive a diagnosis of ovarian cancer. Furthermore,
This article explores how to recognize ovarian cancer symptoms and what to expect if a person receives a diagnosis.
A note about sex and gender
Sex and gender exist on spectrums. This article will use the terms “male,” “female,” or both to refer to sex assigned at birth. Learn more.
Ovarian cancer is the growth of cancerous cells in or around the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or peritoneum. The ovaries are a reproductive organ that produces eggs for fertilisation. The fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the cervix, while the peritoneum is a membrane that lines the inside of the pelvis and abdomen.
Types
Healthcare professionals
There are three common cell types:
- epithelial cells, which occur in the lining of the surface of the ovary
- germ cells, which will become eggs for reproduction
- stromal cells, which release hormones and link up the structures of the ovaries
Epithelial tumors are the most common and the most invasive. They occur in around
Germ cell tumors are often benign. In 90% of cases that become cancerous, treatment is effective.
Most ovarian cancers start in the ovary’s epithelium, or outer lining. In the early stages, there may be few or no symptoms.
If symptoms do occur, they can resemble those of other conditions, such as premenstrual syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, or a temporary bladder problem. However, in ovarian cancer, the symptoms will persist and worsen.
Early symptoms may include:
- pain or pressure in the pelvis
- unexpected vaginal bleeding
- pain in the back or abdomen
- bloating
- feeling full rapidly when eating
- changes in urination patterns, such as more frequent urination
- changes in bowel habits, such as constipation
If any of these symptoms last for 2 weeks or more, a person should see a doctor.
There may also be:
- nausea and indigestion
- appetite loss
- weight loss
- breathlessness
- fatigue
The symptoms can change if cancer spreads to other parts of the body.
Ovarian cancer develops when cells in this area of the body divide and multiply in an uncontrolled way.
The cause of ovarian cancer is not clear, but experts have identified some risk factors that may contribute,
- having a family history of breast or ovarian cancer
- being an older adult
- having children later in life or never having children
- having a history of breast cancer
- undergoing hormone replacement therapy
- being overweight
Family history
Having a close relative with a history of ovarian or breast cancer increases a person’s chance of developing ovarian cancer themselves.
Undergoing genetic screening for mutations in the BRCA gene may help determine if someone has a higher risk of both ovarian and breast cancer.
Age
Ovarian cancer is more common in older adults. In fact, around
Reproductive history
Having had one or more full-term pregnancies has an association with a
However, having children later in life (after age 35) or never having children have links with a
People who use some types of fertility treatment may have a higher chance of developing borderline cells, but not all studies confirm this.
People who use birth control pills or an injectable contraceptive hormone also appear to have a lower risk.
Breast cancer
People with a history of breast cancer seem to have a higher chance of ovarian cancer. This may be due to changes in the BRCA gene.
For this reason, some people with breast cancer who test positive for this gene mutation may opt to have an oophorectomy, or surgery to remove the ovaries, as preventive therapy.
Hormone therapy
Undergoing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) after menopause appears to increase the risk of ovarian cancer, particularly if the therapy uses synthetic progestins.
Obesity and overweight
Ovarian cancer is
Gynecologic surgery
Having surgery to remove the uterus — a hysterectomy — may reduce the risk of ovarian cancer by
HPV
Scientists have found links between the human papillomavirus (HPV) and various cancers, including tonsil and cervical cancer.
The authors of a 2021 meta-analysis reported finding a higher rate of HPV among people with ovarian cancer. However, more research is necessary to determine whether HPV causes or contributes to the development of cancer.
Other possible risk factors
Other factors that may increase the risk of some types of ovarian cancer
- having high levels of androgens, or male hormones
- dietary factors
- using talcum powder
However, researchers have not yet proven a link between these factors and ovarian cancer.
If a healthcare professional diagnoses ovarian cancer, they will need to determine the stage and grade to decide on a treatment plan. Doctors typically grade cancer on a four-stage scale.
- Stage 1: A small number of cancer cells are present in an initial organ site.
- Stage 2: The cancer growth is larger than in stage 1, but is still localized to the original organ tissues.
- Stage 3: At stage 3, the cancer is larger and may have spread into nearby tissues. Cancer cells may also be in nearby lymph nodes.
- Stage 4: Doctors may refer to cancer as distant, secondary, or metastatic at this point. Stage 4 cancer means that cancer cells are present in another organ.
The higher the staging number, the more severe the cacner. Getting an early diagnosis usually means that treatment can be more effective. However, other factors can affect this.
These factors include the person’s age and overall health and the type or grade of the cancer cell, as some types are more aggressive than others.
If a routine screening or symptoms suggest that a person may have ovarian cancer, a doctor will typically:
- ask the person about their personal and family medical history
- carry out a pelvic examination
They may also
- Blood tests: These tests will check for high levels of a marker called CA-125.
- Imaging tests: Examples include transvaginal ultrasound, an MRI scan, or a CT scan.
- Laparoscopy: A healthcare professional will insert a thin tube with a camera attached through a small hole in the abdomen to see the ovaries and perhaps take a tissue sample for a biopsy.
- Biopsy: This involves the microscopic examination of a tissue sample.
Only a biopsy can confirm that a person has cancer. A healthcare professional may do this as part of the initial assessment or following surgery to remove a tumor.
When detected early, approximately
Treatment will depend on many factors, including:
- the type, stage, and grade of the cancer
- the individual’s age and overall health
- their personal preferences
- accessibility and affordability of treatment
Options tend to
- Surgery: The choice will depend on the type of cancer and how far it has spread. Surgical options include a hysterectomy, removing one or both ovaries, and removing affected lymph nodes. A doctor will discuss suitable options with the person.
- Chemotherapy: These drugs aim to kill cancer cells. If a person takes chemotherapy drugs by mouth or as an injection or infusion, they will affect the whole body. Another option is intraperitoneal chemotherapy. In this case, a tube delivers the drug directly to the body area affected by cancer. Chemotherapy can have widespread adverse effects, especially if it affects the whole body.
- Targeted therapy: Some treatments target specific cells that help promote cancer growth. Examples include monoclonal antibody therapy and angiogenesis inhibitors. Targeted therapy aims to limit the adverse effects by targeting specific functions.
- Radiation therapy: This technique uses X-rays to kill cancer cells. One way to do this is by introducing a radioactive liquid into the peritoneum. This may help people with advanced ovarian cancer.
- Immunotherapy (biotherapy): This aims to boost the immune system’s ability to defend the body against cancer. Vaccine therapy involves injecting substances that will find and kill a tumor. It may help people with advanced ovarian cancer.
Some of these are relatively new types of treatment. Some people may opt to join a clinical trial, which can give access to some of the newest approaches.
Though there is no known way to prevent ovarian cancer altogether, certain factors have an association with reduced risk, including:
- taking birth control pills for 5 years or more
- having given birth
- breastfeeding or chestfeeding for at least a year
- undergoing certain surgical procedures, such as an oophorectomy, tubal ligation, or hysterectomy
The
Additionally, regular exams and discussing any symptoms with a doctor
According to the National Cancer Institute, the mortality rate for ovarian cancer is around
This rate is slightly lower for certain groups, including Hispanic, Black, Asian American, or Pacific Islander people.
The current 5-year survival rates for ovarian cancer reflect the percentage of people who lived 5 or more years after receiving a diagnosis in 2011–2017.
The outlook depends on the stage and type of cancer. Individual factors such as age, overall health, and treatment access also affect survival rates.
The ACS
| Stage | Invasive epithelial ovarian cancer | Ovarian stromal tumors | Germ cell tumors of the ovary | Fallopian tube cancer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Localized | 92% | 96% | 98% | 92% |
| Regional | 71% | 88% | 94% | 66% |
| Distant | 32% | 75% | 76% | 40% |
Some research suggests that ovarian cancer actually begins forming in the cells at the tail end of the fallopian tubes, which are the tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus.
Inherited or acquired genetic mutations, which cause healthy cells to become cancerous, can also be contributing factors.
Some early symptoms of ovarian cancer may include:
- bloating or swelling of the stomach
- decreased appetite
- feeling the urge to urinate more frequently
- pain or tenderness in the stomach
- fatigue
- indigestion
- unintentional weight loss
If a person experiences any of these symptoms, it is best to talk with a healthcare professional.
Doctors can treat many types of ovarian cancer successfully. In fact, 5-year survival rates can range from 32% to 98%, depending on the specific type and stage of ovarian cancer.
However, several factors can impact treatment outcomes, including a person’s age, overall health, and response to treatment.
According to data from 2015 to 2021, about 51.6% of people survive for at least 5 years after receiving an ovarian cancer diagnosis. This may vary depending on the type and stage of cancer and how well a person responds to treatment.
Early detection can significantly improve a person’s outlook. About 91.7% of people live 5 years or longer after receiving an early diagnosis of ovarian cancer.
There is typically no recommendation for ovarian cancer screening in those without preexisting risk factors.
However, for people at a high risk of ovarian cancer, such as people with an inherited syndrome, genetic mutation, or strong family history, doctors may recommend screening.
All types of ovarian cancer may be treatable if a person receives a diagnosis in the early stages. Some types are also highly treatable in the later stages.
When considering survival statistics for ovarian cancer, it is worth noting that medical advances have been improving the outlook over the past 20 years.
Nevertheless, seeking help if any symptoms appear can often lead to an early diagnosis, and this will increase the chance of receiving effective treatment.