Wildlife-Habitat Relationships

When most people pick up a book about eastern old-growth forests, they want to know how many of these wild forests remain, where they are, what makes them unique, how we can preserve the few left, and how we can help some of our forests recover their original, pre-logged, condition. A 1996 book edited by Mary Byrd Davis addressed all of these questions and more. But that book is now more than twenty years old. My review will focus on the similarities and differences between the new Barton and Keeton book and the earlier Davis book. This seems appropriate since both books were published by Island Press and the newer book's cover seems to purposefully resemble Davis's book, and indeed both spines proclaim "EASTERN OLD-GROWTH FORESTS" in caps. Reaching for one or the other on the shelf requires a close look to tell them apart.

This document purposely avoids making recommendations about the level of detail, size of area, scope of analysis, amount of quantification, and other details. These items must be determined in light of the characteristics of individual analysis areas and the needs of individual planning teams. Rather than attempt to force uniform application of the specifics, it is the LOGIC of the process that will be emphasized: 1) that the landscape be understood as an ecological system, SCOPE ORGANIZATION CHAPTER 2

Urban impacts tree growth and mortality in complex ways. Increased CO2 and temperature may enhance tree growth, 5 but ozone and other air pollutants may decrease tree growth and lead to mortality. 5 year remeasurement data provides first napshot into productivity and mortality in Forest Park Plots.Tree boles account for 40-70% of forest carbon in mature Douglas fir stands 12 . • Net Primary Productivity of Boles (NPPB) = [Δ Biomass (living) + Biomass (dead)] Methods: Remeasured tree diameter in 4 of 6 LTER plots. Related DBH to biomass and carbon store using standard allometric equations.Noted Tree mortality, and whether cause was densitydependant (i.e., suppression) or density-independent (e.g. windthrow). Also noted if dead bole remained as snag or contributed to CWD pool.

Synthesis and Workshop Project Project Goal: To perform a literature review and synthesis of relevant forested wetland research with an emphasis on interactions of commercial forest management activities and forested wetland functions emphasizing topics listed in the WDNR Forests and Fish Report (WDNR 1999). This review and synthesis contains scientific information relevant to forested wetland functions in the Pacific Northwest with emphasis on the interaction of forest management activities and forest wetland functions. We have limited our coverage of riparian areas as that information will be addressed by The Riparian Science Advisory Group. A companion-annotated bibliography has been produced that includes references

(1) used data on spatial overlap of tigers and people to conclude that human-tiger coexistence is possible at fine spatial scales. The question then is whether spatial overlap suggests that human-tiger coexistence is in fact a viable strategy for their mutual well-being in the long run. Coexistence, or rather its absence between large carnivores and humans, is an oft-repeated theme in conservation biology. The results presented by Carter et al. (1) support this recognition; tigers were detected less frequently near human populations and the probability of their detection increased with distance from human settlement. Although this finding is indicative of a scenario where tigers are being pushed into areas of low human activity, the authors argue that it is a mechanism by which tigers coexist with people. We contend that the same result could just as easily be interpreted as increasing anthropogenic pressures hemming in a tiger population that is deprived of alternative habitats. Human-wildlife conflict is recognized as an important driver of large carnivore population declines (2). However, this aspect is entirely ignored in the study, despite growing evidence that human-tiger conflict exists both within and adjacent to Chitwan National Park (3). In addition, the study (1) implicitly recognized that human land-uses are unsuitable for tigers by not sampling in such areas. As a result, the authors provided an inaccurate picture of the real extent and nature of spatial overlap-or the lack thereof-in human and tiger activity. Interestingly, Carter et al. (1) failed to report that their estimate of tiger density in these "forests of coexistence" is only half that of other ecologically similar parks in the Terai landscape (4). Unlike much of the tiger's geographical range, Chitwan represents a controlled environment where military presence limits the prevalence and impact of poaching and livestock pressures (1). The failure of the authors to place their inferences in context (1, 3, 4) falsifies the representation of Chitwan as a park that sustains high tiger densities but lacks conflict with humans. Carter et al. (1) documented behavioral adaptations of tigers to different types and levels of human activity. The real merit of this study could have been to discuss possible reasons behind these adaptations. For example, there is a growing body of

Unmanaged cedar (Thuja plicata)-hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) forests of the northern Interior Wetbelt of British Columbia support standing and dead trees with a variety of structural features that provide habitat for wildlife. We describe the pre-harvest abundance and characteristics of wildlife trees (standing trees with special characteristics that provide habitat for wildlife) and coarse woody debris (CWD) at three silvicultural systems trials in cedar-dominated stands, and the short-term effects of forest harvesting on the abundance and attributes of CWD. The treatments were clearcut, group retention (70% volume removal), group selection (30% volume removal), and unlogged control. We measured standing trees in 75 0.125-ha plots and CWD along 225 24-m transects, using a functional classification system to characterize habitat attributes of trees and logs. CWD assessments were repeated on the same transects after the harvest. The relationship between tree size and occurrence of habitat features was strong for both standing trees and logs. Each of the four major tree species in the study area was associated with specific habitat features that occurred more often in that species than in any other. Large concealed spaces at the bases of trees, providing den sites and escape cover, were associated with hybrid white spruce (Picea engelmannii  glauca). We suggest that these trees had originated on nurse logs that subsequently rotted away; if that supposition is correct, there may be shortages of these structures in future stands that originate from plantations. Forest harvesting had little effect on the volume of CWD, but did affect the decay class distribution, reduce the proportion of pieces having structural habitat attributes, and reduce piece lengths; these effects were generally proportional to the level of harvest removal. Partial-cut silvicultural systems have the potential to mitigate anticipated deficits in large wildlife trees and logs in managed stands, if components of the stand are managed on longer rotations than those planned for timber production alone.

Description: More than 300 vertebrate species are associated with western forests of Oregon and Washington (Table 1). Western and montane conifer-hardwood forests and oak woodlands are some of the more species-rich areas within the two states. Both the ...

ABSTRACTMost previous studies of resting habitat for fishers (Pekania pennanti) in the Pacific coastal region of the western United States and Canada were focused on habitat conditions within rest sites (typically ≤0.5 ha), which include the rest structure (e.g., live tree, snag, log) at its center. Studies of selection for rest structures were sparse and compared characteristics of rest structures to those occurring within rest sites; none investigated selection by sampling resource availability throughout the study area. In addition, limited data were available on the use of rest microsites (e.g., mistletoe brooms, platform branches, cavities) by fishers, and no studies have quantified their availability. To better inform forest management activities designed to improve resting habitat for fishers, we documented use of rest structures and microsites throughout the year by 12 female and 7 male fishers on the west slope of the Cascade Range in southern Oregon, USA from 1995 to 2001,...

Sand pine (Pinus clausa) scrub is adapted to. and regenerated by, periodic stand-replacement wildfire, which consumes the understory and kills the overstory. The heat of the fire opens the serotinous cones of Ocala sand pine (P. clausa var. clausa), releasing quantities of seed that reestablish the overstory, while the understory regenerates by sprouting or from soil-stored seed. Resource managers attempt to mimic this process by clear cutting and direct seeding, which seems to work quite well. However. this method results in far fewer snags. which may have important functions in the sand pine scrub ecosystem. Because sand pine is a short-lived species with very little heanwood, it is believed that these snags would be a temporary feature of the system, and thus were not that critical. My study tests this assumption by documenting the life of snags following a stand-replacement fire in sand pine scrub on the Ocala National Forest. Florida. Three stands were burned. one by a.prescribed burn in May 1993 and two by natural fire in August 1993. Prior to the fire. there were 520 Ocala sand pinelha. 96 oakslha, and 137 snagslha. The fire killed all of the sand pine and most of the oaks. Decay proceeded more slowly than expected in the resulting snags. After 2 years 69% retained most of the bark, 27% had lost all bark and most of the limbs. and only 4% had visible sapwood decay. The first snags fell between 12 and 18 months following the fire. but it took 5 years for 50%) of the snaps to fall. At the end of 7 years following the fire, 32% of the sand pine snags were still standing. Thus. the snags in sand pine scrub occur as pan of the structure of the sand pine ecosystem for much longer than expected. Managers may need to consider lnore prescribed fire in wilderness areas to generate these snags.

Carter et al. (1) used data on spatial overlap of tigers and people to conclude that human-tiger coexistence is possible at fine spatial scales. The question then is whether spatial overlap suggests that human-tiger coexistence is in fact a viable strategy for their mutual well-being in the long run. Coexistence, or rather its absence between large carnivores and humans, is an oft-repeated theme in conservation biology. The results presented by Carter et al. (1) support this recognition; tigers were detected less frequently near human populations and the probability of their detection increased with distance from human settlement. Although this finding is indicative of a scenario where tigers are being pushed into areas of low human activity, the authors argue that it is a mechanism by which tigers coexist with people. We contend that the same result could just as easily be interpreted as increasing anthropogenic pressures hemming in a tiger population that is deprived of alternative habitats. Human-wildlife conflict is recognized as an important driver of large carnivore population declines (2). However, this aspect is entirely ignored in the study, despite growing evidence that human-tiger conflict exists both within and adjacent to Chitwan National Park (3). In addition, the study (1) implicitly recognized that human land-uses are unsuitable for tigers by not sampling in such areas. As a result, the authors provided an inaccurate picture of the real extent and nature of spatial overlap-or the lack thereof-in human and tiger activity. Interestingly, Carter et al. (1) failed to report that their estimate of tiger density in these "forests of coexistence" is only half that of other ecologically similar parks in the Terai landscape (4). Unlike much of the tiger's geographical range, Chitwan represents a controlled environment where military presence limits the prevalence and impact of poaching and livestock pressures (1). The failure of the authors to place their inferences in context (1, 3, 4) falsifies the representation of Chitwan as a park that sustains high tiger densities but lacks conflict with humans. Carter et al. (1) documented behavioral adaptations of tigers to different types and levels of human activity. The real merit of this study could have been to discuss possible reasons behind these adaptations. For example, there is a growing body of

Wildlife Habitats Wildlife Species Habitat Structures Life History Key Ecological Functions (KEFs) Key Environmental (KECs) Management Activities Correlates Fig. 19.1. Components of the wildlife-habitat relations database from the Species-Habitat Project in Washington and Oregon (Johnson and O'Neil 2001) used in our functional analyses.

In the Pacific Northwest, providing adequate habitat forpileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) has been a key component Of federal forest management strategies for over 20 years. Although their nesting and roosting ecology has been well studied, information on their foraging ecology is limited. From 1990 to 1995, we studied food habits of pileated woodpeckers in coastal forests (with scat analysis); estimated the relative abundance of thew primary prey, carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.), associated with logs and cut stumps; and investigated selection of forest structures and site characteristics used by pileated woodpeckers for foraging. Pileated woodpeckers primarily consumed carpenter ants (54% of diet), but round-headed beetle larvae (Coleoptera, CerambycidaeJ and dampwood termites (Isoptera, Tennopsidae) were important food items during the breeding season (Mar-Jun). Selection of foraging structures was related to wood characteristics and microsite conditions that influence the presence and abundance of arthropod prey. Pileated woodpeckers foraged almost exclusively (95%) on standing structures, selecting tall, largediameter snags in early to moderate stages of decay. Contrary to previous studies, pileated woodpeckers rarely (296) foraged on logs. Carpenter ants were scarce at logs in closed-canopy habitats, which suggested that in coastal forests logs are too cool and wet to support abundant populations of carpenter ants. Selection of foraging sites by pileated woodpeckers was influenced by the abundance of potential foraging structures; 0.4-ha plots with recent foraging activity had greater densities of large snags (>51 cm dbh and 27.5 m tall) than plots without recent foraging. The efficacy of management strategies designed to provide habitat for pileated woodpeckers would be enhanced if they included specific provisions for foraging habitat and accounted for regional differences in the types of structures that provide suitable conditions for wood-dwelling arthropods. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE

The effects of initial leaf litter chemistry on first-year decomposition rates were studied for 16 common Pacific Northwest conifers, hardwoods, and shrubs at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in western Oregon. Leaf litters were analyzed for C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, proximate organic fractions (nonpolar, polar, acid-hydrolyzable extractives, acid-hydrolyzable lignin, and acid-unhydrolyzable residue, previously termed "Klason lignin"), and biochemical components (total phenolics, reactive polyphenols, water-soluble carbohydrates, water-soluble proanthocyanidins, and waterand acid-unhydrolyzable proanthocyanidins). By including measurements of reactive and residual phenolic fractions and acid-hydrolyzable lignin, these analytical methods improve upon traditional proximate leaf litter analyses. Significant differences in litter chemistries and decomposition rates were found between species. For all species combined, the 1-year decay rate (k) values had highly significant correlations (P < 0.001) with 30 out of the 36 initial chemistry variables tested in this study. The three highest correlations were with acid-unhydrolyzable proanthocyanidins, lignocellulose index, and acid-unhydrolyzable residue (r = 0.83,-0.81,-0.80, respectively, with P < 0.0001 and n = 339). We found that no single litter chemistry variable was a universal predictor of the 1-year k value for each of the individual 16 species studied, though phenolic components were more frequent significant (P < 0.001) predictors of decomposition rate. Résumé : L'effet des caractéristiques chimiques initiales de la litière de feuilles sur le taux de décomposition au cours de la première année a été étudié pour 16 conifères, feuillus et arbustes communs du Pacific Northwest à la forêt expérimentale H.J. Andrews dans l'ouest de l'Oregon. Les litières de feuilles ont été analysées pour C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, des fractions organiques (produits d'extraction non polaires, polaires et hydrolysables dans l'acide, lignine hydrolysable dans l'acide, résidus non hydrolysables dans l'acide antérieurement qualifiés de « lignine Klason »), et des composantes biochimiques (composés phénoliques totaux, polyphénols réactifs, hydrates de carbone solubles dans l'eau, proanthocyanidines solubles dans l'eau, proanthocyanidines non hydrolysables dans l'eau et proanthocyanidines non hydrolysables dans l'acide). En incluant des mesures des fractions phénoliques, réactives et résiduelles, et de la lignine hydrolysable dans l'acide, ces méthodes analytiques constituent une amélioration par rapport aux analyses immédiates traditionnelles de la litière de feuilles. Il y avait des différences significatives entre les caractéristiques chimiques et les taux de décomposition de la litière des différentes espèces. Pour toutes les espèces combinées, le taux de décomposition pendant la première année (k) était significativement corrélé (P < 0,001) avec la valeur initiale de 30 des 36 variables chimiques testées dans cette étude. Les trois variables les plus fortement corrélées étaient les proanthocyanidines non hydrolysables dans l'acide, l'indice de lignocellulose et les résidus non hydrolysables dans l'acide (r = 0,83,-0,81 et-0,80 respectivement avec P < 0,0001 et n = 339). Aucune des variables chimiques de la litière n'était un prédicteur universel de la valeur de k pendant la première année pour chacune des 16 espèces étudiées bien que les composés phénoliques aient été les prédicteurs du taux de décomposition les plus souvent significatifs (P < 0,001).

Symbiotic associations between mammals and fungi have been well documented and are widely regarded as vital to ecosystem functions around the world. Symbioses between birds and fungi are also ecologically vital but have been far less thoroughly studied. This manuscript is the first to review a wide range of symbiotic associations between birds and fungi. We compile the largest list to date of bird species reported to eat fungi (54 bird species in 27 families) and follow up with a discussion of these symbioses and suggestions for how future studies can determine the prevalence of associations between birds and fungi. We review the importance of fungi for cavity-excavating birds and show that at least 30 bird species in three families form varying levels of associations with fungi for cavity excavation. We also review the use of fungal rhizomorphs in nest construction and show that 176 bird species in 37 families use fungal material in their nests. All of these interactions have wide-reaching ecosystem implications, particularly in regard to fungal dispersal and biogeography, plant health, ecosystem function, bird nutrition/fitness and bird behaviour.

Increased understanding of the influence of habitat (e.g., composition, patch size) and intrinsic (e.g., age, birth mass) factors on survival of neonatal pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is a prerequisite to successful management programs, particularly as they relate to population dynamics and the role of population models in adaptive species management. Nevertheless, few studies have presented empirical data quantifying the influence of habitat variables on survival of neonatal pronghorn. During 2002-2005, we captured and radiocollared 116 neonates across two sites in western South Dakota. We documented 31 deaths during our study, of which coyote (Canis latrans) predation (n = 15) was the leading cause of mortality. We used known fate analysis in Program MARK to investigate the influence of intrinsic and habitat variables on neonatal survival. We generated a priori models that we grouped into habitat and intrinsic effects. The highest-ranking model indicated that neonate mortality was best explained by site, percent grassland, and open water habitat; 90-day survival (0.80; 90% CI = 0.71-0.88) declined 23% when grassland and water increased from 80.1 to 92.3% and 0.36 to 0.40%, respectively, across 50% natal home ranges. Further, our results indicated that grassland patch size and shrub density were important predictors of neonate survival; neonate survival declined 17% when shrub density declined from 5.0 to 2.5 patches per 100 ha. Excluding the site covariates, intrinsic factors (i.e., sex, age, birth mass, year, parturition date) were not important predictors of survival of neonatal pronghorns. Further, neonatal survival may depend on available land cover and interspersion of habitats. We have demonstrated that maintaining minimum and maximum thresholds for habitat factors (e.g., percentages of grassland and open water patches, density of shrub patches) throughout natal home ranges will in turn, ensure relatively high (>0.50) neonatal survival rates, especially as they relate to coyote predation. Thus, landscape level variables (particularly percentages of open water, grassland habitats, and shrub density) should be incorporated into the development or implementation of pronghorn management plans PLOS ONE |

The retention forestry approach is considered as one of the potentially effective tools for sustainable forest management for conservation of biodiversity in managed temperate and boreal forests. Retention of old-growth forest structures (e.g., very large old living trees) in forest stands during clear-cutting provides maintenance of key habitats for many old-growth forest interior-species. Most of ecological studies on green tree retention (GTR) consequences for biodiversity have been focused on birds. However, the long-term studies of GTR impacts on forest birds are very poor. In this paper, we focused on assessment of the long-term consequences of leaving legacy oak trees on the cut areas for bird diversity 18-22 years after clear-cutting in managed temperate European hardwood floodplain forests. Results based on bird counting using mapping of bird nesting territories revealed a key importance of legacy oak trees for maintaining bird diversity in the study area. These results are widely applicable for managed temperate hardwood forests with serious dominance of oak (Quercus sp.) in forest stands. Legacy oak trees in this habitat type are keystone structures for bird diversity. Retention approach focused on these trees is potentially an important conservation tool for preserving forest bird diversity and other associated species in temperate hardwood forests managed by clear-cutting.

The interacting effects of climate change and habitat fragmentation on wildlife are of global conservation concern. Over the past four decades, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) populations in North Dakota have been exposed to severe winter weather, drought, predation, harvest, and rapid oil and gas development. Adult pronghorn counts in North Dakota fluctuated over time with an increasing trend from 1974 to 2007, followed by a rapid decline from 2008 to 2012. Our primary objective was to identify key drivers of an index of pronghorn abundance in western North Dakota over this period to inform conservation and management. Despite missing data, Bayesian mixed-effects models allowed us to analyze variation in annual population count data relative to weather conditions, coyote populations, oil and gas development, human harvest, and agricultural practices. We found that lower indices of abundance corresponded with heavy snowfall and low winter temperatures, suggesting that the large observed decline starting in 2008 was primarily due to severe winter weather conditions. We also found that the abundance index was negatively correlated with road and oil/gas well density, of which the latter increased exponentially during the last decade. In contrast, we found little evidence that coyote populations, drought, and human harvest were major drivers of observed population declines. Based on these findings, we expect that pronghorn populations will be negatively influenced by the anticipated increase in winter storm frequency and continued expansion of oil and gas development. Roads, fences, and development may impede pronghorn movement to more hospitable areas during winter storms, thereby hindering their ability to escape extreme conditions.

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) in North Dakota have experienced habitat fragmentation due to agricultural practices, roads, and oil development. We analyzed patterns of female pronghorn habitat selection in 2006 and 2014, years with contrasting pronghorn density and oil production in western North Dakota. We quantified resource selection and fawn:female ratios relative to proximity to active wells, road density, land cover, development, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and agricultural practices. We also assessed patterns of well placement relative to the same environmental variables. Pronghorn selected sagebrush and areas with low NDVI but avoided developed areas, roads, forests, and wetlands. Pronghorn selected areas close to oil and gas wells because wells were located in high-value habitats (e.g., native sagebrush-steppe ecosystems selected by pronghorn). For the majority of variables tested, selection was stronger when pronghorn density was low, consistent with current resource selection theory. Although females selected relatively open habitats, fawn:female ratios within areas selected by females were positively correlated with NDVI. Our results demonstrate that pronghorn avoid human development and roads but not oil and gas wells. Although wells are not actively avoided by pronghorn, their placement in high-value habitat for this species leads to significant habitat fragmentation. In light of these results, we recommend efforts to conserve pronghorn habitat such as constructing wells away from sagebrush, using existing roads to service newly constructed wells, and revegetating well pads with sagebrush plantings once they are no longer in use.

In western Oregon, we created snags by sawing tops off live Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (n = 821) trees and monitored their condition and use by cavity-nesting birds. We created snags in three silvicultural treatments: modified clearcut stands, two-story stands, and small-patch group-selection stands. We used two snag patterns: clumped and scattered. Created snags averaged 3.8/ha in density, 17 m in height, and 75 cm in diameter. Chainsaw-topped snags were used by cavity nesters within 5 yr of creation. Abundance of excavated cavities increased in all silvicultural treatments (P = 0.0001) and was higher in twostory and clearcut stands than in small-patch stands (P _<0.0004). We did not, however,find that snag pattern (clumped v. scattered) affected use by cavity-nesting birds based on abundance of excavated cavities (P > 0.6). We observed excavated cavities in five hardwood species indicating that hardwoods represented an important resource for cavity-nesting birds. Creating conifer snags by topping and retaining hardwoods may retain or increase populations of cavity nesters in areas with low natural snag density. West. J. Appl. For. 12(3):93-97. Dead standing trees (snags) are a natural component of forests. They are created by wind (stem breakage), fire, lightning, insects, drought, flooding, disease, and the natural death and decay of a tree (Bull 1986, Adkisson 1988, Morrison and Raphael 1993). Snags are an essential habitat component for many species of primary and secondary cavity-nesting birds (Thomas et al. 1979, Brown 1985). Density of cavity-nesting birds is associated with snag density (Thomas et al. 1979, Bull and Meslow 1977,

Landscape management denotes a forest management method that follows one specific interpretation of landscape ecology. This approach has been used to take advantage of conditions in western Mexico's temperate forests to develop a viable strategy to gradually move forest and stand level structures closer to natural conditions. Forest stands were reclassified according to their resemblance to specific stages in the successional sequence from initiation to mature stages. Other special conditions, such as roads, riparian strips, forest edges, and other structures, were explicitly considered in the forest plan, and special regimes have been prescribed to treat them. Harvest scheduling consists of a set of policies and algorithms designed to reduce fragmentation and edge effects, and increase connectivity. A case example from Jalisco, Mexico presents a summary of early results after 2 years of implementation of landscape management, which suggest that the method is operationally feasible, and that the resulting age (successional stage) distribution will display greater variability and balance in the future.

Habitat suitability (or species distribution) models have been widely used to inform management decisions about species conservation, resource management or invasion control. We developed habitat suitability models of feral pigs across tropical northern Australia to enable more effective management of their negative impacts. However, when investigating wildlife-habitat relationships of highly mobile animals such as feral pigs, home range behaviour must be accounted for as these species can utilize scattered resources and fulfil their living and breeding requirements at different locations within the wider landscape that is accessible to them.

The rapid development of transport infrastructure is a major threat to endangered species worldwide. Roads and railways can increase animal mortality, fragment habitats, and exacerbate other threats to biodiversity. Predictive models that forecast the future impacts to endangered species can guide land-use planning in ways that proactively reduce the negative effects of transport infrastructure. Agent-based models are well suited for predictive scenario testing, yet their application to endangered species conservation is rare. Here, we developed a spatially explicit, agent-based model to forecast the effects of transport infrastructure on an isolated tiger (Panthera tigris) population in Nepal’s Chitwan National Park—a global biodiversity hotspot. Specifically, our model evaluated the independent and interactive effects of two mechanisms by which transport infrastructure may affect tigers: (a) increasing tiger mortality, e.g., via collisions with vehicles, and (b) depleting prey nea...

Understanding the underlying mechanisms driving population demographics such as species-habitat relationships and the spatial scale in which these relationships occur is essential for developing optimal management strategies. Here we evaluated how landscape characteristics and winter severity measured at three spatial scales (1 km 2 , 9 km 2 , and hunting unit) influenced white-tailed deer occurrence and abundance across North Dakota by using 10 years of winter aerial survey data and generalized linear mixed effects models. In general, forest, wetland, and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) lands were the main drivers of deer occurrence and abundance in most of the spatial scales analyzed. However, the effects of habitat features vary between the homerange scale (9 km 2) and the finer spatial scale (1 km 2 ; i.e., within home ranges). While escape cover was the main factor driving white-tailed deer occurrence and abundance at broad spatial scales, at a fine spatial scale deer also selected for food (mainly residual winter cropland). With CRP appearing in nearly all top models, here we had strong evidence that this type of program will be fundamental to sustaining populations of white-tailed deer that can meet recreational demands. In addition, land managers should focus on ways to protect other escape covers (e.g., forest and wetland) on a broad spatial scale while encouraging landowners to supply winter resources at finer spatial scales. We therefore suggest a spatial multi-scale approach that involves partnerships among landowners and government agencies for effectively managing white-tailed deer.

Carter et al. (1) used data on spatial overlap of tigers and people to conclude that human-tiger coexistence is possible at fine spatial scales. The question then is whether spatial overlap suggests that human-tiger coexistence is in fact a viable strategy for their mutual well-being in the long run. Coexistence, or rather its absence between large carnivores and humans, is an oft-repeated theme in conservation biology. The results presented by Carter et al. (1) support this recognition; tigers were detected less frequently near human populations and the probability of their detection increased with distance from human settlement. Although this finding is indicative of a scenario where tigers are being pushed into areas of low human activity, the authors argue that it is a mechanism by which tigers coexist with people. We contend that the same result could just as easily be interpreted as increasing anthropogenic pressures hemming in a tiger population that is deprived of alternative habitats. Human-wildlife conflict is recognized as an important driver of large carnivore population declines (2). However, this aspect is entirely ignored in the study, despite growing evidence that human-tiger conflict exists both within and adjacent to Chitwan National Park (3). In addition, the study (1) implicitly recognized that human land-uses are unsuitable for tigers by not sampling in such areas. As a result, the authors provided an inaccurate picture of the real extent and nature of spatial overlap-or the lack thereof-in human and tiger activity. Interestingly, Carter et al. (1) failed to report that their estimate of tiger density in these "forests of coexistence" is only half that of other ecologically similar parks in the Terai landscape (4). Unlike much of the tiger's geographical range, Chitwan represents a controlled environment where military presence limits the prevalence and impact of poaching and livestock pressures (1). The failure of the authors to place their inferences in context (1, 3, 4) falsifies the representation of Chitwan as a park that sustains high tiger densities but lacks conflict with humans. Carter et al. (1) documented behavioral adaptations of tigers to different types and levels of human activity. The real merit of this study could have been to discuss possible reasons behind these adaptations. For example, there is a growing body of

The rapid development of transport infrastructure is a major threat to endangered species worldwide. Roads and railways can increase animal mortality, fragment habitats, and exacerbate other threats to biodiversity. Predictive models that forecast the future impacts to endangered species can guide land-use planning in ways that proactively reduce the negative effects of transport infrastructure. Agent-based models are well suited for predictive scenario testing, yet their application to endangered species conservation is rare. Here, we developed a spatially explicit, agent-based model to forecast the effects of transport infrastructure on an isolated tiger (Panthera tigris) population in Nepal’s Chitwan National Park—a global biodiversity hotspot. Specifically, our model evaluated the independent and interactive effects of two mechanisms by which transport infrastructure may affect tigers: (a) increasing tiger mortality, e.g., via collisions with vehicles, and (b) depleting prey nea...

Carter et al. (1) used data on spatial overlap of tigers and people to conclude that human-tiger coexistence is possible at fine spatial scales. The question then is whether spatial overlap suggests that human-tiger coexistence is in fact a viable strategy for their mutual well-being in the long run. Coexistence, or rather its absence between large carnivores and humans, is an oft-repeated theme in conservation biology. The results presented by Carter et al. (1) support this recognition; tigers were detected less frequently near human populations and the probability of their detection increased with distance from human settlement. Although this finding is indicative of a scenario where tigers are being pushed into areas of low human activity, the authors argue that it is a mechanism by which tigers coexist with people. We contend that the same result could just as easily be interpreted as increasing anthropogenic pressures hemming in a tiger population that is deprived of alternative habitats. Human-wildlife conflict is recognized as an important driver of large carnivore population declines (2). However, this aspect is entirely ignored in the study, despite growing evidence that human-tiger conflict exists both within and adjacent to Chitwan National Park (3). In addition, the study (1) implicitly recognized that human land-uses are unsuitable for tigers by not sampling in such areas. As a result, the authors provided an inaccurate picture of the real extent and nature of spatial overlap-or the lack thereof-in human and tiger activity. Interestingly, Carter et al. (1) failed to report that their estimate of tiger density in these "forests of coexistence" is only half that of other ecologically similar parks in the Terai landscape (4). Unlike much of the tiger's geographical range, Chitwan represents a controlled environment where military presence limits the prevalence and impact of poaching and livestock pressures (1). The failure of the authors to place their inferences in context (1, 3, 4) falsifies the representation of Chitwan as a park that sustains high tiger densities but lacks conflict with humans. Carter et al. (1) documented behavioral adaptations of tigers to different types and levels of human activity. The real merit of this study could have been to discuss possible reasons behind these adaptations. For example, there is a growing body of

Intact riparian ecosystems are rich in biological diversity, but throughout the world, many have been degraded. Biodiversity declines, particularly of vertebrates, have led to experimental efforts to restore riparian forests by thinning young stands to accelerate creation of large diameter live trees. However, many vertebrates depend on large diameter deadwood that is standing as snags or fallen to the forest floor or fallen into streams. Therefore, we reviewed the sizes of deadwood and live trees used by different vertebrate species to understand which species are likely to benefit from different thinning treatments. We then examined how riparian thinning affects the long-term development of both large diameter live trees and deadwood. To this end, we used a forest growth model to examine how different forest thinning intensities might affect the long-term production and abundance of live trees and deadwood. Our results suggest that there are long-term habitat tradeoffs associated with different thinning intensities. Species that utilize large diameter live trees will benefit most from heavy thinning, whereas species that utilize large diameter deadwood will benefit most from light or no thinning. Because far more vertebrate species utilize large deadwood rather than large live trees, allowing riparian forests to naturally develop may result in the most rapid and sustained development of structural features important to most terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates.

This document purposely avoids making recommendations about the level of detail, size of area, scope of analysis, amount of quantification, and other details. These items must be determined in light of the characteristics of individual analysis areas and the needs of individual planning teams. Rather than attempt to force uniform application of the specifics, it is the LOGIC of the process that will be emphasized: 1) that the landscape be understood as an ecological system,

The compatibility of wood from mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosa) killed lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) with Portland cement was investigated based on time-since-death as a quantitative estimator, and the presence of blue-stained sapwood, brown rot, or white rot as qualitative indicators. The exothermic behavior of cement hydration, maximum heat rate, time to reach this maximum, and total heat released within a 3.5-24 h interval were used for defining a new wood-cement compatibility index (CX). CX was developed and accounted for large discrepancies in assessing wood-cement compatibility compared to the previous methods. Using CX, no significant differences were found between fresh or beetle-killed wood with respect to the suitability for cement; except for the white rot samples which reached or exceeded the levels of incompatibility. An outstanding physicochemical behavior was also found for blue-stained sapwood and cement, producing significantly higher compatibility indices.

Standing dead trees, or snags, represent post-disturbance biological legacies in forest ecosystems, and intentional creation of new snags is increasingly common during forest treatments. The abundance, volume, size, and distribution of snags can affect wildlife communities and stand-level biological diversity. Characteristics such as the wood properties of different tree species, environmental conditions, and cause of tree death (e.g., insects, disease, senescence, wind, fire) can influence decomposition and subsequent use of snags by wildlife. The objectives of this study were to characterize decay patterns in jack pine (Pinus banksiana) snags that had been killed by prescribed fire, topping, and girdling and determine the effects of these treatments on subsequent snag use by subcortical insects and primary cavity-nesting birds. The prescribed fire, topping, and girdling treatments were implemented in 2003, 2004, and 2007, respectively; bird excavations were quantified in 2014 and insect activity was measured in 2016. One-way analysis of variance tests were used to examine any differences among treatments in snag characteristics, decay characteristics, past insect activity, and past use by birds. An information theoretic approach to model selection was then used to rank potential predictors of bird foraging activity and cavities. The topping treatment had unique decay characteristics relative to the other two treatments; topped snags had the highest levels of past insect colonization, were softer, and had higher proportions of loose bark remaining on the boles. Trees killed by prescribed fire had the greatest number of foraging excavations and cavities. Girdled snags had the lowest evidence of past insect colonization and showed different levels of decay and insect use at different vertical positions on the snag bole. Comparison of candidate models showed that a model containing treatment type alone was the highest ranked when predicting foraging by birds, while snag diameter was the highest ranked when predicting the presence of cavities. A model containing treatment and snag density was also a highly ranked for predicting cavity presence. Our findings suggest that different jack pine snag treatments result in unique decay trajectories that may influence snag use by an array of wildlife taxa. Our characterization of three snag creation treatments can also inform options for generating snags, depending on the desired outcome, when management for biological legacies and wildlife habitat is of interest within mixedpine forests of the Great Lakes region. 1. Introduction Dying trees, standing dead trees (snags), and downed woody material have numerous ecological functions and contribute to structural complexity and biodiversity within forests (Harmon et al., 1986, Franklin, 1988). For example, dying trees increase availability of resources such as light, nutrients, and water, and provide structure and food for a wide range of taxa (Franklin et al., 1987). A diversity of fungi, plants, and animals utilize snags and downed wood throughout their life cycles (

Site occupancy models, accounting for imperfect detection and the influence of anthropogenic and ecological covariates, can indicate the status of species populations. They may thus be useful for exploring the suitability of landscapes such as biological corridors, to ensure population dispersal and connectivity. Using occupancy probability models of its principal prey species, we make inferences on landscape connectivity for the movement of the tiger Panthera tigris between protected areas in Bhutan. We used camera-trap data to assess the probability of site occupancy (Ψ) of the sambar Rusa unicolor, wild boar Sus scrofa and barking deer Muntiacus muntjak in biological corridor no. 8, which connects two national parks in central Bhutan. At least one prey species was recorded at 17 out of 26 trapping locations. The probability of site occupancy was highest for the barking deer (Ψ = 0.52 ± SE 0.09) followed by sambar (Ψ = 0.49 ± SE 0.03) and wild boar (Ψ = 0.45 ± SE 0.07). All three ...

Large woody debris (LWD) is an important component in the biogeochemistry cycle of carbon and nutrients in forested stream ecosystems. In-stream LWD volume, biomass and carbon pool were investigated in 19 forested streams in the south central interior of British Columbia. The stream channels were classified into four disturbance categories based upon condition of the adjacent riparian forest. The categories are: (1) riparian forest harvested approximately10 years ago (HT10), (2) riparian forest harvested approximately 30 years ago (HT30), (3) riparian forest burned by a wildfire approximately 40 years ago (WF), and (4) undisturbed old-growth riparian forest (OF). Streams with riparian forests that were affected by wildfire or were recently harvested were observed to have significantly higher LWD volumes, biomass, and carbon pool as compared to streams flowing through old-growth riparian forests. LWD stocks averaged 376 m À3 ha À1 (volume), 112 Mg ha À1 (biomass), 52 Mg C ha À1 (carbon) in WF, 258 m À3 ha À1 , 78 Mg ha À1 and 36 Mg C ha À1 in HT10, 180 m À3 ha À1 , 52 Mg ha À1 and 23 Mg C ha À1 in HT30, and 114 m À3 ha À1 , 37 Mg ha À1 and 17 Mg C ha À1 in OF. Volume, biomass, and carbon stock were 2.3, 2.0, 2.1, and 1.3, 1.1 and 1.1 times higher in WF and HT10 than in OF, respectively, but LWD loading did not differ significantly between HT30 and OF. Major differences were also observed in the state of decay of LWD between the four disturbance categories based upon three decomposition classes. Our study supports the conclusion that harvesting creates a short-term increase in LWD stocks. However, harvesting may greatly reduce LWD loadings over the long-term due to relatively rapid decomposition of LWD due to increased rate of decay, transport, and reduced recruitment from the adjacent riparian forest. In the study streams, the wood density of LWD ranged from 0.273 to 0.427 g cm À3 depending upon the species and decomposition level. An average decay rate constant of 0.0095 year À1 was calculated for the LWD based upon wood density. Based upon this decay rate, the time required to loss 50% (t 0.5) and 95% (t 0.95) of wood is 74 and 316 years, respectively.

Our study titled "Land sharing potential of large carnivores in human-modified landscapes of western India" used an occupancy framework to provide baseline information on patterns and determinants of large carnivore presence in humanuse landscapes. In their letter, Shrotriya et al. raise concerns about our survey design, distort our inferences, and present unwarranted exaggeration of our study limitations. Here, we provide detailed responses to key the issues raised by the authors while reiterating the accurate interpretations of our findings.

We estimated tiger and wild prey abundance in the Bardia National Park of Nepal. Tiger abundance was estimated from camera trap mark recapture in 85 days between December, 2008 to March, 2009 by placing 50 camera trap pairs in 197 trap locations with a sampling effort of 2,944 trap nights. We photo captured 16 individuals (≥1.5 year old) tigers identified on the basis of their unique stripe patterns. The number and density (per 100 km2) of tiger was 19 (SE 3.3) and 1.31 (SE 0.32), respectively. Distance sampling was used to assess the prey abundance on 170 systematically laid line transects between May–June, 2009. The density of all the wild prey (individuals/km2) was 56.3 (SE 6.5). The density (individuals/km2Banko JanakariA Journal of Forestry Information for NepalVol. 26, No. 1, Page:  60-69, 2016

The paper presents and discusses research aiming at the development of a forested landscape management scheduling model that may address the risk of wildfires. A general indicator is built from wildfire occurrence and damage probabilities to assess stand-level resistance to wildfires. This indicator is developed to further address the specificity of each stand configuration (e.g., shape and size) and spatial context (neighboring stands characteristics). The usefulness of the development of such an indicator is tested within a mixed integer programming (MIP) approach to find the location and timing of management options (e.g., fuel treatment, thinning, clearcut) that may maximize the forested landscape expected net revenues. The Leiria National Forest, a Portuguese forest in central Portugal, was used as a case study. Results suggest that the proposed approach may help integrate wildfire risk in forested landscape management planning and assess its impact on the optimal plan. Results further show that prescriptions that include fuel treatments are often chosen over others that do not include them, thus highlighting the importance of wildfire management efforts. Finally, they provide interesting insights about the role of thinnings and fuel treatment in mitigating wildfire risk.

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are an iconic wildlife species of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and grassland ecosystems in western North America. Over 50% of pronghorn have historically occurred in Wyoming; however, these populations have declined by nearly 30% in <2 decades, concurrent with expanding energy development and prolonged drought. Research suggests adult female pronghorn, unlike other temperate ungulates, are more likely to die in summer, when body condition is lower from extreme energetic demands of reproduction, which are higher for pronghorn than other ungulates. To evaluate the potential effects of intrinsic, environmental, and anthropogenic factors on summer mortality risk, we monitored 114 adult female pronghorn equipped with global positioning system transmitters in the Red Desert region of south-central Wyoming, USA between 2013 and 2015. We modeled mortality risk using Cox's proportional hazards regression. Summer mortality risk was influenced by intrinsic and environmental factors; mortality risk increased when individuals were in poorer body condition entering the previous winter and when they experienced greater variation in average daily snow depth during the previous winter. We did not detect an effect of the distance to and density of roads, oil and gas wells, or fences on pronghorn summer mortality. During years of increased winter severity with deep and fluctuating snow depths, managers may observe higher winter mortality and higher mortality the following summer, likely as a consequence of the energetic expense associated with winter survival and spring reproduction for female pronghorn.

Human-induced habitat loss and degradation are increasing the extinction probability of many wildlife species worldwide, thus protecting habitat is crucial. The habitat of thousands of imperiled wildlife species occurs in a variety of land management regimes (e.g., protected areas, multiple-use areas), each exerting differing effects. We used the globally endangered tiger (Panthera tigris) to examine the relationships between habitat change and land management in Nepal's Chitwan district, a global biodiversity hotspot. We evaluated the effects of environmental and human factors on tiger habitat based on data acquired by motion-detecting cameras and space-borne imaging sensors. Spatiotemporal habitat dynamics in Chitwan National Park and a multiple-use area outside the park were then evaluated in three time periods (1989, 1999, and 2009). Our results indicate that tigers preferred areas with more grasslands and higher landscape connectivity. The area of highly suitable habitat decreased inside the park over the entire 20 year interval, while outside the park habitat suitability increased, especially from 1999 to 2009. The loss of highly suitable habitat inside the park may be associated with an increasing trend of unauthorized resource extraction by a rapidly growing human population, coupled with natural processes such as flooding and forest succession. In contrast, community-based management of natural resources and the prohibition of livestock grazing since the late 1990s likely improved tiger habitat suitability outside the park. Results of this study are useful for evaluating habitat change and guiding conservation actions across the tiger range, which spans 13 countries. Moreover, quantitatively assessing habitat change across different land management regimes in human-dominated areas provides insights for conserving habitat of other imperiled wildlife species around the world.

Fire spread on forested landscapes depends on vegetation conditions across the landscape that affect the fire arrival probability and forest stand value. Landowners can control some forest characteristics that facilitate fire spread, and when a single landowner controls the entire landscape, a rational landowner accounts for spatial interactions when making management decisions. With multiple landowners, management activity by one may impact outcomes for the others. Various liability regulations have been proposed, and some enacted, to make landowners account for these impacts by changing the incentives they face. In this paper, the effects of two different types of liability regulations are examined – strict liability and negligence standards. We incorporate spatial information into a model of land manager decision-making about the timing and spatial location of timber harvest and fuel treatment. The problem is formulated as a dynamic game and solved via multi-agent approximate dyn...

Harvest scheduling models often include maximum harvest opening size constraints, a restriction generally imposed for legal or policy reasons. The maximum harvest opening size restriction can greatly affect the spatial layout of the forest, with the dispersed harvesting increasing forest fragmentation. Because they can offset the negative impacts of maximum harvest opening size constraints, mature patch size constraints, which require a certain amount of the forest to be in patches meeting both minimum size and age requirements, have also been included in these models. This paper looks at the economic and spatial effects of ten harvest scheduling formulations with these two constraint sets on 21 hypothetical forest landscapes. Analyses of their age-class distributions, border distributions, and patch size distributions at the end of a 60-year planning horizon confirm that maximum harvest opening size constraints tend to fragment forest landscapes and that mature patch constraints can significantly reduce these effects.

Public forests have many conflicting uses. Designing forest management schemes that provide the public with an optimal bundle of benefits is therefore a major challenge. Although a capability to quantify and visualize the tradeoffs between the competing objectives can be very useful for decisionmakers, developing this capability presents unique difficulties if three or more conflicting objectives are present and the solution alternatives are discrete. This study extends four multiobjective programming methods to generate spatially explicit forest management alternatives that are efficient (nondominated) with respect to three or more competing objectives. The algorithms were applied to a hypothetical forest planning problem with three timber- and wildlife-related objectives. Whereas the -Constraining and the proposed Alpha-Delta methods found a larger number of efficient alternatives, the Modified Weighted Objective Function and the Tchebycheff methods provided better overall estimat...

Spatially explicit harvest scheduling models to enforce maximum harvest opening size restrictions often lead to combinatorial problems that are hard to solve. This article shows that the inequalities required by one of the three existing formulations, the Path model are typically lazy. In other words, these constraints are rarely binding during optimization, especially if the maximum opening size is large relative to the average management unit size. By solving 60 hypothetical and 8 real forest problems with varying maximum clearcut sizes and to varying target optimality gaps, we confirm that applying the path constraints only when they are violated during optimization leads to shorter solution times. Although the Lazy Path constraints performed better than the other formulation/solution approaches, the relative superiority of the method was more obvious at larger optimality gaps. Nearly 95% of the problem instances solved fastest with the "lazy" method at a target gap of 1%, and almost 92% solved fastest at 0.05%. At 0.01%, the Lazy Path approach was still superior in the majority of cases, but the percentage was much lower (57%). This is a significant improvement compared with the 14, 10, and 19% shares of the other approaches. If only the real instances are considered, the Lazy Path approach performed best in 68% of the instances with 1 and 0.01% optimality gaps and in 61% of the instances with 0.05% gap. A closer analysis of the results suggests that the relative superiority of the approach increases with problem size and maximum clearcut size. FOR. SCI. 59(2):157-176.

This article evaluates the performance of five traditional methods and one new method of generating the efficient frontier for a bi-criteria, spatially explicit harvest scheduling problem. The problem is to find all possible efficient solutions, thus defining the trade-offs between two ...

The model, STREAMWOOD, is an individual-based stochastic model designed to simulate the dynamics of wood in small streams of the Pacific Northwest. We used STREAMWOOD to examine source distance as a function of tree fall regime and stand age. Our results suggest that source distance increased with stand age for the first 400 years of stand development and then declined. Simulated source distance for mature conifer forests (81 to 200 years old) were consistent with observed data, but simulated source distances for old-growth forests (201 to 1,000 years old) were below observed data. Further information on stand ages for the forests used in the observational study would refine the compassion with simulated data.