Dale Cox, Historian & Author: florida

Showing posts with label florida. Show all posts

Wednesday, July 10, 2024

Stunning Archaeological Discovery made in Chattahoochee, Florida

Nicolls' Outpost interpretive panel
at River Landing Park in
Chattahoochee, Florida.

Archaeologists find complete War of 1812 fort in a Chattahoochee Park!

Advanced technology deployed for the first time in North America has produced stunning results in Chattahoochee, Florida. A team of scientists led by Dr. Mary Glowacki, PhD, of Pre-Columbian Archaeological Research Group, Inc., a 501(c)3 nonprofit contracted by the City of Chattahoochee, have revealed the entire outline of Nicolls' Outpost or "Fort Apalachicola".

As explained in Dale Cox's book Nicolls' Outpost: A War of 1812 Fort at Chattahoochee, Florida, the fort was built by the British in 1814-1815. It was to serve as a "jumping off" point for one wing of a planned invasion of the State of Georgia. Lt. Col. Edward Nicolls of His Majesty's Royal Marines would lead a column from the head of the Apalachicola River up the Flint River against the Georgia frontier and the state capital in Milledgeville, while a second British force advanced up the coast from Cumberland Island to Savannah.

The War of 1812 ended as Nicolls was assembling a column that included thousands of British Royal and Colonial Marines; the 5th West Indian Regiment from Jamaica; and Seminole, Miccosukee, Yuchi, and Red Stick Creek warriors in late February 1815. The Colonial Marines were composed largely of free Black men who had self-liberated from slavery, while the Native Americans had spent months training in light infantry tactics at Nicolls' Outpost and its sister post, the Fort at Prospect Bluff (later called "Negro Fort" by American officials).

Outline of the fort at
River Landing Park in
Chattahoochee as determined
by the new project.

The end of the war cancelled a looming a battle with an outgunned U.S. force under Col. Benjamin Hawkins that was camped a few miles above the forks of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers (today's Lake Seminole) in what is now Seminole County, Georgia. Each side saluted the other and Hawkins withdrew his fighters with relief.

The role of Nicolls' Outpost, however, was not yet over. Col. Nicolls assembled a large gathering of American Indian leaders there for an important council on March 10, 1815. Important chiefs and warriors representing most of the towns of today's Seminole Tribe of Florida and Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida marked a treaty that day requesting continued independent relations with Great Britain. More significantly, the document represented the first time that so many representatives of towns that eventually became part of today's federally recognized Seminole and Miccosukee Tribes committed to remain free and independent in Florida, and to mutually defend each other if attacked.

The exact date on which the fort was evacuated by the British is not known, but Lt. Col. Nicolls reported to a Spanish officer that a handful of soldiers were still there as late as April 1815. The British withdrew from the Apalachicola River in late May, so the evacuation date was probably around the end of April or beginning of May 1815.

The fort was later mentioned in U.S. Army reports as the site where Seminole, Miccosukee, and Maroon (self-liberated Black fighters) forces achieved the first Native American victory of the Seminole Wars during the Scott Battle on November 30, 1817.

To learn more about the archaeological discovery and the remarkable technology that made it possible, enjoy this video from Two Egg TV:

Also of interest is this acclaimed Two Egg TV documentary on the Fort at Prospect Bluff, sister post to Nicolls' Outpost:

Monday, November 30, 2020

Archaeology & History mark Seminole War Battle Anniversary

Today marks the 203rd anniversary of the Scott Battle of 1817. The first Native American victory of the Seminole Wars, this engagement took place on the bank of the Apalachicola River at what is now River Landing Park in Chattahoochee, Florida. Click play above to learn more about the battle and a new archaeology project that is aimed at finding key evidence from the battlefield itself!

Tuesday, November 17, 2020

Hog Killing Time is Coming!

We had a little touch of chilly weather this morning! It reminds us that winter is on the horizon and it won't be long until Hog Killing Time is here. Click the play button to learn about this old-timey tradition from a great storyteller at the Panhandle Pioneer Settlement in Blountstown, Florida.

Thursday, October 8, 2020

The Marianna UFO of 1955

UFO (unidentified flying object) stories are now part of American culture, albeit a hotly debated part. In 1955, however, they were breaking news and the military often kept them top secret. Such was the case with an incident that year in the skies over Jackson County that ranks as one of the nation's first government-verified UFO sightings.

Today's Marianna Municipal Airport was the home of Graham Air Base in 1955. Opened in 1953, Graham Air Base was a U.S. Air Force Contract Primary Flying Training Base where many of America's top Cold War and Vietnam era pilots were trained. Home to the 3300th Pilot Training Group, it provided pilot training on AT-6, PA-18, T-28, and T-34 propeller aircraft until 1957 when T-37 jet trainers were added to compliment.

On December 6, 1955, a civilian radar operator was working his normal shift at Graham Air Base when he detected something unusual on his scope. An unidentified object suddenly streaked into radar range, entering Jackson County from the south at a high rate of speed.

As the operator watched by radar, the UFO flew over Jackson County at a speed faster than any known U.S. Air Force plane. It first appeared to be following the Apalachicola River but angled to the northwest as it passed over Jackson County, a route that carried it close to both Marianna and the airbase.

USAF Record Card of Marianna UFO

When first observed, the object was flying at an altitude of about 15,000 feet, but as it streaked north over Alabama it climbed to an altitude of 30,000 feet. It was lost from radar as it passed over Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama.

Alarmed by the approach of the object, the Flight Service Center commander at Maxwell notified the Air Defense Command at Colorado Springs, Colorado, and the Air Force Chief of Staff in Washington, DC:

...One unidentified flying object sighted over Marianna FLA at 0100E Aircraft radar. Object at 15000 feet over Marianna FLA. Object proceeded to Montgomery ALA climbing to 30,000 FT elapsed time of object from Marianna FLA to Montgomery ALA five minutes. Object presently over Maxwell AFB. - Project Blue Book Record, U.S. Air Force, December 6, 1955.

Graham Air Base Historical Marker

Whatever it was, the UFO traveled the distance from Marianna to Montgomery (around 140 miles) in just five minutes. That equals around 28 miles per minute or 1,680 miles per hour.

Kept top secret at the time, the sighting was investigated by the U.S. Air Force as part of its "Project Blue Book." Between 1952 and 1970, Air Force investigators examined 12,618 alleged UFO incidents. Of that number, only 701 remain listed as "unidentified." The 1955 Marianna incident is one of those 701 cases.

Graham Air Base in the 1950s.
State Archives of Florida/Memory Collection

According to the Project Blue Book record card for the incident, investigators were unable to classify the UFO sighting due to "insufficient data for evaluation."

At least one person reported seeing an object in the sky over northern Jackson County at about the time of the incident. The eyewitness later recalled that he was on a trip from Alabama to Florida with his parents along US 231 when they suddenly saw an unidentified object fly over the highway near the Florida-Alabama line. He described it as a saucer-shaped object with red lights around its bottom. It made no sound. Whether it was the UFO picked up by radar operators is not known.

To this day, the Marianna UFO of 1955 has never been explained.

Friday, June 12, 2020

Street Philosophy Institute rejects NAACP call to preserve "Claude Neal" tree

Statement from Darien Pollock

The "Claude Neal" tree in Marianna, Florida

The following statement was issued this evening by Darien Pollock, the President of the Street Philosophy Institute, Inc., in response to a statement from the Jackson County NAACP expressing support for preserving the "Claude Neal" tree at the courthouse in Marianna:

IMPORTANT MESSAGE FROM DARIEN POLLOCK:

As the President of the Street Philosophy Institute, Inc., and native of Jackson County, Florida, I want to express publicly that I am thoroughly disappointed in our local NAACP chapter for failing to be sensitive to the desires and interests of not only the Black community but the citizens of Jackson County at large.

This recent statement by the NAACP is a prime example of why Jackson County and surrounding areas continue to be (at least) 30 years behind the rest of our country culturally and politically. It’s also a grave reminder of how many of our (white-minded) Black leaders have sold out the integrity and credibility of our historically Black institutions, exploiting them for personal gain against the benefit and at the detriment of the most vulnerable and silenced members of our community.

On behalf of SPI, and the close to 6,000 signatories of our recent petition to remove the Claude Neal lynching tree and establish a memorial in honor of *all* victims of racial terrorism in Jackson, County, I want to emphasize that I wholeheartedly reject this proclamation by our local NAACP chapter and view it as an example of gross political malpractice.

Friday, March 20, 2020

109 dead in 31 days: The 1918 Spanish Influenza at Florida State Hospital

Dozens rest in forgotten graves at Chattahoochee, Florida.

by Dale Cox

A surviving wooden grave marker at Florida State Hospital
Cemetery No. 3 in Chattahoochee, Florida.

As America deals with a growing COVID-19 or coronavirus pandemic, mention is often made of the terrible Spanish Influenza of 1918.

The flu struck in the early fall of that year, sickening entire communities in as few as 48-hours. The pandemic was especially deadly in military camps, prisons, and other places where large numbers of people lived in close proximity. At the Florida Industrial School for Boys in Marianna, for example, 264 of the 267 students were incapacitated in less than two days (please see The Pandemic of 1918 at Marianna's School for Boys).

At Florida State Hospital in Chattahoochee, things were even worse.

Florida State Hospital as it appeared in 1918. The old brick
building and its tower were part of the original Apalachicola
Arsenal complex around which the hospital developed.

Cemetery records for Cemetery No. 3 at the facility show that 109 people died in October 1918 alone. This number does not include patients who were buried elsewhere or staff members who fell ill and lost their lives. [1]

Considerable evidence shows that the deadly influenza was spread through North Florida by a special "relic train." The train traveled on the railroad from Jacksonville west through Florida to Pensacola, stopping in Tallahassee, Quincy, Marianna, and elsewhere:

The United States Government War Relic Train was at Quincy this morning from 7:30 to 9:30, and quite a large number of people from both the city and county viewed the wonderful exhibits sent out by the government to bring home to the people the closeness of the great struggle.

Captain L.M. Dixon, lieutenant H.B. Smith and Private, Gabriel Rubino, were the main speakers and entertained the audience with patriotic appeals. There were quite a number of catchy songs by other parties in the government train, which were enjoyed very much by the audience.

Chairman Wilson, of the Liberty Loan Committee, aided by his fellow members, worked among the audience, securing pledges for the Liberty Loan. [2]

The paddlewheel steamboat Amos Hayes at the railroad bridge
over the Apalachicola at Chattahoochee (River Junction),
Florida. The "relic train" crossed here on Oct. 5, 1918.

The train's journey through Gadsden and Jackson Counties took place on October 5, 1918. People began to fall ill and die almost as soon as it passed.

In Tallahassee, for example, medical authorities reported the spread of the deadly illness less than 48-hours after the train's visit but noted there was no cause for alarm. Before another 24-hours passed, however, people were dying in the city, and the mayor ordered all public places to close their doors.

Quincy developed cases almost simultaneously with Tallahassee. Chattahoochee and Marianna followed just hours later.

At Florida State Hospital, the doctors and nurses were overwhelmed with deathly ill patients. Available statistics show that patients began to die on October 6, 1918, and the death toll soared in the days that followed.

The Administration Building of Florida State Hospital was
the original officer's quarters of the Apalachicola Arsenal.

Patients continued to die in large numbers through the second and third weeks of October. The youngest, oldest, and weakest went first. By the end of the month, it was all but over. The death toll dropped just as suddenly as it had risen. Only the graves remained to tell the story.

Influenza surged again in November-December 1918, bringing even more deaths and more burials.

Cemetery No. 3 is one of several such burial grounds on and around the hospital and was the one in use in 1918. It is in the woods near Mosquito Creek and is not maintained although it is on state property. Hurricane Michael toppled trees there and damaged remaining grave markers, most of which were made of wood and bore only numbers to identify the unfortunate people interred there. The victims of the 1918 pandemic, with hundreds of other forgotten souls, rest in silence and neglect.

It is now impossible to identify who is buried in most of the graves, but the cemetery ledgers indicate that the following people died at the hospital in October 1918. Deaths before October 5 were likely of other causes.

DEATHS AT FLORIDA STATE HOSPITAL October 1-31, 1918

1. Acuff, Miss Clara Age 26 WF 10/16/1918

2. Albritton, John Age 22 WM 10/4/1918

3. Alderman, Britt Age 25 WM 10/11/1918

4. Allen, Rollie Age 8 BM 10/17/1918

5. Almy, Lillie Age 27 WF 10/20/1918

6. Arnau, Eugene Age 34 WM 10/7/1918

7. Ash, Joe Age 23 BM 10/23/1918

8. Bailey, W.L. Age 71 WM 10/9/1918

9. Baker, Mrs. Charlotte Age 38 WF 10/21/1918

10. Baldwin, Peter Age 66 WM 10/5/1918

11. Beauchamp, Miss Minnie Age 20 WF 10/21/1918

12. Bellamy, Frank Age 13 BM 10/15/1918

13. Bennett, Coley Age 17 WM 10/20/1918

14. Berry, Walter Age 25 M 10/24/1918

15. Brown, Alice Age 39 BF 10/7/1918

16. Brown, Jacob Age 60 BM 10/18/1918

17. Bryant, Annie Age 29 BF 10/15/1918

18. Bustin, Mrs. Elizabeth Age 47 WF 10/20/1918

19. Butler, Julia Age 40 BF 10/14/1918

20. Cason, Gertrude Age 38 BF 10/14/1918

21. Chasen, Samuel Age 54 WM 10/6/1918

22. Cobb, E.C. Age 50 WM 10/8/1918

23. Davis, George Age 40 BM 10/5/1918

24. Demps, Gussie Age 24 BF 10/16/1918

25. Dingham, Ella Age 28 WF 10/15/1918

26. Unknown Age WM 10/1918

27. Ellis, Daniel Age 18 BM 10/12/1918

28. Ferguson, Fronia Age 30 BF 10/19/1918

29. Francis, C.W. Age 51 WM 10/11/1918

30. Francis, George Age 34 BM 10/14/1918

31. Franklin, Thomas Age 75 WM 10/15/1918

32. Gaross, Maria Age 74 WF 10/8/1918

33. Golding, John Age 15 WM 10/17/1918

34. Goosby, Ida Age 47 BF 10/8/1918

35. Green, Polly Ann Age WF 10/28/1918

36. Hall, Rachel Age 75 BF 10/16/1918

37. Harin, Will Age 31 BM 10/12/1918

38. Harrell, Willie Age 41 WM 10/15/1918

39. Harris, W. Age BF 10/12/1918

40. Hill, James Palmer Age 25 WM 10/14/1918

41. Hinkley, Lewis Age 21 WM 10/7/1918

42. Holmes, Eliza Age 50 BF 10/20/1918

43. Horn, J.B. Age WM 10/4/1918

44. Hutchinson, M.T. Age 39 WM 10/3/1918

45. Isaac, Marinda Age 3 BF 10/2/1918

46. Jenson, Arthur Age WM 10/17/1918

47. Johnson, Jim Age 37 BM 10/31/1918

48. Johnson, Robert Age 26 BM 10/10/1918

49. Jones, Charles Age BM 10/19/1918

50. Kelly, Gladys Age 23 BF 10/13/1918

51. Kennedy, Miss Jennie Age 30 WF 10/24/1918

52. Kensler, Mary Age 43 BF 10/7/1918

53. Larcus, Rebecca Age 46 BF 10/14/1918

54. Lee, Charles Age 56 BM 10/10/1918

55. Lee, John Age 34 WM 10/8/1918

56. Lee, Mary Jane Age 45 WF 10/24/1918

57. Lender, Mrs. Belle Age 51 WF 10/20/1918

58. Logan, Jim Age 59 WM 10/7/1918

59. Mathis, Mrs. Maud Age 34 WF 10/20/1918

60. Medino, Patrick Age 33 WF? 10/8/1918

61. Mercer, Mrs. Nancy Age 82 WF 10/20/1918

62. Milam, Benjamin B. Age 32 WM 10/6/1918

63. Miller, Moses Age 15 BM 10/19/1918

64. Moody, John B. Age WM 10/12/1918

65. Moondeck, George Age WM 10/31/1918

66. Moore, Mrs. Maggie Age 34 WF 10/19/1918

67. Moore, Maxie Age 25 or 30 BM 10/14/1918

68. Neel, James Edward Age 14 WM 10/25/1918

69. Parker, Sam Age 27 BM 10/18/1918

70. Pettington, Livingston Age 28 BM 10/16/1918

71. Pinkston, Albert Age WM 10/30/1918

72. Potts, Carl Age 18 WM 10/21/1918

73. Price, W.M.M. Age 51 WM 10/16/1918

74. Reed, Sarah Age 40 WF 10/31/1918

75. Richards, Willie Age 24 BF 10/19/1918

76. Richardson, Emily Age 29 BF 10/17/1918

77. Richardson, Jefferson Age 31 BM 10/12/1918

78. Ridditt, Mary Age 25 WF 10/12/1918

79. Robertson, Alderman Age 44 WM 10/14/1918

80. Russ, Maude Age 17 BF 10/26/1918

81. Russell, D.S. Age 27 WM 10/10/1918

82. Saunders, Thomas Age 36 WM 10/10/1918

83. Seabury, Charles N. Age 80 WM 10/25/1918

84. Sharp, John Age 46 BM 10/14/1918

85. Sheronse, Olin Age 35 WM 10/17/1918

86. Smith, Lillie Mae Age 16 BF 10/3/1918

87. Stephens, Christopher C. Age 36 BM 10/17/1918

88. Stephens, Josephine Age 51 BF 10/17/1918

89. Stephens, Mary Age 31 BF 10/15/1918

90. Sumler, Charles Age BM 10/11/1918

91. Taylor, Annie Age 25 BF 10/15/1918

92. Thomas, Henry Age 44 BM 10/8/1918

93. Thomas, Martha Age 49 BF 10/24/1918

94. Truluck, William Age 40 BM 10/19/1918

95. Wade, Albert Age 21 BM 10/10/1918

96. Walker, Dennis Age 24 BM 10/26/1918

97. Ward, Gus Age 36 BM 10/11/1918

98. Warren, Major Age BM 10/20/1918

99. Washington, George Age 73 BM 12/15/1918

100. Webster, Pinkie Age 17 BF 10/23/1918

101. Wheeler, Mary Age 36 BF 10/22/1918

102. Whitehurst, John Age 52 WM 10/11/1918

103. Whitehurst, Lillie May Age 18 WF 10/18/1918

104. Wiggins, Emma Age 17 BF 10/19/1918

105. Williams, Fannie Age 40 BF 10/15/1918

106. Williams, Henry Age 68 BM 10/14/1918

107. Williams, J.H. Age 56 BM 10/6/1918

108. Williams, Lula Age 43 BF 10/15/1918

109. Williams, Spencer Age 37 BM 10/20/1918

REFERENCES:

[1] Cemetery Ledgers, Florida State Hospital.

[2] Pensacola Journal, October 5, 1918.

Saturday, March 14, 2020

The Pandemic of 1918 at Marianna's School for Boys

264 sick and thirteen dead in 48-hours.

by Dale Cox

The African American dormitory at Florida Industrial School
for Boys, where 196 of 198 students fell ill within 48-hours.

The Florida State Reform School became the Florida Industrial School for Boys (later Dozier School for Boys) in 1914. Four years later, it was devastated by the Spanish Influenza pandemic of 1918.

The flu hit with a vengeance, and the best efforts of doctors, nurses, and public health officials were quickly overwhelmed. Reports prepared by the latter indicate that 371 Floridians lost their lives to the flu during a twelve-day period that ended on October 17, 1918. And these deaths were just the beginning.

Jacksonville officials quarantined their entire city and urged citizens to wear masks. St. Augustine closed its schools, theaters and soda fountains while banning public gatherings and even church services. The month was remembered for years there as “churchless October.”

The Great Flu Pandemic of 1918 was the most severe and deadly pandemic in recorded history to strike the United States. Estimates vary, but between 500,000 and 650,000 Americans lost their lives, as did millions of people worldwide. The number of deaths from Spanish influenza was higher than the number of battle deaths suffered in World War I.

Children wearing masks during the
1918 Spanish Influenza pandemic.

Influenza spread like lightning, and in Jackson County, as much as 50% of the population fell sick within a matter of days. The Florida Industrial School for Boys, tragically, was not exempt.

Of the 267 students at the school, 264 fell ill within 48 hours. The assistant superintendent of the North or “colored” campus became sick, as did his entire family. All three of the school's engineers succumbed to the illness, along with all of the students that helped them run the school’s power, water, and sewage systems. With no one to run the pumps, the school’s water dried up. With no water, the toilets and sinks stopped working. The small hospital, a wooden building measuring only 16 by 16 feet, had no water, power, or sanitation.

The African American North or “colored” campus (as it was called in that day) was overcrowded before the Spanish flu. Within three days, 196 of the 198 students and eight of the ten employees there fell ill. The matron of the North campus was the first person at the school to die. Her body lay unburied for 24 hours because there was no one to dig a grave. On the white or South campus, meanwhile, 68 of the 69 students became sick along with all but one or two of the employees.

The situation deteriorated so quickly that “horror” is the only word to describe it:

Nurses helping sick soldiers during the 1918 pandemic. The
Spanish Influenza killed more American soldiers than died
from enemy fire in World War I.

Conditions at the school are very bad. Sewerage imperfect, no sanitary rules at all, screens broke, fleas by the thousands. There were thirty-five cases of pneumonia, lack of medicine and lack of proper nourishment. No linen, boys lying under wool blankets, naked, with dirty mattresses on the cement floor; the reason said to be that the husks would all run out if put on a cot. The condition was one of filth, body lice, improper food, no bathing for lack of towels.^{^[i]}

Dr. George W. Klock, who wrote the above, was an official with the U.S. Public Health Service. He arrived at the school as influenza was raging and conditions were at their worst:

The dinner of the well colored boys the day I was there being hoecake and bacon grease thickened with flour. The dinner of the white boys being rice and bacon grease gravy. One boy said he was flogged for refusing to cook peas full of worms; that meat sent to the boys was kept until spoiled and then fed them and they all were sick.^{^[ii]}

Klock did not note in his report that the citizens of Marianna were also suffering from the flu. Only one of the city’s doctors remained on his feet and was so overwhelmed that he simply could not care for the hundreds of patients pleading for his help. Most citizens had to care for themselves as deaths multiplied across Jackson County. Graves dating from the fall of 1918 dot the landscape at cemeteries throughout the area. Many of the dead were children.

Eleven students and two employees died at the Florida Industrial School for Boys during the Spanish Influenza pandemic. Although the University of South Florida, citing a Miami Herald report, claimed that all were African American, school records indicate that both white and black students were among the deceased:

Wilbur Smith, 1918; Influenza; African American; Student

Willie Adkins; 1918; Influenza; African American; Student

Lloyd Dutton; 1918; Influenza; White; Student

Hilton Finley, 1918; Influenza; White; Student

Puner Warner, 1918; Influenza; White; Student

Ralph Whidden, 1918, Influenza, White, Student

Unknown, 1918, Influenza, Race unknown, Student

Unknown, 1918, Influenza, African American, Female Employee

Unknown, 1918, Influenza, White, Male Employee

The "Boot Hill Cemetery" on the Dozier School
campus was shown on topographic maps as
early as 1948. 25% of the people buried there
died of the Spanish flu in one week.

The flu continued with deadly effect at the school until doctors and nurses from the Florida State Hospital in Chattahoochee reached the scene. The arrival of trained medical personnel stopped the spiraling death rate and improved conditions at the school.

Governor Sidney Catts ordered an investigation of conditions. A group of three physicians made this inquiry and issued a report in January 1919. On the defensive, the doctors scalded Dr. Klock for his failure to investigate better the causes of the horrific conditions he witnessed:

…Did Dr. Klock say that the superintendent was not a well man? That the assistant superintendent, in charge of the colored department, with all his family were stricken? Did he say that one of the matrons died and remained for hours without attention because the few not in bed had to give aid to the living? Did he say that the attending physician, the only doctor on his feet in Marianna and surrounding community had ten times as much to do as any human being could perform? Did he say that the school was without water for lack of help to run the pump, causing the sewers to choke? Did he say that sixty-eight out of sixty-nine white boys and one hundred and ninety-eight colored boys were down practically at one time? Did he say that the dining room…with cement floor, was temporarily converted into a hospital by a physician, to relieve the congestion in their dormitory?... Did he say that the good people of Marianna had been acting as nurses of this institution until the needs of their own families and surroundings took them away?^{^[iii]}

Spanish Influenza affected the region for decades to come. Families struggled without their lost loved ones, while children still in the womb later suffered much higher rates of learning and physical disabilities than babies born just one year later.

Physicians and scientists study the pandemic of 1918 to this day, searching for lessons to help them rates of death and infection from new worldwide outbreaks.

References:

[i] Report of Dr. George W. Klock, U.S. Public Health Service, reprinted in Tampa Tribune, November 2, 1918.

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Report of the Physicians’ Committee to the Commissioners of the Board of State Institutions, Marianna, Florida, November 5, 1918.