1 Introduction

Buildings account for over 40% of the world’s energy consumption, with projections indicating a significant rise in Sub-Saharan Africa due to improvements in household incomes, higher living standards, the availability of modern electrical appliances, and rising temperatures [48]. Increased electricity consumption is directly linked to climate change due to the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide, which contribute to global warming [70]. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has repeatedly emphasized the urgent need for comprehensive energy efficiency strategies to mitigate these effects and limit global temperature rise to below 2 °C [5].

A key strategy in reducing electricity consumption is fostering energy-efficient behaviors among building occupants. While advancements in sustainable technologies, smart appliances, and energy-efficient buildings hold promise, studies indicate that their effectiveness is limited without corresponding behavioral changes by users [56, 84]. Despite efforts to improve energy efficiency, many households continue to consume excessive electricity due to behavioral patterns and economic incentives, such as low electricity tariffs that discourage conservation [28]. In Ghana, for instance, the government subsidizes the initial 50 kWh of residential electricity consumption, further reducing the financial motivation for households to adopt energy-saving practices [34].

Given that in modern buildings, occupants' behavior plays a crucial role in building energy efficiency and can significantly enhance energy performance [72], as most of them spend several hours of time indoors relying heavily on electricity for their daily activities, it is crucial to develop a behavioral change framework to promote energy-efficient practices. Despite extensive research on energy consumption and conservation, fully understanding occupant behavior remains challenging, as most studies prioritize technical factors over socio-economic influences [45]. Additionally, existing research often lacks standardized methodologies and a holistic perspective [45]. While studies have primarily examined technological solutions or energy efficiency in specific contexts such as higher education institutions [4], household appliances [42], and conservation drivers in urban households [9] there is a notable gap in research exploring a comprehensive, behavior-based energy efficiency framework for Ghanaian households. To effectively modify energy consumption behavior, a well-rounded approach should integrate psychological, habitual, structural, and cultural factors across broader contextual, societal, and individual levels [73]

Hence, this study seeks to fill this gap by integrating both compulsion and persuasion mechanisms to drive behavioral change in electricity consumption among households in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. The findings will contribute to sustainable energy management strategies, aligning with global efforts to reduce energy waste and mitigate climate change.

2 Literature review

2.1 The role of occupant behavior in energy consumption

Building occupants spend approximately 90% of their time indoors, making their energy-related behaviors a critical determinant of electricity consumption and wastage [60]. Research has shown that occupant behavior, alongside physical factors and climate, plays a crucial role in building energy consumption [110]. Several studies have explored its impact, focusing on system usage, activity patterns, and the broader implications for climate change [19, 23, 43, 47, 59]. However, despite these extensive studies, occupant behavior remains highly unpredictable due to its stochastic nature, complexities, and inherent variability [41, 49].

Studies have also shown that modifying occupant behavior through energy awareness campaigns can lead to substantial energy savings, with one study reporting potential savings of up to 38% simply by turning off unused appliances [54]. The relationship between Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ), occupant behavior, and energy consumption has been extensively researched, underscoring the need for more accurate simulation methods [11]. Furthermore, recent reviews have identified research gaps, particularly in occupant-centered space layout deployment and behavior studies within developing economies [83]. Statistical analyses of housing stocks further reveal that socio-economic and behavioral aspects significantly influence energy consumption, both directly and indirectly through their impact on building and system choices [110]. These findings emphasize the need for behavior-focused energy conservation strategies alongside technological and structural interventions in building design.

2.2 The limitations of technological approaches

Technological advancements in energy-efficient appliances and building systems have demonstrated potential in reducing energy consumption [58]. However, research indicates that technology alone is insufficient in achieving substantial energy savings unless occupant behavior aligns with energy efficiency goals [38, 51]. [64] further emphasizes that while energy-efficient systems undergo rigorous engineering tests, building occupants cannot be standardized in the same way, leading to significant variations in actual energy savings. This highlights the necessity of behavioral interventions alongside technological advancements.

The limitations of technology-driven energy behavior change in Sub-Saharan African households are multifaceted. Innovations such as pay-as-you-go solar systems hold promise for emission-free cooking and expanded energy access [24] yet their effectiveness largely depends on sociocultural factors and existing household practices [111]. High upfront costs present a major barrier to adoption, though micro-loans and mobile-enabled payment systems offer potential solutions [24]. Additionally, the region’s weak regulatory systems and limited banking services have driven innovations in mobile banking and digital health technologies [8]. However, technology-centered approaches often fail to account for how sustainable technologies interact with ingrained practices, leading to unintended consequences [98]. Therefore, successful implementation requires a deep understanding of local contexts and the integration of new technologies with existing sociocultural norms and behaviors [111].

2.3 Behavioral variability and its impact on energy use

Research by [92] revealed that even in ten identical energy-efficient buildings, energy consumption among occupants varied at three distinct levels. This highlights how human behavior can either enhance or diminish potential energy savings, even with advanced energy-efficient systems. Similarly, [41] underscores the crucial role of occupants in minimizing energy wastage, reinforcing the need to integrate behavior-focused strategies into energy efficiency programs.

Occupant behavior plays a significant role in building energy consumption, with variations of up to 75% in residential buildings and 150% in commercial buildings [100]. These discrepancies arise from factors such as occupancy patterns, equipment usage, and individual attitudes [30]. Additionally, physical differences in building characteristics further contribute to variations in energy use [35]. A major concern in energy efficiency research is the gap between predicted and actual energy performance, where design-stage estimates can be twice the operational energy consumption [82]. Improving the accuracy of these predictions requires better modeling of small power consumption, which varies significantly among occupants [30].

To effectively assess building energy performance throughout its lifecycle, it is essential to understand occupant behavior and its underlying motivations [82]. Detailed simulations are also necessary to capture temporal effects, such as peak loads and storage sizing, to improve overall energy modeling accuracy [35].

2.4 A holistic behavior change framework

Given the limitations of both technological solutions and individualistic behavior change approaches, there is a growing need for a comprehensive framework that integrates compulsion (policy-driven enforcement) and persuasion (behavioral incentives and nudges) to effectively minimize energy wastage. This is particularly relevant in Ghana, where electricity consumption behaviors are shaped by socio-economic, cultural, and infrastructural factors. In response, this study seeks to contribute to the development of a two-tier energy behavior change framework, providing a structured approach to inform future energy policies and programs aimed at sustainable electricity use and CO₂ reduction.

Recent studies emphasize the importance of multidimensional frameworks in addressing energy consumption behavior and fostering sustainable practices [73] propose a conceptual model that incorporates psychological, habitual, structural, and cultural factors influencing energy perception gaps. [21] present an integrated framework, categorizing influencing factors into socio-demographic, situational, individual, and experiential components. Similarly, [27] developed a behavioral modification framework based on motivational themes and barriers, advocating for interventions such as reframing sustainability messages and providing performance feedback. Additionally, [25] introduce an interdisciplinary framework that links consumption behavior, explanatory factors, and governance interventions.

These studies collectively highlight the need to consider multiple dimensions—including psychological, social, and technological factors—to effectively reduce energy wastage and promote sustainable consumption. The proposed frameworks not only guide policy-making but also shape future research on energy-related behavior change, ensuring a holistic approach to sustainability.

3 Methodology

This study adopted a rigorous, systematic approach to identifying, selecting, and analyzing literature to develop a behavior change framework for sustainable energy use. A comprehensive keyword-based search was conducted across multiple scientific databases and search engines, including Building and Environment Journal, Energy Policy, Energy and Buildings Journal, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Wiley Online, Emerald Insight, and Taylor and Francis. Additionally, academic theses and other peer-reviewed publications were consulted to enhance the depth of the literature review. The diversity of perspectives captured in existing works strengthens the credibility of research synthesis [61, 71, 90].

The initial keyword search utilized Boolean operators (e.g., AND, OR) and advanced search strings to refine results and ensure relevance. Keywords included: "human behavior", "human behavior theories", "behavior change theories", "energy-related occupant behaviors", and "human behavior change programs". To minimize selection bias, a structured, transparent search methodology integrating both quantitative filtering and qualitative assessment was applied. The search process focused on identifying literature covering methodologies, building typologies, occupant energy-related behaviors, and technological influences on behavior change.

The initial search retrieved over 500 documents. To refine the selection, title and abstract screening was conducted, applying relevance criteria. This led to the shortlisting of 142 articles, reports, and related literature. Further full-text screening and quality appraisal refined the dataset to 98 reviewed documents. These selected works formed the basis for identifying 17 key theories, models, concepts, and frameworks pertinent to energy use and pro-environmental behaviors. The identified theories were critically analyzed to uncover research gaps, guiding the study's proposed framework development.

A systematic duplicate removal process was applied across databases, ensuring that multiple listings of the same article were excluded. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed to ensure a transparent and reproducible literature selection process.

The overarching aim of the literature review was to synthesize insights into human behavior and behavior change theories to identify and integrate holistic catalysts for sustaining energy-efficient occupant behavior in Sub-Saharan African households. Additionally, the review facilitated the identification of behavioral change drivers necessary to bridge gaps in existing frameworks, ultimately leading to a refined, evidence-based approach for sustainable energy use.

3.1 Strategy for stakeholder and expert elicitation

Recognizing the complex, dynamic, and interdisciplinary nature of human behavior, an expert-driven approach was employed to refine the framework. Informed by [93], key stakeholders with expertise in building assessments and energy-related behavior were identified. These included local authorities, architects, designers, consultants, building owners, investors, and contractors.

A purposive sampling method was used to select 20 experts from diverse professional backgrounds, including sociologists, psychologists, architects, electrical engineers, human resource experts, building contractors, energy experts, social scientists, psychiatrists, public relations experts, and counselors. This selection was guided by established methods for expert elicitation [44, 94]. The selection criteria for experts included:

  • Professional experience in energy-related behavior change or building design.

  • Academic qualifications relevant to behavior change theories or energy consumption.

  • Regional representation to ensure diverse insights from Sub-Saharan Africa.

A Delphi method was employed to structure expert discussions and achieve consensus on key behavioral change drivers. This iterative process facilitated the integration of stakeholder knowledge into the framework, ensuring that theoretical insights were complemented by practical, context-specific expertise. The Delphi rounds helped refine the framework by identifying gaps in existing models and proposing actionable recommendations for closing them.

3.2 Criteria for literature selection and exclusion

To maintain rigour and relevance, the selection of literature followed predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria:

3.2.1 Inclusion criteria

A study had to meet at least three of the following benchmarks to be included:

  1. 1.

    Focus on sustainable human consumption and behavior change.

  2. 2.

    Examination of technology usage in fostering energy-efficient behavior.

  3. 3.

    Investigation of energy-related factors affecting building occupants.

  4. 4.

    Targeting reduction of human energy consumption through behavioral interventions.

  5. 5.

    Exploration of human behavior theories and behavior change models.

  6. 6.

    Research aimed at reducing product or energy consumption through behavioral modifications.

3.2.2 Exclusion criteria

Studies were excluded if they met any of the following criteria:

  1. 1.

    Purely simulation-based research with no empirical human behavior analysis.

  2. 2.

    Studies that did not involve human participation in achieving sustainable energy changes.

The literature selection followed a transparent, replicable process ensuring that only high-quality, relevant studies were reviewed. By applying systematic inclusion and exclusion criteria, this study ensures that findings are grounded in empirical evidence and contribute to a robust behavior change framework for energy efficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa.

4 Findings and discussions

The following section presents the meta-analysis underpinning the development of an energy-related behavioural change framework with the potency of significantly motivating behaviour changes in residential buildings.

4.1 Human behaviour and behaviour change theories

The ensuing segment (Table 1) highlights the various theories and concepts that were identified as having been used over the years in understanding human/occupant behaviour and fostering behavioural changes in humans and building occupants.

Table 1 Reviewed behaviour and behaviour change theories

As indicated in Table 1, it can be seen that Human behavior and behavior change theories provide critical insights into energy-related practices in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) emphasize that energy conservation behavior is influenced by attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control [7]. [77] discovered that integrating descriptive norms (information on average neighborhood consumption) with injunctive messages (social approval) effectively encourages energy conservation while preventing rebound effects. Similarly, [22] confirmed that households reduced electricity consumption the most when made aware that their usage exceeded the average and received social approval for conserving energy. [57] further emphasized the role of social interactions in promoting energy-saving behaviors, where simple conservation actions were influenced by interpersonal and passive interactions, while more challenging actions were driven by public engagement and active interactions. Behavioral characteristics, including risk aversion and time preferences, also influence the adoption of energy-efficient practices [3]. Similarly, the Health Belief Model (HBM) suggests that people are more likely to adopt energy conservation behaviors if they perceive a threat, such as high electricity costs or environmental degradation [24]. This theory suggests that individuals are more inclined to engage in preventive behaviors when they perceive a health threat as serious and believe they are personally at risk. Additionally, their decision to take action is influenced by their assessment of the potential benefits and barriers associated with the behavior [20].

Social and cultural dimensions also shape energy consumption patterns, making theories such as Bourdieu’s Habitus and the Cultural Capital Framework particularly relevant. [22] argues that behavior is deeply embedded in social and cultural structures, influencing how individuals engage with technology. In Ghana, rural and urban communities have different "energy cultures" [80], where wealthier households rely on high-energy-consuming appliances, while lower-income groups adopt frugal energy habits out of necessity. The Social Practice Theory (SPT) also highlights that energy use is a routine social practice rather than just an individual choice [79]. This perspective explains why energy conservation policies in Ghana must target community-level practices, such as promoting efficient cooking stoves in rural areas or encouraging smart metering in urban households [2].

Technology adoption and innovation diffusion theories further explain energy behavior shifts in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) suggest that the uptake of energy-efficient technologies depends on perceived ease of use, benefits, and social influence [76, 86]. Despite government incentives for solar energy adoption in Ghana, uptake remains slow due to financial constraints and limited technical knowledge [33]. The Innovation-Decision Process Theory [76] supports the need for sustained public engagement, where individuals move from knowledge acquisition to adoption. Additionally, behavioral nudges from the MINDSPACE model [32] can be leveraged to influence household energy choices through financial incentives, default energy-saving settings, and strategic messaging. Addressing these behavioral drivers is essential for achieving Ghana’s renewable energy targets and fostering sustainable energy practices across Sub-Saharan Africa.

4.2 Identified gaps with existing behaviour and behaviour change theories

Nonetheless the significant role of the reviewed theories in ensuring human behaviour change, a number of limitations and gaps have been identified and presented in Table 2, that could restrict the capabilities of the various theories, models and frameworks in developing sustainable intervention strategies.

Table 2 Limitations/gaps of identified human behaviour change theories

Despite the significant contributions of existing behaviour change theories in shaping human actions, several limitations have been identified that may hinder their effectiveness in fostering sustainable intervention strategies. One major limitation is the omnibus approach, where most theories assume that all individuals are at the same stage of behavioural change, failing to account for differences in energy consumption habits across various demographic segments [16]. Additionally, many models assume that humans make rational decisions based on reason, overlooking the influence of emotions, habits, and external pressures in shaping behaviour [12]. Another critical gap is the lack of practical implementation guidance while theories inform policymakers, they often fail to provide direct strategies for individuals to apply behaviour change in real-world scenarios [15].

Moreover, many theories conceptualize behaviour change as a set of abstract ideas rather than concrete, step-by-step actions that individuals follow before making decisions. Additionally, behaviour change models are often designed within specific contexts, making them difficult to generalize beyond their original scope [10]. This is compounded by the oversimplification of behaviour models while models such as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) [7] offer a structured approach, they do not fully capture the complexity and unpredictability of human behaviour. Furthermore, some theories assume that behaviour is always influenced by pre-existing variables, disregarding the impact of external mandates, such as laws and policies, that may directly enforce behavioural shifts before individuals undergo psychological adaptation [55].

Another notable gap in existing models is the assumption that behaviour change factors function like "switches" that, once triggered, guarantee transformation. In reality, sustainable behaviour change often requires negotiation, incentives, and regulatory frameworks to achieve long-term results [34]. Additionally, while many models promote the adoption of energy-efficient systems, they fail to address the critical aspect of usage patterns, which can lead to energy wastage despite improved technology [65]. Finally, most theories conceptualize behaviour change as a linear sequence of actions, neglecting the iterative and dynamic nature of human behaviour modification [65]. Addressing these limitations is crucial for developing more robust and contextually relevant behaviour change strategies.

4.3 Developing integrated key drivers for human behaviour change programmes

Nonetheless the identified limitations of the identified behaviour theories, models concepts and frameworks, they still offer critical insights as potential behaviour change catalysts for stakeholders in the residential energy use sector towards sustainable behaviour changes. In lieu of that the extensive review of related literature led to the development of integrated twenty-four (24) key potential behaviour change catalysts, as presented in Table 3. These drivers are intended at directing the expected energy efficiency improvements in the following areas; (i) building occupants behaviours; (ii) energy based systems and services; (iii) physical building entity; and (iv) energy use related policies and legislations. Ultimately, it is expected that the residential occupant would be transformed into a green agent.

Table 3 Key drivers to consider for EE occupant behavioural change frameworks

4.4 Energy related building occupant behaviours

It is noteworthy to emphasize that according to [57] there are two critical factors that should be taken care of to ensure that electric energy wastage is significantly reduced in residential homes. They are; (i) how the existing wastage can be defined, and (ii) how the buildings energy performance can be assessed. Impliedly, tackling occupant-based electric energy wastage in residential homes requires clear target areas (energy related occupants’ behaviour) where the wastage occurs in order to provide a yardstick for assessment and improvements. This study therefore, identified a number of energy related occupant behaviours in homes and integrated them to develop Table 4. The developed model will therefore be applied to the various behaviour elements to foster sustainable changes in occupants’ behaviour.

Table 4 Summary of key energy related building occupant behaviour

The identified key energy related behaviours in the homes presented in Table 4 (above) are critical points of target for the behaviour change programmes. In that regard, designed interventions towards changing inefficient energy behaviours could be tailored to suit each parameter, in an attempt to maximize the effectiveness of the programme.

4.5 Sustainable steps adapted towards motivating behaviour changes

The study adapted the proposed steps, as presented in Table 5, in persuading occupants to change specifics behaviours as posited by [104] and introduced comprehensive infills (improvements) that made the change process more robust and reflective of human behaviour realities as shown in Fig. 1. According to [104], any programme or strategy targeted at motivating changes could adopt these sequential steps or in the least benchmark on them for developing more robust ones. Hence, [104] proposed steps acted as the baseline which guided the development of this study’s proposed comprehensive sustainable steps (Fig. 1) for achieving guaranteed electric energy related behaviour changes.

Table 5 Benchmark for persuading occupants towards behaviour change
Fig. 1
figure 1

(Adapted from Zalesny, 2014)

Integrated behaviour change flow chart

4.6 Proposed flow chart for behaviour change framework

From the comprehensive reviews and stakeholder engagements, this study developed the following trend of sequential work flow processes (flow chart) as pertinent in ensuring sustainable behaviour changes in building occupants as shown in Fig. 1. This flow chart underpinned the key constituents for the development of the proposed behaviour change framework.

The following section illuminates the behaviour change flow chart presented above in Fig. 1 as adapted from [104];

  1. (i)

    Assessing and understanding the contextual factors that influence behaviour whiles putting legislations to compel key actions in extreme cases;

  2. (ii)

    Clearly segment the various end users into aggregated groups (rented-tenants/landlords, owner occupied-head of households) to be able to develop relevant messages and programmes to meet their specific needs;

  3. (iii)

    Making occupants conscious of the specific energy inefficient actions and habits through comprehensive educational campaign focusing on desirability of expected behaviours;

  4. (iv)

    Educating occupants on expected energy related actions and behaviour changes;

  5. (v)

    Creating a two tier attacking approach where; (i) on one side, there is a multi-disciplinary model which conveys the interactions between material culture, cognitive norms, and energy practices (as adapted from ‘energy cultures’ framework by [80]; (ii) on the other side, a four tier intervention strategy for behaviour change which include; enable; encourage; engage; and exemplify (as adapted from [31]).

Emphasizing strongly on the threats, risks and problems associated with identified energy inefficient behaviours. This action would be repeated throughout the various steps of the framework to keep occupants on course;

  1. (vi)

    Occupants acquiring the required knowledge and understanding (behaviour sensitivity consciousness) needed to effect the required changes from the awareness creation campaigns;

  2. (vii)

    Occupants moving into a state of contemplation and re-evaluation of the expected actions which must simultaneously go with motivation and assurance programmes to sustain the process of positive contemplation

  3. (viii)

    Occupants forming the expected intentions towards the required behaviours and moving along the behaviour change path;

  4. (ix)

    Eliminating the motivating conditions that support the execution of the inefficient actions away from the occupant and replacing them with the appropriate settings with well-structured legislations;

  5. (x)

    Motivating and reassuring occupants on the need for change whiles educating them on likely potentials and challenges from the expected behaviour change;

  6. (xi)

    Provide incentives, subsidies and flexible payment packages to reduce initial financial burden on occupants;

  7. (xii)

    Over a period of time occupants get convinced and execute the expected behaviour. Legislations must back the processes with grace periods for some punitive actions;

  8. (xiii)

    Acquiring feedbacks from occupants with regard to the uptake of EE options and providing them with feedback on the gains from their modified behaviours (bottom-up and top-down feedback approach); and

  9. (xiv)

    Providing behaviour maintenance programmes to prevent relapse with rewards, subsidies, rebates in utilities bills, to mention a few.

Beyond this point, some of the occupants are expected to develop behaviour norm and hence the need to terminate the behaviour change programme since they would have become green energy users. Legislations must be put in place to ensure maximum patronage from occupants. However, some occupants are likely to relapse due to varied reasons including behaviour fatigue. That would mean a relapse programme for such category of occupants which can be reinforced by starting from step seven.

4.7 Developing the building-occupant-appliances nexus (BOAN) framework

Building on the preceding discussions, the Building-Occupant-Appliances Nexus (BOAN) Framework was developed to examine occupant energy behavior within the specific socio-economic and cultural context of Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. This framework posits that human/occupant behavior is deeply embedded within societal structures that actively incentivize or discourage energy conservation. It places significant emphasis on cultural capital, values, and social systems, acknowledging that behavioral change is not simply a matter of individual financial capability but is also influenced by broader societal norms and institutional structures [26]. Furthermore, the BOAN framework recognizes that beyond human behavior, building design (fabric), appliance efficiency, and household energy systems significantly contribute to energy consumption and wastage. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where energy access remains a challenge and reliance on inefficient appliances is prevalent, addressing these factors becomes crucial for fostering sustainable energy use. This framework is guided by the following principle:

“It is not about your ability to pay for energy bills, but your capacity to protect or destroy the environment.”

The BOAN framework is particularly relevant in the Ghanaian and Sub-Saharan African context, where energy consumption is shaped by multiple interrelated factors. First, cultural norms influence energy use behaviors, such as extended family living arrangements, which increase household energy demand, or traditional cooking methods that favor firewood and charcoal over cleaner energy sources [29]. Economic constraints further impact behavior, as many households face irregular electricity supply and high energy costs, leading to inefficient energy management practices such as illegal electricity connections or reliance on fuel-powered generators [46]. Additionally, infrastructure and appliance inefficiencies contribute significantly to energy waste, with many buildings designed with poor insulation and ventilation, resulting in increased reliance on cooling devices like fans and air conditioners. Many low-income households also rely on second-hand appliances with poor energy efficiency, exacerbating energy consumption [65]. Furthermore, policy and regulatory frameworks influence energy behavior, as government interventions such as prepaid metering systems and energy subsidies shape consumer engagement with electricity [55]. The BOAN framework takes these factors into account, providing an integrated model that aligns with local energy realities.

In designing the BOAN framework, a two-tier integrated approach to behavior change was adopted to reflect the complexities of deeply ingrained occupant energy use habits. This approach aligns with [104] model of behavior change, which argues that simple models often overlook key behavioral change variables and their interactions. The framework is also influenced by [50] Comprehensive Model of Consumer Behavior, which emphasizes that behavior change should consider both psychological and structural dimensions. The BOAN framework incorporates two key strategies: (i) compulsion strategies, which involve regulatory and structural interventions such as energy efficiency laws, appliance standards, and building codes; and (ii) persuasive strategies, which utilize social and psychological influences, such as real-time energy feedback, behavioral nudges, and public awareness campaigns [91]. For instance, Ghana’s prepaid metering system serves as a compulsion strategy, encouraging users to monitor and manage their energy consumption. Similarly, behavioral nudges, such as community-led conservation initiatives, can leverage social norms to drive behavioral change [16].By integrating these approaches, the BOAN framework offers a contextually relevant roadmap for promoting sustainable energy consumption in Ghana and across Sub-Saharan Africa.

4.7.1 Tier 1: compulsion laws and legislations

The first approach is based on the fact that some deeply rooted and highly entrench but critical energy inefficient behaviours can only be stopped when supporting drivers for being inefficient are removed from the households through the passage of strict laws (legislations) as presented later in Fig. 2. A typical case in point is that Ghana has collaborated with various stakeholders to formulate and enforce energy efficiency standards and labeling for electrical appliances, utilizing a quadruple helix approach that integrates government, academia, industry, and the public/media [5]. Furthermore, the country has put in place a regulatory framework to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. However, overcoming existing challenges and accelerating adoption require international assistance [37]. Such laws are likely to force building occupants to first change their inefficient energy-related behaviours, before subsequently changing their antecedent behaviour variables such as attitudes, values, aspirations, and self-efficacy towards the behaviour.

Fig. 2
figure 2

BOAN framework. Adapted from [55, 113]. The MINDSPACE Approach by [32]; The Energy Cultures Framework by [80]; Diffusion of Innovation by [76]; Social practice theory—SPT by [107]; The Stages of Change—SoC model also referred to as the Trans-theoretical Model by [74, 75]; The health belief model—HBM by [112]

In that regard, such an approach does not give prior cognizance to the socio-cultural and psychological elements that influences human/occupant behaviour since the approach does not tentatively tend to persuade (motivate) behaviour change but compel behaviour change for the betterment of society and the environment after which humans restructure themselves and psyche to pursue the expected behaviour change.

It is noteworthy to emphasize that though such compelling laws are needed under extreme circumstances, there would still be the need for strategic lobbying and negotiations with key leaders (stakeholders) of the society and communities to smoothen the entire implementation process by minimizing opposition agents. Effective negotiations are more likely to ensure effective ease of implementation at the enforcement stage.

It is also instructive to indicate that this framework has a component which is a clear segmentation of the target population (property owners; managers; end users; contractors and manufacturers of appliances). This would enable effective packaging and dissemination of programme interventions for each specific group.

The study considers the likelihood of the following situations amongst others to come under such category;

  1. (i)

    Policy direction to have all peri-urban residential homes being energy audited and issued with “energy-use worthiness certificates” before connecting them to the national grid. Such a certificate should be renewable on periodic basis;

  2. (ii)

    Having all external lights in households connected with photocells or darkness self-ignited bulbs and indoor lights also being connected with motion sensors and dimmers to control their “on and offs”, as a prerequisite for connection to national grid;

  3. (iii)

    Policy to mandate all owners of residential buildings to provide a minimum percentage (e.g. 80%) of louvre blades window types on the buildings. This would facilitate effective cross ventilation for occupants;

  4. (iv)

    Having all landlords of residential homes being responsible for all major energy efficiency retrofits in buildings.

This first (Compelling) approach is inspired by the fact that notwithstanding the significant impact of improved knowledge (education) of humans/occupants on motivating potential energy related behaviour actions (changes), provision of solely information (knowledge) has not been adequate enough over the years to ensure execution of expected behaviours [104]. In reacting to the disconnect between “attitudes, values, self-efficacies” and “behaviour actions”, [105] poses this interesting question “…why, if people care about polar bears, they still drive SUVs”. This gap between “improved knowledge levels” and “execution of required behaviours (actions)” have been averred as ‘Value Action Gap’ by [106] which is also replicated by [104]. The authors argue that the gap could not be considered as a void but rather the existence of either; (i) major obstacles that interrupts the entire change processes; or (ii) incentives that encourage dis-adoption of EE and continuation of energy inefficient actions. These occurrences prevent occupants from changing inefficient behaviours within their households (if just left to education) and hence the need for compelling legislations to ensure the execution of expected EE behavioural changes by occupants.

4.7.2 Tier 2: persuasion approach (latent compulsion/enforcement)

In the second approach, the study used a persuasive method where systematically behaviour is diagnosed from the socio-cultural and psychological antecedents of human/occupant behaviour through all stages till the termination of behaviour change programmes after meeting targets. This framework, considers the society as key influence to the energy behaviours of occupants as posited by [26] and [107]. As presented in Fig. 2, the first diamond in the BOAN Framework is adapted from [55] Cultural Capital Framework which strongly considers the significant role of cultural capital on behaviour and behaviour change.

Cultural capital is a key element of [21] work on habitus where he strongly argued that the action of man is not only dependent on habitus through dispositions acquired from experiences in the past, but also on the availability of capital (resources), which are needed to make human practices comprehensive and easy to perform. [108] further posited that in a typical social environment, cultural capital and its acquisition and movement, is very instrumental in giving an individual a particular status in the social order and hence execution of likely actions. The next section highlights the structure of the BOAN framework;

4.8 The BOAN framework structure

At the macro level, the entire framework could be considered in three key components that are significantly likely to ensure behaviour changes code named “AMA”, namely; (i) Ability (from point A to B); (ii) Motivation (from point B to C); and (iii) Attitude/Execution (from point C to D); as shown in Fig. 2. It is also instructive to mention that between “motivation” and “attitude” there is a gap which requires the use of compelling technology to control the energy-based actions of occupants. As used in the framework; (i) Ability means, where occupants have to be educated with novel packages to provide them with the required knowledge to perform expected action, as strongly argued by [76, 109]; and [87] that humans are born with a mind that is like a blank slate ‘tabula ra ta’. Occupants must therefore be equipped with the appropriate knowledge/information from the primary school level through the tertiary levels to ensure that energy efficiency have become an integral part of their being. (ii) Motivation—this category recognizes that every change process is difficult, and hence requires the change programme to provide all necessary support to ease the change process and further remove all likely barriers that support inefficient behaviours from the occupants. [32] uses the concept of “salience” in the MINDSPACE approach by stressing that occupants are motivated strongly by what is novel and seems relevant to them. (iii) Attitude comes in where the expected attitudes, values, aspirations and self-efficacies become intrinsic norms of the occupants, and most importantly within the immediate societal systems society [26, 107], and hence the likely execution and sustenance of expected energy efficient actions as have been copiously presented in Fig. 2.

5 Conclusion

Nonetheless the significant advancement in energy efficiency technologies and building materials, buildings continue to consume colossal amount of energy. This consumption comes along with the associated CO2 emissions and concentration in the environment which is worsening the current state of climate change. The core objective of this study was to develop a holistic two-tier energy related behavioural change framework for sustainable households’ energy usage in Sub-Sahara Africa. To achieve this, the study first identified 17 key human behaviour and behaviour change frameworks pertinent to energy usage. This led to the identification of critical gaps in existing frameworks needed to be filled by this study. The study further integrated 24 potential behaviour change catalysts needed for developing the residential energy sector’s behaviour change framework for Sub-Sahara African households. The integrated drivers are; Irrational occupant choices; Home tenure system: Integrated theories preferred; Incentives for energy inefficiency; Social norms and cultural systems; Perceived value on expected behaviour; Feedback system on program’s successes; Multi-faceted elements; Habits and heuristics; Technology input; Holistic awareness; Holistic education; Messenger; Potential behaviour relapse; Financial motivations; Sectionalized programs; Laws and regulations; Monitoring; Perceived threats; Wastage perception as luxury; complexity of choice; focus on default settings for EE; and Prior situational analysis. Through further stakeholders’ engagements and synchronization with cogent literature, a two-tier behaviour changes framework code named BOAN was developed with the potential for enabling sustainable behaviour change in Sub-Sahara African households due to the holistic nature. This study contributes to knowledge by moving away from the traditional approaches by integrating compulsion and persuasion instead of the traditional persuasion methods. Again, the framework synergizes the critical roles of the key constituents of energy consumption, that is; buildings, occupants and appliances. The framework further underscores the fact that behaviour execution is not assumed to be in a vacuum but rather occurs within the occurrence of six key scenarios namely; (i) socio-cultural factors; (ii) energy efficiency (technological/technical) factors; (iii) climatic facets; (iv) psychological factors; (v) biological and (vi) economic/financial factors. With the integration of these elements, there is a higher probability of the framework ensuring sustainable energy related behavioural changes in Sub-Sahara African households. Future behaviour change programmes could harness these challenges for effective potential behaviour changes. The study further provides policy makers with the policy device which has intrinsic basis and decision parameters for policy regime development and direction. The understanding of the pertinent components (scenarios) of the framework could therefore enable policy makers to pursue policy formulation with much informed basis.