1 Background

Energy poverty, a pervasive challenge affecting millions worldwide, remains a critical impediment to human development, economic progress, and environmental sustainability [1]. Energy poverty, characterized by insufficient or unreliable access to modern energy services, is a persistent obstacle to development [2]. Despite global advancements in energy access, a substantial portion of the population, particularly in developing regions, contends with the limitations of traditional and inadequate energy sources. In these areas, rural communities often bear the brunt of energy poverty, grappling with insufficient electricity and reliance on outdated cooking methods [3]. The ramifications of energy poverty extend beyond the immediate challenges faced by affected communities. Socioeconomic disparities are exacerbated, hindering progress in education, healthcare, and economic development [4]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that dependence on traditional energy sources, such as fossil fuels, not only perpetuates health hazards but also contributes to environmental degradation [2, 5,6,7,8].

Understanding the roots of energy poverty involves unraveling a complex array of factors, such as inadequate infrastructure, economic constraints, and policy gaps. Addressing this multifaceted issue necessitates a nuanced approach that considers the interconnected nature of energy poverty with broader global challenges [9].

1.1 Significance of addressing energy poverty

Energy poverty is typically defined as the lack of access to modern energy services. This includes reliable and affordable access to electricity for lighting, heating, cooking, and communication [10]. The significance of addressing energy poverty is underscored by its far-reaching implications for sustainable development and environmental well-being [11]. Energy poverty perpetuates a cycle of poverty, limiting opportunities for education, entrepreneurship, and improved living standards [12]. As the global community aspires to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), recognizing the pivotal role of energy access becomes imperative [13]. Moreover, energy poverty contributes to environmental degradation through the reliance on fossil fuels and deforestation [14]. The impact of traditional energy sources on indoor air pollution exacerbates health issues, creating a dual burden for those affected [15]. Addressing energy poverty is, therefore, not only a humanitarian imperative but a crucial step toward achieving a more sustainable and equitable global future.

1.2 Global impact of energy poverty

The global impact of energy poverty is profound, affecting diverse regions and communities in varying degrees [16]. Numerous studies underscore the far-reaching consequences of inadequate access to modern energy services, particularly in developing countries. At the heart of these impacts is a cycle of deprivation that extends across multiple dimensions.

  • a) Health implications of energy poverty

In a study conducted in Kenya [17] it was found that energy poverty adversely impacts healthcare accessibility, leading to heightened rates of maternal and infant mortality and ultimately diminishing life expectancy. Moreover, it hampers educational progress, as affordable and clean energy solutions play a pivotal role in efficiently managing water, sanitation, lighting, and cooking facilities in residential institutions like hostels and boarding schools. The integration of such energy resources allows for the deployment of digital tools, facilitating the digitization of learning materials and enabling more qualified teachers to enhance their educational methods. Additionally, the adoption of modern fuels eliminates the necessity to gather firewood, providing rural children with more time to dedicate to their studies.

In a study [18] conducted in Barcelona, Spain, utilizing data from the Barcelona Public Health Survey (BPHS 2016), a significant disparity in the prevalence of poor physical and mental health was identified between the energy poor population and their non-energy poor counterparts. Specifically, individuals within the energy poor demographic, encompassing those from lower-income brackets, lower social classes, immigrants, and tenants, were found to have a higher likelihood of exposure to the structural determinants of energy poverty. This heightened exposure substantially increased their susceptibility to health issues.

In a study [6] conducted titled the impact of energy poverty on education and health in Energy poverty affects the health in Lao Peoples’ Democratic Republic Energy poverty affects the health status—due to indoor air pollution, compounded by households’ living conditions, such as small space with in-house kitchen and the lack of modern latrines. It also negatively affects average years of school attendance and the quality of education—as it limits the ability of the individuals to take advantage of improving quality of schools via the provision of energy-dependent equipment or by increasing teacher numbers and quality. A study [5] conducted in China revealed that experiencing multidimensional energy poverty has negative consequences on both mental and physical well-being. The research indicated that individuals in less developed regions are more significantly affected. Specifically, it highlighted that rural residents suffer from compromised physical health, whereas urban residents face challenges related to their mental health.

Energy poverty is closely linked to health challenges, primarily due to the reliance on traditional cooking methods and heating sources [1, 2]. Indoor air pollution from the combustion of solid fuels contributes to respiratory diseases, affecting the well-being of millions, particularly women and children [12]. The World Health Organization estimates that exposure to indoor air pollution leads to millions of premature deaths annually, emphasizing the urgent need to address energy poverty for public health reasons.

  • b) Economic implications of energy poverty

The economic implications of energy poverty are profound. Insufficient access to reliable energy hampers economic productivity, limiting the growth of small businesses and hindering job creation. Furthermore, the lack of access to modern energy services constrains educational opportunities, perpetuating a cycle of poverty across generations.

Research conducted [19] across 77 countries globally reveals that the availability of electricity plays a crucial role in diminishing income inequality. As economic development advances, the primary driver for mitigating income inequality shifts towards the development of renewable energy. Upon closer examination of the mechanisms involved, it is evident that addressing energy poverty can effectively diminish income inequality by enhancing public health and educational achievements. A study [20] conducted in Cambodia unveiled a significant link between energy poverty and adverse health and economic consequences for households. The results showed a heightened risk of respiratory diseases among individuals in energy-poor households, accompanied by a substantial 48% decrease in earning capacity compared to those unaffected by energy limitations. The literature also emphasizes a strong connection between energy poverty and factors like restricted access to energy resources and the quality of fuel used. These findings contribute valuable insights to the current understanding of the diverse impact of energy poverty on both household health and economic well-being.

  • c) Environmental degradation and energy poverty

Energy poverty, often associated with a substantial reliance on traditional biomass and fossil fuels [14], exacerbates environmental challenges. The widespread utilization of these energy sources not only perpetuates deforestation but also results in air and water pollution, as well as the emission of greenhouse gases. This environmental degradation amplifies the negative impacts of climate change, establishing a self-reinforcing cycle. Paradoxically, those most affected by energy poverty bear a disproportionate burden of the increasing effects of environmental deterioration, perpetuating a cycle of vulnerability and hardship. Addressing energy poverty is crucial not only for improving living conditions but also for mitigating environmental degradation and promoting sustainable development.

However, it’s important to note that alleviating energy poverty can lead to an increase in ecological footprints. Factors such as electricity consumption, oil consumption, water consumption, and the presence of highways contribute to the overall ecological footprint size. To mitigate this, emphasis should be placed on the promotion of renewable energy sources to maintain a sustainable ecological footprint size [11]. This approach ensures that progress in addressing energy poverty does not inadvertently contribute to environmental challenges but aligns with a broader goal of sustainable development.

In a study [21] based on an analysis of data spanning from 2014 to 2018 across various European countries, a notable and favorable correlation has been identified between social welfare and energy efficiency. This suggests that European nations have a promising opportunity to address energy poverty, improve overall well-being, enhance health outcomes, create employment opportunities, and preserve the natural environment by prioritizing energy efficiency, particularly through the utilization of renewable energy sources.

2 Research gap

The literature review reveals a consistent discourse on renewable energy sources as pivotal solutions for eradicating energy poverty and promoting sustainability. Numerous studies have underscored the transformative potential of renewables, yet a significant research gap persists in the detailed analysis of solar power as a specific and potent means to address the intricate challenges of energy poverty. While existing research emphasizes the broader category of renewable energy, the distinct attributes, advantages, and challenges associated with solar power have not been thoroughly examined. This study aims to fill this critical research gap by delving into the unique capacity of solar energy to tackle energy poverty effectively.

Solar power, characterized by its decentralization, scalability, and environmental sustainability, offers a promising avenue for providing electricity to remote and underserved areas [22]. The absence of a focused analysis on solar energy in existing studies underscores the need for a dedicated investigation into its potential contributions to sustainable development. By exploring the nuanced dynamics of solar power adoption, this study aspires to offer insights into overcoming barriers, maximizing benefits, and creating targeted policies that harness the full potential of solar energy in alleviating energy poverty. Through a comprehensive examination of solar power’s role, this research endeavors to enhance our understanding of renewable energy’s diverse applications, thereby contributing significantly to the ongoing discourse on energy poverty and sustainability.

3 Objectives of the study

The primary aim of the study was to investigate and accomplish the following objectives:

  1. 1.

    To analyze the global and Indian energy landscape.

  2. 2.

    To assess the potential of solar power as a sustainable energy source to address the issue of energy poverty.

  3. 3.

    To analyze the challenges in the adoption of solar energy solutions and outline the way forward.

3.1 Methodology

This research employs a mixed-methods approach to comprehensively investigate the potential of solar power in addressing energy poverty in the Indian energy landscape. The study incorporates quantitative methods to provide a holistic understanding of the challenges, opportunities, and impacts associated with the integration of solar energy solutions.

  1. a)

    Literature Review: A thorough review of existing literature on energy poverty, renewable energy, and solar power adoption is conducted. This involves an analysis of academic papers, reports, and case studies to establish the current state of knowledge, identify gaps, and understand the global and Indian contexts.

  2. b)

    Quantitative Analysis: Statistical data on India’s energy landscape, renewable energy adoption, and solar power capacity are collected from reliable sources such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), governmental reports, and reputable research organizations. Time-series analysis is employed to track the historical evolution of India’s Total Energy Supply (TES), renewable energy share, and solar power capacity. This analysis provides insights into trends, growth patterns, and the impact of policy interventions. Comparative analysis is conducted to assess India’s position in the global solar PV market, comparing installed capacities, growth rates, and policy frameworks with other leading nations.

  3. c)

    Case Studies: Some case studies from China, India, and Bangladesh were presented to examine successful solar power projects, focusing on their impact on energy poverty alleviation and sustainable development.

  4. d)

    Policy Analysis: An analysis of current and past energy policies in India is undertaken to evaluate their effectiveness in promoting solar power adoption and addressing energy poverty. This involves reviewing policy documents, government initiatives, and regulatory frameworks.

3.2 Overview of the current energy landscape globally and in India

The contemporary energy landscape is undergoing a transformative shift marked by a diversification of energy sources and an increased emphasis on sustainability [23]. While traditional fossil fuels still dominate the global energy mix (as shown in Fig. 1), growing awareness of their environmental impact and finite nature has prompted a reevaluation of energy systems [14]. Renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal, have emerged as viable alternatives [11]. Technological advancements and economies of scale have led to a significant increase in renewable energy capacity globally [24]. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and wind turbines, in particular, have witnessed remarkable growth, contributing to a more balanced and sustainable energy portfolio [25].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: Walburga Hemetsberger; et al., 2023 [26]

Total Energy Supply (TES) by Source Globally.

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The Fig. 2 provides a snapshot of the top 5 solar photovoltaic (PV) markets from 2010 to 2022, showcasing the installed capacity in gigawatts (GW) for China, the USA, India, Brazil, and Spain. China’s solar PV capacity grew from 0.5 GW in 2010 to 94.7 GW in 2022, showcasing a remarkable CAGR of around 36%. This growth was driven by robust government support, including subsidies, feed-in tariffs, and favorable policies under the National Energy Administration [27]. China’s strategic inclusion of solar PV in its Five-Year Plans further reinforced its dominance in the global market. The USA’s capacity increased from 0.9 GW to 21.9 GW, reflecting a CAGR of approximately 31%. This growth was primarily supported by federal and state incentives such as the Investment Tax Credit (ITC), Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS), and net metering policies [28]. However, policy uncertainty and varying state regulations created challenges, leading to fluctuations in growth rates. India’s solar PV market expanded from 0.5 GW to 17.4 GW, achieving a CAGR of about 43%. This surge was driven by the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) and various state-level initiatives, underscoring India’s commitment to renewable energy and addressing energy security goals [29]. Brazil’s capacity grew from 0.01 GW to 10.9 GW, with a CAGR of approximately 79%. Favorable climatic conditions, net metering regulations, and renewable energy auctions spurred this growth, reflecting Brazil’s focus on diversifying its energy mix. Spain’s solar PV capacity increased from 0.5 GW to 8.4 GW, achieving a CAGR of about 26%. This growth was influenced by renewable energy auctions, reduced technology costs, and Spain’s alignment with EU renewable energy targets.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Source: IEA, 2023 [30]

Top 5 Solar PV Markets 2010–2022.

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Figure 3 provides a comprehensive overview of India’s Total Energy Supply (TES) across various sources, measured in terajoules (TJ). The energy mix includes Coal, Natural Gas, Nuclear, Hydro, Wind, Solar, Biofuels and Waste, and Oil. Analyzing the data from 1990 to 2022 reveals a dynamic evolution in India’s energy landscape. Throughout this period, Coal consistently dominates the energy portfolio, reflecting its historical significance in the country’s power generation. However, there is a discernible trend toward diversification. Natural gas and nuclear energy exhibit steady growth, making substantial contributions to the overall TES. The ascendance of renewable energy sources is evident, with the combined contribution of Wind, Solar, and other renewables witnessing a significant upswing from 1990 to 2022. This underscores India’s commitment to adopting sustainable and clean energy solutions. Hydroelectric power maintains a noteworthy presence, highlighting India’s adept use of water resources for electricity generation. Remarkably, there is a clear shift towards cleaner energy options, accompanied by a reduction in dependence on oil. This aligns with global initiatives to address climate change and mitigate environmental impacts associated with traditional fossil fuels. As of 2022, India’s Total Energy Supply has experienced noteworthy growth, with coal, natural gas, and renewable energy sources playing pivotal roles in meeting the nation’s energy demands. Figure 3 serves as a valuable reference for monitoring India’s ongoing energy transition and its strides towards a more sustainable and diversified energy future.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Source: IEA, 2023 [30]

Total Energy Supply (TES) by Source in India.

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However, India’s energy transition faces several significant challenges. The integration of intermittent renewable sources into the existing grid infrastructure requires substantial investment and technological upgrades. The country’s heavy reliance on coal complicates the shift to cleaner energy, necessitating careful planning for a just transition in coal-dependent regions. Additionally, ensuring grid stability and reliable power supply as renewable energy share increases will require the development of large-scale, cost-effective energy storage solutions to balance supply and demand fluctuations [31].

The Fig. 4 illustrates India’s progress in renewable electricity generation from various sources, specifically hydro, solar PV, and wind, from 1990 to 2022. Notably, the substantial increase in solar PV capacity presents a significant opportunity for India to address energy poverty and ensure sustainability. India has made remarkable strides in solar energy, with installed solar PV capacity rising from negligible levels in 1990 to an impressive 108,811 GWh in 2022. This growth reflects India’s commitment to harnessing abundant solar resources. As a clean, renewable source, solar power can help eradicate energy poverty by providing electricity to remote areas. Its quick deployment offers scalable, decentralized solutions for diverse communities. Solar energy development contributes to environmental sustainability by reducing reliance on carbon-intensive sources. By incorporating solar power, India addresses energy poverty while aligning with global climate mitigation efforts [32]. However, challenges in land acquisition, manufacturing sustainability, and panel recycling persist. Addressing these is crucial for the long-term viability of India’s solar sector [31].

Fig. 4
figure 4

Source: IEA, 2023 [30]

Renewable Electricity Generation by Source (Non-Combustible) in India.

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Figure 5 illustrates India’s progress in renewable energy share from 1990 to 2022, highlighting the country’s commitment to sustainability. The share rose from 10.1% in 1990 to 18% in 2022, reflecting consistent growth in clean energy adoption. This trend is driven by government policies, incentives, and investments in renewable infrastructure. India’s ambitious targets have promoted the development of solar, wind, and other clean energy sources. The steady increase indicates a maturing renewable energy sector. However, challenges persist, including high upfront costs, intermittency issues, and the need for supportive policies. The current energy landscape is characterized by a dynamic interplay between traditional and renewable sources. Addressing these challenges is crucial for alleviating energy poverty and fostering a sustainable future.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Source: IEA, 2023 [30]

Share of renewables (modern energy) in final energy (in %).

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4 Solar power as a renewable energy solution

The literature overwhelmingly supports the notion that renewable energy is a pivotal solution to addressing energy poverty [2, 11, 21, 33]. The characteristics of renewable energy sources, such as sustainability, reduced environmental impact, and decentralized nature, make them well-suited for alleviating energy poverty. Solar energy, particularly through photovoltaic systems, has demonstrated immense potential in providing clean and decentralized power. Off-grid solar solutions, such as solar lanterns and home systems, have been instrumental in bringing electricity to remote areas. Success stories in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia showcase the transformative impact of solar energy on enhancing lighting, powering small appliances, and supporting community development. A global study [33] investigating the role of renewable energy in mitigating energy poverty has unveiled a significant trend. The research underscores a substantial correlation, indicating that the rapid advancement of the renewable energy industry plays a pivotal role in alleviating energy poverty. This implies that promoting the swift development and widespread adoption of renewable energy sources bears considerable potential in effectively addressing and reducing energy poverty on a global scale.

  • a) Advantage in solar electricity generation over other sources

Solar energy’s remarkable success can be attributed to several factors, with a primary driver being its substantial cost reduction over the last decade, positioning it as the global leader in terms of cost competitiveness (see Fig. 4). However, the past two years have witnessed considerable disruptions in global supply chains, resulting in notable price increases. Ongoing repercussions from the COVID-19 pandemic have led to heightened shipping costs, while the conflict in Ukraine has generated inflationary pressures worldwide.

In the solar industry, the price of polysilicon followed an upward trajectory for the past two years, reaching its peak at approximately 38 USD/kg in December 2022, compared to just below 10 USD/kg in early 2021. Despite this increase, solar power has maintained its significant cost advantage over fossil fuels and nuclear energy, even with the overall rise in technology prices. Fortunately, due to a substantial increase in production capacity and the optimization of global supply chains, prices for solar products have experienced a considerable decrease along the value chain, from silicon to modules in recent months. There is an anticipation that these prices will return to pre-crisis levels this year.

The Fig. 6 depicts the costs of electricity generation (in US$/MWh) from various sources, including solar, wind, combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), coal, and nuclear, for the period 2009 to 2022. A notable and encouraging trend is the substantial reduction in the cost of solar electricity generation, making it increasingly competitive with other conventional sources. In 2009, solar power was relatively expensive at $359/MWh, significantly exceeding the costs of wind, CCGT, coal, and nuclear. However, as technological advancements and economies of scale have come into play, the cost of solar electricity has experienced a remarkable decline. By 2021, the solar generation cost has plummeted to $36/MWh, showcasing a substantial and consistent decrease over the years. This decline in solar costs is attributed to several factors, including improved solar technologies, increased manufacturing efficiency, and economies of scale in solar installations. As a result, solar power has become more economically viable and competitive compared to traditional electricity sources. This trend aligns with global efforts to transition towards cleaner and more sustainable energy options [34]. The decreasing cost of solar electricity is strategically advantageous for India as the country aims to diversify its energy portfolio and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Investing in solar energy infrastructure not only contributes to environmental sustainability by mitigating greenhouse gas emissions but also yields economic benefits through job creation and the growth of the renewable energy industry [21].

Fig. 6
figure 6

Source: Walburga Hemetsberger; et al., 2023 [26]

Solar Electricity Generation Cost in Comparison with other Power Sources 2009–2023.

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  • b) Solar power generation in India and the world (2010–2021)

Figure 7 outlines the solar power generation from 2010 to 2021, showing a remarkable increase in India’s solar energy capacity, growing from a mere 54 GWh in 2010 to 75,565 GWh in 2021. This exponential growth reflects India’s strong commitment to renewable energy, positioning solar power as a key solution to reducing energy poverty. By expanding solar capacity, India is improving energy access, particularly in remote and rural areas where traditional grid connections are unreliable or nonexistent [38]. This expansion is crucial for addressing energy poverty, as it provides affordable and sustainable electricity to underserved communities.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Source: IEA, 2023 [30]

Solar Power Generation in India and the World (2010–2021).

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Moreover, the increased reliance on solar power helps lower energy costs, making electricity more affordable for low-income households. The environmental benefits, such as reduced air pollution from decreased fossil fuel use, also contribute to improved public health, particularly in vulnerable populations. Additionally, the growth of the solar industry creates job opportunities, stimulating economic development in regions most affected by energy poverty. Overall, India’s rapid increase in solar power generation is a significant step towards ensuring energy access for all, making substantial progress in reducing energy poverty and improving the quality of life for millions.

  • c) Some success stories of solar energy

Amidst the evolving landscape of solar energy, diverse success stories have emerged, reflecting the global commitment to sustainable practices. Over the span of 12 years, nations have navigated distinct paths, realizing the transformative potential of solar power. From significant capacity expansions to community-centric initiatives, these narratives underscore the multifaceted impact of renewable energy adoption. Over the span of 12 years, China and India embarked on a journey in the solar PV markets, both commencing at a modest level in 2010. In 2010, China’s solar capacity was 0.9 GW, while India slightly lagged behind at 0.5 GW, as illustrated in Fig. 8. As the years unfolded, China emerged as a global powerhouse in solar energy. A pivotal turning point occurred in 2014 when China’s solar capacity soared to 10.6 GW, showcasing a resounding commitment to renewable energy. Harnessing technological advancements, strategic investments, and government support, China’s solar sector witnessed exponential growth, reaching a staggering 94.7 GW by 2022 [26]. The nation’s prowess in scaling up solar infrastructure positioned it as a trailblazer in the global push towards sustainable energy. In essence, China’s success story in solar power generation stems from visionary policies, substantial investments, and rapid technological adoption, setting a remarkable precedent for other nations. The contrasting trajectories highlight the nuanced dynamics of renewable energy adoption and the impact of strategic decisions in shaping a sustainable future.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Source: Walburga Hemetsberger et al., 2023 [26], IEA, 2023 [30]

Solar PV markets in China and India 2010 to 2022.

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Solar power has also transformed the lives of villagers, especially women and girls who no longer face the drudgery of collecting fuel wood over long distances. The adoption of solar energy has minimized health risks associated with indoor pollution, enhancing the overall well-being of communities. Beyond social benefits, the solar sector has become a key player in supporting India’s sustainable growth agenda, offering a clean solution to the nation’s energy needs. By promoting economic activities at the village level, the solar energy sector has emerged as a catalyst for rural development, aligning with India’s commitment to energy security and a greener, more sustainable future.

The Bangladesh Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development—SHS Project, supported by the World Bank, stands out as a notable success in delivering electricity access through solar power. According to the World Bank Group’s report [35], commencing in 2003, the initiative aimed to enhance electricity access for impoverished rural households in off-grid areas of Bangladesh, utilizing Solar Home Systems (SHSs). Executed by the government-owned Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL), in collaboration with various NGOs, particularly those with a microfinance focus, the project initially aimed to install 315,000 SHSs, benefitting around 1.4 million people. Remarkably, the project surpassed its initial goals, with approximately 497,608 SHSs installed, bringing positive outcomes to over 2.2 million individuals. As the subsidy per SHS decreased over time, the success of the initiative is evident, and an impact assessment funded by GPOBA revealed numerous favorable effects. The substitution of kerosene lamps with solar-powered lights significantly reduced household air pollution, while extended study hours for schoolchildren and improved mobility and security, particularly for women and girls, were observed.

Furthermore, SHSs facilitated the charging of mobile devices, increased household use of television and radio, fostering greater connectivity and access to information. This not only improved health but also had positive social implications. The project serves as a model for other developing nations, showcasing the efficacy of strong partnerships established under the Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development framework. Currently, around 50,000 SHSs are installed monthly, emphasizing the sustainable success of the initiative in providing solar power access to the impoverished.

5 Solar power installation: a key to reducing energy poverty in India

The increasing adoption of solar energy projects in India is playing a transformative role in reducing energy poverty across the nation [23, 33, 36, 37]. Here’s how solar power installation is directly contributing to this reduction:

Firstly, solar energy is becoming increasingly affordable due to technological advancements and economies of scale [38]. As solar PV system costs decrease, it’s emerging as a viable alternative to traditional power sources, making electricity more accessible to low-income communities [39]. This affordability is a crucial factor in addressing energy poverty at its roots.

Secondly, solar power is enabling the electrification of remote and underserved areas where extending the conventional grid is often economically impractical [40]. Through decentralized solutions like mini-grids and solar home systems, solar energy is bringing electricity to regions that have long suffered from energy poverty [22]. This direct provision of power to previously unserved areas is a significant step in reducing energy inequality.

Thirdly, solar energy is improving essential services in communities [38]. Solar-powered schools can extend learning hours, enhancing educational outcomes. Healthcare facilities with reliable solar electricity can offer better services, ensuring the operation of critical medical equipment and vaccine refrigeration [33]. Moreover, solar-powered businesses can operate more efficiently, driving local economic growth and creating job opportunities [23]. These improvements in education, healthcare, and economic prospects are vital in breaking the cycle of energy poverty.

Fourthly, by reducing reliance on fossil fuels, solar energy contributes to environmental sustainability and helps combat climate change [41]. This is particularly important as impoverished communities are often the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. By promoting clean energy, solar installations are not only addressing immediate energy needs but also contributing to long-term environmental resilience [21].

Fifthly, many solar projects incorporate community empowerment initiatives. These often include training and employment opportunities, equipping local residents with skills to maintain and expand these systems [42]. This approach fosters community resilience and self-sufficiency in meeting energy needs, creating a sustainable solution to energy poverty that goes beyond mere infrastructure installation.

Lastly, the effectiveness of solar power in reducing energy poverty is being amplified by supportive government policies, incentives, and international cooperation [43]. These measures are helping to scale up solar energy projects, accelerating progress in reducing energy poverty across India. The collaboration between public and private sectors is crucial in ensuring the widespread adoption and long-term impact of solar energy solutions.

By addressing these key areas, solar power installation is not just providing electricity but is comprehensively tackling energy poverty, improving quality of life, and promoting sustainable development across India. This multi-faceted approach demonstrates how renewable energy technologies can be leveraged to address complex socio-economic challenges like energy poverty.

6 Challenges and the way forward in addressing energy poverty through solar power

  1. 1.

    High upfront costs

Challenges: One of the primary challenges in adopting renewable energy solutions, particularly solar power, is the high upfront costs associated with technology installation [31, 44]. The initial investment required for setting up solar infrastructure can be a significant barrier, especially for individuals and communities with limited financial resources. This challenge hinders the widespread adoption of solar technologies in regions struggling with energy poverty [45].

Way forward: Governments and international organizations can play a crucial role in overcoming the financial barrier by offering financial incentives and subsidies for renewable energy projects [46]. Subsidies can significantly reduce the upfront costs, making solar power and other renewable technologies more accessible to a broader population.

  1. 2.

    Intermittent nature of renewable energy

Challenges: The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, poses a challenge to maintaining a consistent and reliable energy supply. Solar power generation depends on sunlight availability, and wind energy relies on wind patterns. The variability of these sources can lead to periods of energy scarcity, affecting the reliability of the power supply, especially in off-grid or remote areas.

Way Forward: Investing in technological innovation and research can lead to advancements that address the intermittency of renewable energy sources. Battery storage technologies, smart grids, and other innovations can help store excess energy during peak generation periods, ensuring a more consistent and reliable power supply, even in the absence of sunlight or wind [47].

  1. 3.

    Policy frameworks and regulations:

Challenge: Inadequate or unclear policy frameworks and regulations can impede the growth of renewable energy projects [46]. Ambiguous policies may deter private investments and hinder the development of a supportive ecosystem for renewable energy adoption. Streamlining and strengthening policy frameworks are crucial to create an environment conducive to sustainable energy initiatives [33].

Way Forward: Governments need to develop clear, supportive, and consistent policy frameworks to encourage the growth of renewable energy. This includes establishing favorable regulatory environments, providing incentives for renewable energy adoption, and setting ambitious but achievable targets for clean energy generation [47].

  1. 4.

    Technological and infrastructural gaps:

Challenges: Some regions facing energy poverty lack the necessary technological infrastructure to harness renewable energy efficiently. The absence of advanced grid systems and storage solutions can limit the scalability and effectiveness of renewable energy projects [48]. Bridging technological and infrastructural gaps is essential for the successful integration of renewable energy into existing energy systems [49].

Way Forward: Encouraging public-private partnerships can accelerate the development and implementation of renewable energy projects. Collaboration between governments, private enterprises, and non-profit organizations can leverage resources, expertise, and funding to overcome challenges and drive sustainable energy initiatives [46]. Building local capacity and developing necessary infrastructure, including grid enhancements and storage facilities, is essential for the successful deployment of renewable energy solutions. Training local communities in the maintenance and operation of renewable energy systems ensures long-term sustainability.

Global collaboration and financial support from international organizations can provide additional resources for countries striving to address energy poverty. International partnerships can facilitate knowledge exchange, technology transfer, and funding to accelerate the implementation of sustainable energy solutions [50].

  1. 5.

    Resistance to change:

Challenge: Resistance to change, both at the individual and community levels, can pose a significant challenge. Communities accustomed to traditional energy sources may be hesitant to adopt new technologies, fearing disruptions to their established way of life [51]. Overcoming resistance requires education and awareness campaigns to showcase the benefits and long-term positive impacts of renewable energy adoption.

Way forward: Engaging communities and providing education on the benefits of renewable energy is crucial for overcoming resistance to change [34]. Community involvement in the decision-making process, coupled with awareness campaigns, can help build acceptance and understanding of the positive impacts of transitioning to clean energy sources [47].

7 Discussion

The promotion of solar energy in the Indian energy landscape presents a transformative opportunity for sustainability [52]. Solar power, with its reduced environmental impact and decentralized nature, stands as a beacon of hope in addressing the intricate relationship between energy poverty, sustainable development, and environmental well-being [53]. The literature review underscores the global impact of energy poverty on health, economic productivity, and environmental sustainability, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable solutions. The commendable progress in India’s solar energy sector reflects a strategic commitment to harnessing abundant solar resources, offering a promising shift towards cleaner and more accessible energy [47]. The integration of solar power into the Indian energy landscape is not merely a technological shift but a paradigmatic change towards a sustainable future. Solar energy’s transformative role in enhancing energy access, mitigating health hazards, and fostering economic development is overwhelmingly supported by existing literature. However, challenges such as high upfront costs and the intermittency of renewable sources must be addressed through nuanced strategies and supportive policy frameworks [2].

The potential for low-cost solar energy generation presents a promising avenue for addressing energy poverty in India. Technological advancements and economies of scale have significantly reduced the cost of solar photovoltaic systems, making them increasingly competitive with traditional energy sources. Decentralized solar solutions, such as mini-grids and solar home systems, offer a cost-effective means to electrify remote and underserved areas where grid extension may be economically unfeasible. Moreover, innovative financing models, such as pay-as-you-go systems and microfinance initiatives, can make solar energy accessible to low-income households by reducing upfront costs. The scalability and modularity of solar technology allow for gradual expansion, aligning with the evolving energy needs and economic capacities of communities. By harnessing India’s abundant solar resources through these low-cost approaches, the country can accelerate energy access, stimulate local economic development, and significantly contribute to the eradication of energy poverty.

8 Limitations of the study

While this study addresses the research gap by focusing on solar power, certain limitations should be acknowledged. The research predominantly relies on existing literature, potentially overlooking recent developments or localized insights. Additionally, the study may face constraints in providing an exhaustive analysis due to the vast and dynamic nature of the renewable energy landscape. The scope is primarily theoretical, lacking on-the-ground empirical data, and may not capture the diverse contextual factors influencing solar power adoption.

9 Conclusion and policy implications

In conclusion, addressing energy poverty through the widespread adoption of solar power is a transformative and essential solution within the Indian energy landscape. Solar power, with its sustainability, reduced environmental impact, and decentralized nature, emerges as a crucial approach to alleviating energy poverty. The success stories from China, and initiatives like the Bangladesh Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development—SHS Project, underscore the transformative impact of solar energy on communities and economies. The advantages of solar electricity generation, such as its decreasing costs and increasing competitiveness compared to conventional sources, further reinforce its role in fostering a sustainable energy future. However, challenges persist in the form of high upfront costs, intermittent nature, policy frameworks, technological gaps, and resistance to change. The way forward involves collaborative efforts from governments, international organizations, private enterprises, and local communities. Financial incentives and subsidies can overcome the financial barrier, while investments in technological innovation and research can address the intermittency of renewable energy sources. Clear and supportive policy frameworks, along with public-private partnerships, are crucial for creating an enabling environment. Bridging technological and infrastructural gaps requires collaboration and capacity-building initiatives, and community engagement is essential to overcome resistance to change. In essence, the pathway to a sustainable and equitable energy future in India and globally necessitates a harmonious integration of solar power solutions, backed by strategic policies, investments, and community involvement. By prioritizing the development and adoption of solar energy, nations can not only eradicate energy poverty but also contribute significantly to the broader goals of environmental conservation and sustainable development. As the world strives to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the role of solar power as a catalyst for positive change cannot be overstated. It is a beacon of hope, illuminating the path towards a cleaner, more resilient, and inclusive energy landscape.